Course:LIBR548F/2010WT1/Lithography:Background Technique Impact
Lithography: Background, Technique and Impact
Introduction
Lithography is a type of printmaking. Prints are created when ink or some other medium is transferred from a prepared surface to a piece of paper or other material. The lithographic process is a planographic method; meaning that the design is produced by lifting ink directly from a flat printing surface. The technique is based upon the natural physical repulsion between grease and water. The word lithography stems from the Greek language and means literally, drawing on stone, for the desired design is drawn or painted on the printing surface.
Background and Technique
Lithography was invented in 1798 by Alois Senefelder (1771-1834), a German actor and playwright, who was searching for a more efficient means to print musical scores. [1]After early experiments with greasy inks, etching acid and stone, Senefelder honed the lithographic process. Initially, his printing method relied upon a limestone printing surface capable of absorbing grease and water equally.[2] For many years, the best quality lithographic stones were quarried from Solnhofen, Germany. Eventually, this supply was exhausted and from the 1830s onwards zinc and aluminum (1890s) plates began to supplant stone.[3] While these metal surfaces proved less awkward to work with, some experts argue that stone allowed a richer variety of tone.[4]
The printing process begins with the marking of a composition upon the lithographic stone. This may be achieved through a variety of means, which is part of the reason why the appearance of lithographic prints is so diverse. If using thinned ink and a smooth stone, designs may be drawn with a pen or brush, or spattered across the surface. If solid grease lithographic crayons or pencils are utilized and the stone is rough, ink will be picked up only by the raised areas of the stone and the print will ultimately resemble a crayon drawing.[5] Regardless of the means by which the artist marks the printing surface, the general idea is that; areas which the creator wishes to print are infused with the same grease-based substances which formulate the ink itself, while those to be left blank are moistened with water. Several preparatory steps occur before the surface is charged (or coated) with ink. When ink is ultimately applied it adheres only to those areas already suffused with grease. Dampened paper is then laid upon the prepared surface and a press applies pressure to the back by scraping over it as the block or plate moves along on rollers below.[6] The printing surface must be re-dampened and re-inked between prints. Because the process is complex and rather technical, after preparing the drawing, artists frequently leave the actual printing to a professional printer.[7] Lithographs may also be printed using an offset press and this was the method employed by commercial lithograph printers. For more information, please see the related entry on Offset Printing
To create color lithographs, individual surfaces must be prepared for each shade. Frequently, an outline of the original composition is drawn on each surface with a non-greasy (and, thus, non-printing), medium. Occasionally, printers utilize tracings to guide their work instead. These outlines allow the printer to align the colors with the original design and ensure that the colors print in the correct areas. Prints where these various color layers are misaligned are said to be 'out of register.'[8] In early lithography, it was also common to add hand-painted colors after the printing process was complete.
Impact on the Book and Printing Trades
Author and historian Bryan F. LeBeau writes:
The invention of lithography was a major breakthrough not only in the art world but also in the ability to communicate, through a non-verbal, non-literary medium, large numbers of exactly repeatable pictures to masses of people. Indeed, until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, lithography was the only means of such large-scale visual communication...There was no quick and inexpensive way to reproduce high-quality prints in large numbers and thus illustrated newspapers, magazines, and books were few.[9]
The lithographic process had a tremendous impact on the dispersion and availability of artistic prints and illustrated books. It was quickly seized upon by commercial printers and was often used to produce music, maps, trade cards, stationary, posters and other non-book material.[10] Although a small number of famous artists experimented with lithographic print processes with some measure of success, the method remained rooted in the commercial industry.
In the United States, Nathaniel Currier and James Merritt Ives founded the lithography company, Currier & Ives in 1835. Between 1835 and 1907, the company produced over 7,000 prints which sold millions of copies.[11] At a certain point, 95 percent of all lithographs in circulation in the United States were said to have originated from this firm.[12] These inexpensive scenes of everyday American life were intensely popular, however, they were heavily criticized for debasing and democratizing fine art. Many of the images were hand-colored after printing.
Beginning in the 1820s, color lithography was used to print artistic reproductions of original oil paintings. Artists utilized lithography as a medium for original art work from the 1880s onwards, although some had experimented with the process earlier.[13] According to Susan Lambert of the Victoria and Albert Museum, color lithography was not truly popularized until it was exploited by artists Jules Cheret and Toulouse-Lautrec to produce poster art. This mass appeal buoyed production and sales of lithographic portfolios, art periodicals and print sets in Europe and abroad.[14]
Annotated Resources
Gascoigne, Bamber. How to Identify Prints: A complete guide to manual and mechanical processes from woodcut to inkjet. 2nd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2004.
This book offers and excellent foundation in print identification, although the author contends it is not intended to be read cover-to-cover. It is designed to be a reference work, to be consulted as necessary during the print identification process. Despite this fact, the volume provides a solid introduction to the main print families; intaglio, relief and planographic. Like the online, Graphic Atlas, the book provides a number of magnified photographic illustrations to elucidate the written text. Because printing technique directly influences print characteristics and, subsequently, identification, print processes are also described in great detail. This work is widely considered to be a classic in the area of print identification.
“Graphic Atlas.” Rochester, NY: Image Permanence Institute, Rochester Institute of Technology, 2010. Accessed 24 September 2010 at http://www.graphicsatlas.org/
The Image Permanence Institute’s Graphic Atlas is an outstanding resource to learn more about the identification of prints, including lithographs. Using magnified photographs of original prints, it illustrates the distinguishing characteristics of commonly found print types. Each image is accompanied by descriptive text, highlighting essential attributes represented in the image and frequently, providing contextual information about when the process was in use. Overall, the project provides excellent tips regarding the print identification process, including the option to compare two print types side-by-side. It also presents a useful timeline illustrating when particular print processes were in use.
Griffiths, Antony. Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.
As the title exclaims, this book offers an introduction to various printing techniques, as well as, descriptions of their historical development. Entries are lengthier than those found in Lambert’s work and provide slightly more historical detail. However, this work has an emphatic fine arts focus and virtually ignores the commercial sector. This is unfortunate, due to the widespread popularity of lithographic prints and their impact on the democratization of visual culture. Nevertheless, the work is a useful primer in print history and processes and nicely complements the information provided in other cited sources.
Lambert, Susan. Prints: Art and Techniques. London: V & A Publications, 2001.
In addition to a brief introduction to printmaking and paper, this volume offers concise descriptions of the relief, intaglio, planographic, stencil and mould print processes. Historical information and a number of illustrations are integrated in this accessible text. The work offers an excellent balance between explaining printing processes in comprehensible and simplified terms, without glossing over the details. The book does not provide step-by-step instructions on how to create prints. The description of the historical popularization of color lithography proved particularly useful in this article.
References
- ↑ Lambert, Susan. Prints: Art and Techniques. London: V & A Publications, 2001, 73 and Antony Griffiths. Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, 104.
- ↑ Griffiths, 1996, 101 and Michael Twyman. The British Library Guide to Printing: History and Techniques. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998, 47.
- ↑ Ivins, Jr., William M. How Prints Look. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1987, 104.
- ↑ Griffiths, 1996, 101.
- ↑ Gascoigne, Bamber. How to Identify Prints: A complete guide to manual and mechanical processes from woodcut to inkjet. 2nd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1986, 19b, 19e and 52g.
- ↑ Ivins, Jr., 1987, 104.
- ↑ Griffiths, 1996, 102.
- ↑ Lambert, 2001, 74 and 77.
- ↑ LeBeau, Bryan F. Currier & Ives: America Imagined. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001, 4.
- ↑ Barker, Nicholas and John Carter. ABC for Book Collectors. New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 2004, 144-145.
- ↑ LeBeau, 2001, xi.
- ↑ LeBeau, 2001, xi.
- ↑ Lambert, 2001, 77.
- ↑ Lambert, 2001, 77 and 80.