Course:HIST104/Madeira Wine

Madeira Wine

Madeira Wine is a fortified wine originating in the Madeira Islands. It has been spilled on the foundational documents of great nations, has been the impetis of spilt blood in the soils of empire. It owes its character just as much to the rocking waves of the Atlantic sea as to the ebbs and flows of history, belonging to Portugal, Britain, America, and Africa all at the same time.

A 5 year-old bottle of Madeira Wine

Oceanic Trade: A Catalyst for the Accidental Discovery of Madeira Wine

Beginning in the 15th century, international trade with Portugal was a bustling affair. At this time, Portugal maintained was the epicentre of trade in Western Europe - rivalling Venice - and by the 16th century, was economically present across the globe. Portugal invested heavily in sugar plantations in the Madeira Islands, and because of the islands' accessible location, sugar became one of Portugal’s most commerical exports. As a result of this success, they established plantations in Brazil. Consequently, the labour force on this plantation was mostly slaves, and therefore this became another crucial commodity for Portuguese trade. Slaves were acquired from Africa and China, which accelerated the slave trade and resulted in more traffic along oceanic routes.

Portugal also profited from the spice trade. In order to trade with India directly, Portuguese mariners sailed passed South Africa and up into the Indian Ocean. This route was also used for trade with Japan, in which the Portuguese established a port in 1570, and China, where the Portuguese established the colony of Macau in 1557 (Souza, 2004). Trade networks with these countries were significant because Portugal sought to expand their naval empire further into Asia; while Japan and China would receive and adopt European goods, such as armour and guns.

The extensive amount of Portuguese naval traffic meant that the Madeira Wine Company was strategically located for economic prosperity. The high demand of wine from the ships along these trade routes encouraged Madeira to produce vineyards in what was previously a sugar-dominated economy. Soon, wine from Madeira became the darling of drinkers everywhere and overtook sugar as the primary export on the island. As a result, Madeira wine became a cultural phenomenon in many parts of the world.

Madeira Wine and the Production of a Society

A look into the production of Madeira wine does not only reveal the history of a nation producing a product, but how a product produces a nation. Grape cultivation was introduced by influences from Cyprus and Crete in the 15th century ("Brief History," 2014). Configurations of cultivated land drew from a feudal based system of ownership, where landlords either rented land out or worked it themselves. This centralized profits and created a land owning class, and the majority of the islanders were peasants who merely toiled (Vieira, “Madeira’s case,” p. 4). As the wine industry took off, the island experienced an upsurge of immigrants and settlers from all over Europe. British merchants began to settle in Madeira, in order to be in closer proximity to the trade ("Brief History, 2014"). Settlers from Poland, France, England, Scotland, Germany, Genoa, and mainland Portugal arrived as well, being drawn by the island’s picturesque vistas and warm climate. The new arrivals initiated an intensification of wine production (Vieira, “Slavery,” p. 1)

The work of slaves was intrinsic to the industry. By the 16th century, the proportion of slaves reached ten percent of the island's population ("Brief History," 2014). Angola became a primary source of slaves, as Portuguese and Moorish colonial battles resulted in a number of war prisoners having been taken as prizes. In Africa’s north coast, raids and merchant trading circuits were the prominent method of slave acquisition. The importance of slaves to the economy was evidenced in 1492, when the King exempted the island from the slave tax. Between 1562 and 1567, Lisbon granted Madeira farmers privileged terms and resources for slaving, and annual vessels brought in 150 slaves from Cabo Verde and Guinea (Vieira, “Madeira’s Case,” p. 10-11).

There were high levels of contact between Africans and Madeirans. Because of the nature of land ownership, free men and peasants often worked alongside slaves during harvest seasons (Vieira, “Slavery,” p. 2). Slave owners feared that the diversity of slaves’ cultures and religions would undermine the established order, and therefore prohibited spaces for social contact between slaves where they might become subversive. There was a great deal of mobility within their caste, and many Africans were allowed to participate in a variety of trades such as domestic service, shepherding, artisans, mule-drivers, and hired laborers (Vieira, “Madeira’s case,” p. 3)

Slavery persisted until 1775, until it was abolished by the Portuguese reformer Marquis de Pombal, and slaves were legally freed. However, with tacit complicity by the government and international interests, bureaucratic oversight allowed farmers to lengthen contracts to several years and maintain labor relations effectively similar to slavery ("Brief History, 2014"). The legacy of African roots can be seen today in aspects of Madeiran folktales and cuisine, as well as a singularly ethnically diverse society (Vieira, “Slavery,” p. 2-3, 10).

Madeira and the American Revolution

Madeira wine has a long history of consumption in America, and is intricately linked to the history of the Revolution. As such, it offers valuable insight into the ways in which consumption demands can impact history, as well as the ways in which simple commodities become deeply embedded within larger social and cultural customs.The wine’s popularity in the country began to rise prior to the Revolution, which can be largely attributed to political developments overseas. Foremost, the accessibility of other wines was limited after Charles II of England prohibited the export of European goods into America (Bell, 1954, p. 326). However, the ban did not include goods from Madeira (Bell, 1954, p. 326). Additionally, the ban coincided with a treaty negotiated between English and Portugal, which granted Madeira almost exclusive rights to export wine to America (Bell, 1954, p. 326). In combination, these factors created a plentiful supply of Madeira in America, contributing to a rapid rise in its consumption.

During the Revolution, imports of the wine into American fell drastically. Meanwhile, supplies accumulated and aged in Madeira while the American supplies diminished rapidly (Hancock, 1998, p. 210). During this lapse in imports, John Hancock commissioned a delivery of Madeira to be shipped to America, insisting the wine was for his personal use (Brown, 1898, p. 149). British officials seized Hancock’s ship and subsequently charged him with smuggling. This incident caused rioting in Boston, led by the Sons of Liberty, who would later advocate a boycott on British imports and incite further civil unrest ("The Liberty Affair," 2014). As such, the social upheaval that was caused by the seizure of Hancock’s shipment of Madeira is regarded as a pivotal moment leading up to the Revolution.

Due to its rise in popularity, Madeira had become the drink of choice for many of America’s prominent revolutionary figures. Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson were all known to be Madeira connoisseurs (Bell, 1954, p. 327). The wine was also part of many pivotal moments during the revolution, standing as a testament to Madeira’s cultural significance in America. For example, the wine was used to “toast the work of the first Continental Congress” in 1775, and to christen the launching of the Constitution in 1797” (Hancock, 1998, p. 214).

How Globalization Changed the Production of Madeira Wine

Between the years 1703 and 1807, the Madeira Wine Company had to drastically change their process of winemaking as a result of globalization and the desire to satisfy a variety of palates. For instance, American buyers preferred dryer wines; while in Britain, consumers opter for sweeter varieties. As a producer, Madeira Wine Company had to develop new methods in which to satisfy all their customers and ensure the high quality of the product. In 1703, the company produced only four varieties of grapes; whereas by 1807, twenty-three varieties of wines were being produced to create a wide array of distinct flavours (Hancock, 1998, p. 204).

In order for the Madeira Wine Company to cater to the demands of a global market, four major alterations were made to the process of making the wine. Firstly, they infused their wine with brandy to add a stronger, more bold flavour to the product. However, some consumers preferred the taste of sweeter, smoother wines; therefore, brandy was added sparingly in accordance with the preferred taste of the region. For example, Virginians preferred paler, dry white wines, meaning that the wine was to be heavily fortified; while in New York, wine drinkers preferred amber coloured, sweet wine with little fortification (Hancock, 1998, p. 207). The difficulty of adding brandy, however, was that it often separated from the wine, therefore, as a second alteration, producers introduced agitation so that the two flavours would mix cohesively. After much positive feedback from the consumers for the preferred consistency of the wine's flavour, they employed steam-powered machines to rock the barrels to ensure the brandy would be mixed throughout the wine (Hancock, 1998, p. 208).

The Revolutionary War in the United States cut off ties with foreign networks, therefore denying the Madeira Wine Company access to one of their most crucial markets (Hancock, 1998, p. 209). As a result, wines were being left unsold in storehouses for much longer. When the war ended and the market reopened, Madeira had tremendous amounts of aged wines, which became much more desirable than newer wines. Consequently, the Madeira Wine Company added aging as a significant part of their winemaking process. Finally, the last crucial adaptation Madeira wine made, was heating the wine. Although some heating occurred naturally in the ship holds, they introduced ovens, stoves and hothouses to heat the wines before shipping them. By heating the wine, it ensured that the wine didn't sour as quickly as colder wines; therefore, resulted in a more desirable product to distributors (Hancock, 1998, p. 213).

Madeira Wine as a Cultural Signifier in Britain

Over the course of the 1700’s Madeira port wine became a significant cultural drink in British society. It transformed from being a popular, everyday wine, to a wine that represented a strong, united country in a time of war. Numerous crucial wars in Europe affected the demand of Madeira wine for English buyers. Specifically, the Seven Years War against the Spanish and the French significantly influenced the ratio of wines being imported from each respective country. Before the war, the French Claret was the popular luxury drink of choice for the British. Embargoes were established, which severely affected the tax rates on imports coming from Spain and France. On the one hand, French wines were being highly taxed, while on the other hand, Portuguese wines were only being taxed a third of what French wines were being taxed, making it more desirable (Ludington, 2009, p. 368).

With the increasing amount of port wine being imported to Britain at this time, the middle class developed a liking for the strong taste of Madeira port wine. In addition to the economic impact of the wine trade during the Seven Years’ War, a cultural change and a new mentality took place that integrated Madeira port wine into British culture. For example, the British wanted to be perceived as a more masculine nation than their long time rivals, the French, and therefore rejected the French Claret drink and opted for the bolder and stronger taste of Madeira port wine. Furthermore, Madeira wine became associative with the elite society at that time because the aristocrats believed that "to maintain power over an increasingly assertive middle ranks of society, they had, symbolically at least, to consume like the middle ranks" (Ludington, 2009, p. 387). Madeira Wine is significant in history as it was a product of the ongoing interplay of historical events between Britain, France, Spain and Portugal during its most prosperous years.

References

Bell, M. (1954). The Romantic Wines of Madeira. The Georgia Historical Quarterly, 38, 322-336.

“Brief History” (2014) Vinhos Barbeito. Retrieved from http://www.vinhosbarbeito.com/introduction-madeira-wine/brief-history.html

Brown, A. E. (1898). John Hancock: His Book. Boston, MA: Lee and Shepard.

Hancock, D.(1998). Commerce and Conversation in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic: The Invasion of Madeira Wine. Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 29, 197-219.

Ludington, C. (2009). “Claret is the liquor for boys; port for men”: How Port Became the “Englishman's Wine,” 1750s to 1800. The Journal of British Studies, 48, 364-390

Russell-Wood, A. (1998). The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Souza, G. B. (2004). The Survival of Empire: Portuguese Trade and Society in China and the South China Sea 1630-1754. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

“The Liberty Affair.” (2001). The Life of John Hancock. Retrieved from http://www.john-hancock-heritage.com/the-liberty-affair/

Tuten, J. (2008). Have Some Madeira, M’dear:” The Unique History of Madeira Wine and its Consumption in the Atlantic World. 55-61.

Vieira, A. (1996). Slaves With or Without Sugar, Madeira’s Case. Centro de Estudos de Historia do Atlantica. 1-16.

Vieira, A. (1996). Slavery in Madeira in the XV and XVII Centuries: The Balance. Centro de Estudos de Historia do Atlantica. 1-20.