Course:GEOS303/2022/Laos

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Introduction

Laos: Background Information
Laos PDR Location

Laos, officially known as the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), is a socialist nation which is landlocked by Myanmar, China, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand.[1] Located at 14 to 23 degrees North and 100 to 108 degrees East, Laos is a country dominated by largely tropical and subtropical forest and alpine biomes.[1]

Peoples of Laos

Laos has a rich diversity of cultural, linguistic and ethnic groups with over 60 groups being identified at one point before the Indochina wars. Among these, there are three colloquial subdivisions that are used to distinguish sub-groups by language family and geographic location: the Lao Loum (“Lowland Lao”), Lao Theung (“Lao of the Mountain Slopes”), and Lao Soung (“Lao of the Mountain Tops”).[2] Within the Lao Loum sub-division are the Lao Peoples, accounting for nearly two thirds of the population of Laos. The Lao peoples are the politically and culturally dominant ethnic group within Lao PDR. The Lao peoples and other Lao Loum live in the lowlands along the Mekong river bank, constituting most of the nation's urbanised, industrial, and aristocratic spaces.[2]

Making up approximately one quarter of the population of Laos are the mountain slope dwelling Lao Theung. Those belonging to the Lao Theung group are thought to be the Indigenous inhabitants of the country, traditionally practising exclusively in-village community and governance structures. Among the Lao Theung are the Khmu, Lamet, Katang, Makong, Jru’, and Brao peoples.[2]

The Lao Soung peoples of the Laos alpine ranges also practice and maintain in-village governance structures separate from larger Lao society, yet distinct from other groups within the Lao Soung. For example, some such as the Hmong maintained a king as their ruler, yet this figure holds little power in the larger village as there is a variety of ethnic groups existing together, all with their own structures of governance. The Lao Soung account for one tenth of the population of Laos.[2]

Biogeography

Dominant Biomes and Ecoregions

Laos is situated in the equatorial belt and consists of two main biomes, tropical/subtropical moist broadleaf forests and tropical/subtropical dry broadleaf forests. [3] These biomes are rich in biodiversity due to the perpetually warm and wet climate which provides the best conditions for plant life to thrive throughout the year. As hinted in the name, the canopy of tropical moist broadleaf forests are dominated by dense, broadleaved trees; since the canopy becomes quite dense, the understory is less rich in vegetation due to a lack of sunlight reaching it[4]. Tropical dry broadleaf forests on the other hand predominantly have deciduous plant life and experience long periods without rain, resulting in higher seasonality. [5]

Central Indochina Dry Forest

In Laos, the Northern Thailand-Laos moist deciduous forests, Luang Prabang montane rain forests, Northern Annamites rain forests, Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests, Northern Khorat Plateau moist deciduous forests, and Southern Annamites montane rain forests are moist tropical ecoregions.[6] The Central Indochina dry forests and Southeastern Indochina dry evergreen forests are the dry tropical ecoregions.[6] Overall, these biomes are defined by their warmer year round climate that sees sporadic amounts of rainfall. Also noted, the Mekong River, which flows approximately 5,000 km from its source on the Tibetan Plateau in China to the Mekong Delta, through six countries: China, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Lao PDR (Mekong River commission 2022), is a freshwater ecoregion[7]; it forms the water basin integral for drainage throughout much of SouthEast Asia, including Laos PDR, and flows into the South China Sea. This ecoregion is one of the most biodiverse freshwater systems in the world with approximately 1,200 freshwater species, including the remaining Critically Endangered Irrawaddy dolphin populations.[8]

Luang Prabang   

The Luang Prabang montane rainforest (LP) is located near the slopes of the Luang Prabang mountain range, which is partially on the border between Laos and Thailand. Tropical montane rainforests, sometimes called cloud forests, usually have unique forest communities due to the variations in elevation as well as climate due to elevation. The rainforest begins at 800m elevation[9]and has a tropical monsoon climate.[10] Due to the varying topography and geography of this area, there is no single type of forest community, instead, there are varying forest habitats and associations.[11]There are a variety of hardwood, mixed conifer-hardwood, open montane, and open conifer forest tree species at higher elevations[9]; more specifically within these habitats there are mixed conifer-hardwood, open montane forests, open conifer forests, and montane hardwood forests of the family Fagaceae and Lauraceae.[11] However, the lower altitudes cover a large portion of the LP rainforest and are characterised by mainly closed broadleaf forest cover.[12] In northern Laos, the montane ecosystems have a long dry season despite having 2,000-3,000 mm of annual rainfall.[11]

Annamites Rainforest

The Northern Annamites rainforest and Southern Annamites montane rainforests are found on/near the Annamite mountain range which is located on the border of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, it is home to many rare and endemic species. Despite evergreen forests and open dry forests persisting in many parts of SouthEast Asia, the warm, moist climate of the Annamites has been formed due to moisture-filled winds during monsoon periods that advance in from the Gulf of Tonkin.[13] Due to elevation and elevation conditions, the climate in the Northern Annamites can drastically vary; though the key, unchanging factor is that the western side of the mountains where Laos PDR is experiences a shadow effect (much less precipitation) since the eastern slopes in Vietnam face the water and encounter majority of ocean climate as well as monsoon storms.[14] Parts of the Northern Annamites have jagged, karst topography which make the ecoregion largely inaccessible,[9] this reason may also be why the ecoregion and its species have been able to survive and develop for so long.

Northern Khorat Plateau
Ecoregion - Northern Khorat Plateau moist deciduous forests

This ecoregion is mainly located in Thailand, however two small strips of the Northern Khorat Plateau extend across the border to Laos. While deciduous plant species dominate the area, there are still many dry, evergreen tree species that are home to important ecosystems. The ecoregion is extremely susceptible to human intervention and has already suffered from over-hunting and habitat loss,[15]additionally with ~40%of this land has been allocated for agriculture[16] and lacks forms of formal environmental protections.

Limitations

The Lao People's Democratic Republic is landlocked between Vietnam, China, Thailand, Myanmar, and Cambodia. In terms of soil composition, Laos, like many tropical regions mainly has Oxisols and Ultisols, with the main reference group being Acrisols.[17] The soils here do not usually have very distinct soil horizons and the parent material is extremely weathered and leached.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Periods of heavy rains during the monsoon months, averaging at 1,300 to 2,300 mm of precipitation,[18] are what bring the tropical forests to life, allowing for various flora to flourish and in turn aiding the local animal species. Contrarily the dry period can be separated into cool and hot months, the cooler season starting in November and progressively getting warmer after January until the start of the wet season.[19] The mountainous regions, mainly the Annamite range, will somewhat differ in temperature and seasonality due to altitude differences. However, the high seasonality of the region can cause extreme weather differences, raising potential for extreme droughts during the dry period and potential flooding during the wet period which will most likely be even more amplified with the impacts of climate change.[20]

Diversity

Laos PDR is rich in biodiversity and home to many unique species with 5,005 species of flora in Luang Prabang[21] and 8,000-11,000 species of flowering plants throughout the country in total.[22] While there is an abundance of flora due to the relatively intact forests that cover approximately 43%[22] of the country and mountain ranges, these species are not extensively documented, however the fauna is more well researched. Laos has 150-200~ reported species of amphibians and reptiles as well as approximately 700 bird species, over 100 large mammals, and estimated 90 known bat species, and approximately 500 species of fish[22] that are found in the Mekong river and its tributaries. While Laos shares many species and habitat ranges with other countries in the Indochina region, it has still a high level of unique biodiversity most likely due to the lack of infrastructure and anthropogenic development that occurred up until mid-1900s which was tsill not as rapid as the industrialization of neighbouring counties. Additionally, the mountainous and hilly terrain covering majority of the country may have provided the necessary space and distance for many species to develop without too much interference (e.g: inaccessible karst topography found in Northern Annamites mountain range). The following paragraphs highlight some of the important biodiversity found in some of Laos' ecoregions:

Luang Prabang Montane Rainforest:
Sitting Sun Bear.

When observing at the flora found in Luang Prabang’s montane rainforest there is great diversity in plant and tree types. Parts of the forest starting at 800m elevation act as transitional area and host deciduous, evergreen trees with Toxicodendron succedaneum (the wax tree) and the flowering Dipterocarpus turbinatus dominating the canopy.[11] However, as elevation increases to 1,000-1,500m the forest dynamics change with Castanopsis hystrix (evergreen broadleaf) and Phyllanthus emblica (gooseberry) dominate the canopy.[11] Many varieties of palm from the family Calamus (rattans) and Caryota (fishtail palm) as well as Arenga pinnata (sugar palm)[9] are present as well. In terms of fauna there have not been many endemic species documented in this area, however endangered and threatened mammals of significance are present.[11] When looking at the geographical location of the Luang Prabang forests, they are in northern central Laos, close to the capital. With this information we can infer that there has been many human interferences throughout history resulting in the large numbers of threatened species as well as a lack of biological and field surveys in recent years to better assess the state of this ecosystem. One recognizable flagship species in this ecoregion is the Sun bear (Ursus malayanus), as well as many primate species like Francois's leaf monkey (Semnopithecus francoisi), silvered leaf monkey (S. cristatus), and the red-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus).[11] Large cat species such as the tiger (Panthera tigris) and clouded leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa) have also been spotted.[11]

Northern Thailand-Laos moist deciduous forests:

The Northern Thailand-Laos moist deciduous forests are located in the Northern part of Laos PDR above the Luang Prabang rainforest. Majority of Laos consists of mountainous or hilly terrain, this ecoregion is no exception; the area is on steep hill slopes and in between valleys that carry rivers alternating from swift to slow flowing.[23] Teak trees (Tectona grandis) are the most common species of hardwood in this forest but other species such as Xylia xylocarpa and Pterocarpus macrocarpus are present throughout the canopy.[23] Unfortunately, bamboo is found in this forest as well and is believed to be a sign of human interference[23] as it spreads from valley floors and was most likely carried further by humans/human travel.  The fauna in this ecoregion has faced many stressors and threats due to agricultural and anthropogenic expansion, resulting in extremely low numbers of birds and large mammals species living in this area. Gaurs (Indian bison), elephants, and banteng (type of cattle) have been observed in small numbers as well as pigeon species and parakeets in the 90s.[23]

Northern Annamites Montane rain forest:
Edward's Pheasant

The Northern Annamites rain forest is located on the Annamites range in Laos PDR with a small part of the eastern edge extending into Vietnam. Forest composition and flora vary at different elevations and the difficult to access limestone karst topography have allowed for species to evolve relatively undisturbed across this ecoregion resulting in high levels of endemism.[24] At 800-1200m elevation the canopy is dominated by species from the families Lauraceae, Fagaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, and Myrtaceae as well as conifer species from family Podocarpaceae;[24] elevations up to 1500m that are less moist with somewhat nutrient limiting acidic soils tend host pine trees as the prevalent species. Higher elevations from 1200-1800m have richer forests with conifers like Cunninghamia lanceolata (Chinese Fir) and Fokienia hodginsii,[24] at this height temperatures are much cooler and moist, resulting in better plant production and growth. There are many rare animal species in this area as well like the Saola, giant muntjac, red-shanked douc langur, Annamites striped rabbit, and many types of gibbons[25] in addition to the great bird species richness (approximately 525 species) with birds like the imperial pheasant and Edwards’s pheasant.[26] The endemism and uniqueness of the flora and fauna in the Annamites can partially be attributed to some areas being difficult to navigate and access because of the limestone karst topography.

Human influences

Land-based Industries

There are three main ways in which the people of Laos interact with their land; agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Among the most crucial staples of the Laos economy is agriculture, primarily paddy field rice farming. The land management practices vary greatly depending on the geographic location of a particular farming plot, as Laos is subject to severe yearly precipitation fluctuations and patterns of monsoons, flooding, and drought.[27] The different agriculture practices of Laos vary from mechanical irrigation to swidden agriculture. Swidden agriculture is a historical and traditional agriculture practice in which land is cleared (generally by fire), and then left to a period of regeneration in order to sustain the soil’s productivity.[28] Swidden agriculture in Laos is generally associated with the land practices of the Indigenous peoples of the high mountainous regions, and thus this subsistence-based practice has been strained and challenged by more industrial agricultural approaches in the lowlands as demands have grown and technologies changed.[29]

Forestry and timber products have historically been a second staple of the Laos economy, however environmental concerns over deforestation resulting in hillside erosion, the silting of water sources, and degradation of ecosystem resilience to droughts and floods have caused the intermittent banning of timber harvest by the Laos government.[29] Fishing is another culturally significant land interaction for many Laos peoples in the lowlands, primarily the fishing of pond-raised carp and tilapia for both subsistence and aquaculture purposes.[29]

History

Some of the damage to ecoregions and habitat and biomes can be traced back to agricultural methods. Most of the Northern Khorat Plateau has been allocated as agricultural land and it is hypothesized that areas like the Luang Prabang forests where the forest understory consists of monocots (grass like flowering plants), grasses, and low stature trees imply that there were extensive impacts from slash and burn agriculture[30] resulting in the stunted growth pattern. However, the development that has occurred, resource extraction, and instances of overhunting in the past have caused a significant retreat and reduction of the Annamites forest habitat.[31]

Bomb crater in farming fields, Laos 2009

Examining the history of Laos PDR can also provide context and evidence to explain the current state of biodiversity. While much of the country has intact forest cover as well as relatively lower rates of anthropogenic development compared to its neighbours, Laos still faces steady rates of biodiversity decline. One factor to consider is the history of war and civil unrest in Laos PDR that while it has negatively impacted the environment it has also severely impacted the people to the point where environmental concerns were not at the forefront for Laos’ government. For example, during the Vietnam war Laos may have maintained a neutral position, but they were still heavily bombed and remain the most heavily bombed country to date (4 billion bombs dropped by the US).[32] The scale of devastation caused by this military campaign was immense and the landscape has been forever altered; due to the additional use of defoliants such as agent orange, blue, and white many large expanses of habitat (instant plant mortality in some areas) and large mammals were annihilated as well, with the most significant impact on the Annamites range[33] most likely due to the border shared with Vietnam.

Presently, there are still millions of un-exploded munition and bomb craters scattered across the country. However, there have also been some interesting cases of adaptation in this situation. Some bomb craters seasonally fill with water and have become known as crater ponds, while they do tend to dry out some of these crater ponds have turned into more permanent systems and have aquatic vegetation growing in majority of the ponds observed in the Hin Namno area.[34] Additionally, frogs here now live in these pond systems and four true frog species, Occidozyga martens, Hoplobatrachus rugulosa, Rana erythraea, and R. limnocharis, were regularly spotted.[35]

Threats

Like many other tropical regions, Laos faces numerous challenges and threats to biodiversity that are mainly facilitated by human interference. Due to the raw resource richness in the country, over-exploitation, agricultural expansion, and developments for human infrastructure are the main pressures[36] that influence biodiversity loss, but these factors can be further broken down into direct and indirect causes. The Fifth National Report produced by the Laos government to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, they highlighted that the direct drivers of biodiversity loss are usually linked to human development, more specifically from private companies and large corporations that have the means to expand their activities; examples being large scale mining, hydropower development, agricultural transformation, forest product extraction, and infrastructure development.[36] The foundation of these direct forces are indirect drivers stemming from human needs based on demographic changes as well as sociopolitical, economic, and religious influences.[36] These needs and demands for anthropogenic change are met with unsustainable practices and development that have no responsibility in protecting the environment.

Deforestation, habitat fragmentation, habitat loss, and illegal activities are the unfortunate results of the aforementioned factors and are further promoted by various unsustainable actions. Private actors focus mainly on lucrative mining projects as well as the up and coming hydro power projects situated in/near the Mekong River. Often, National protected areas where some of the most vulnerable biodiversity is located coincides with natural resource mining sites[36] and the construction of the access roads for these mining concessions is what supports habitat fragmentation. Roads like these ones provide access not just for corporations but also for exploitative activities like poaching, hunting, and illegal extraction[36] in addition to allowing communities to settle farther into forest areas that were previously inaccessible resulting in even greater loss and fragmentation for habitats. Moreover, due to policy stating that forest recovery or regeneration is not necessary for hydro power development, these projects result in excessive logging and deforestation at forest sites[37] All of the mentioned factors work together in a complex web that lead to the over-hunting and unethical harvesting. This scenario should not be confused with the hunting practices of local communities that rely on forests and non-timber forest products for sustenance as they have been continuing this practice in a fairly sustainable way for many years; illegal activities can be conducted by local people and individuals however their spoils are either being outsourced or are completely funding by external parties.[37]

Another consequence of human activities is the introduction of invasive species (IAs) that are significantly deteriorating the Lower Mekong River Basin.[38] The aquatic habitats in the Mekong River have greatly suffered from water management initiatives that work to create dams as well as diversions which has only accelerated the spread of invasive species like Giant Mimosa (highly detrimental weed) and African species of Tilapia.[38]3 Introduction of IAs impacts the livelihoods of communities reliant on the river basin and the species that call it home. Ultimately, due to the current economic situation of Lao PDR it is unlikely that funding can be secured to remove detrimental species and there has been no major initiative put in place to combat this issue as of now.

Conservation

UN Environment Program - Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Lao PDR

The UN Ecosystem-based Adaptation project in Lao PDR is a project taking place between 2020 and 2025, with the intent of increasing local communities' resilience to floods. Taking place in Vientiane, Paksan, Savannakhet, and Pakse, this project is an ecosystem-based approach to flood-management. This includes protecting and restoring wetlands and streams in urban areas along the Mekong river, alongside developing stronger city wide flood response and management strategies.[39] The goal of this project is to participate in a global paradigm shift away from “grey” infrastructure - generally hard, industrial, flood proof buildings and roads - towards “green” infrastructure - including the restoration of natural shorelines and flood barriers to re-implement natural biodiverse resilience.[40]

WCS Lao PDR - National Wildlife Disease Surveillance Network

The Wildlife Conservation Society branch in Laos has set up a team and action plan to preserve the health of the local biodiversity with a National Wildlife Disease Surveillance Network. Currently, South-East Asia is a hotspot for biodiversity but also for disease due to rising human interference, wildlife trade, and land use trade all factors that can expose vulnerable species to pathogens.[41] The role of this network is to implement the principle of One Health (the connection between the health of people, animals, plants, and the environment) to disease management for livestock and agriculture in pastoral areas; this work will both help Laos achieve some aspects of it Sustainable Development Goals and support the livelihoods of local communities instead if calling for their removal[41]. The rationale behind this program is to prevent deadly diseases that could wipe out already struggling species populations. Often, when species are already endangered, as many are in Laos, and they also have slow life histories, the spread of one disease may decimate an entire population. To ensure the success of this project, the WCS has implemented disease identification systems, specifically for zoonotic diseases, by visiting and studying wildlife markets. Additionally, they continue to expand their data collection and have visited many rural areas, habitats, and NPAs. The network has been successful in producing data for science-based disease research and surveillance which has been used to deter the use of animals as medicine under traditional beliefs as well as to to inform policy. While it is difficult to observe the impacts of this initiative right now, the change in attitudes and belifs have been observed in the younger generation, hopefully resulting in safer future for Laos' environment[41].

Greater Mekong Sub-region Biodiversity Conservation Corridors Project

In partnership with the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the government of Lao PDR have designed and implemented the Greater Mekong Sub-Region (GMS) Biodiversity Conservation Corridors project. This project covers 17,000 ha of corridors[42] across the six countries that share the Mekong River and make up the GMS (Lao PDR, Cambodia, People's Republic of China, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam).[43] The project’s main goals are to connect protected areas and promote the sustainable resource use agenda identified by GMS countries.

Regional economic development has been identified as a potential cause of ecological fragmentation, ecosystem health, and threaten the region’s long-term socio-economic and environmental security. The implementation of biodiversity corridors across these countries has been identified as an important step in preventing ecological degradation.[42] Activities such as conversion of forest into agricultural land, illegal logging, and hunting all threaten the health of these large ecosystems. Economic development also created ecological fragmentation which isolates sections of forest and limits ecosystem function.[44]

This project promotes biodiversity protection and sustainable development by restoring and enhancing forests in biodiversity corridors, managing conservation in the corridors, and initiating development activities that will improve livelihoods. The project has used market mechanisms such as village-based participatory measurement of carbon sequestration, and forest certification processes to enter carbon markets and REDD programs.[42]

The ADB-Lao PDR partnership has also helped improve infrastructure needed to support management of these large conservation areas, such as monitoring and communication technology, GIS, and training for local forest management teams to patrol and protect their forests from illegal activity.[44]

Association Anoulak - Community anti-poaching patrol

This conservation project was launched in order to conserve the current remaining populations of threatened species in the Nakai-Nam Theun national protected area in Laos PDR and allow for current and future populations to recover from past hunting pressure. Studies[45] suggest that mammals and birds have suffered losses upwards of 80% across the tropics. Amphibians and reptiles are also under threat. Since 2016 and in collaboration with the local management authority, the Association Anoulak has been deploying anti-poaching patrol teams (formed by training villagers from the local community) focusing on Biodiversity Priority Zones delineated as part of the overall protected area management strategy of the protected area. Data management and interpretation is processed with the Program SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool ;http://smartconservationtools.org/). It is imperative that an intensive anti-poaching patrol system is put in place over the long-term.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Asia pacific parliamentary forum. (2009). About Laos. [1]
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Lafont, P. , Dommen, . Arthur J. , Zasloff, . Joseph J. , Osborne, . Milton Edgeworth and Silverstein, . Josef (2022, August 25). Laos. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2]
  3. ↑ World Wildlife Fund. (2001). Ecoregions Map [Map]. Retrieved from [3]
  4. ↑ Smith, Jeremy M.B (November 10, 2022). "Tropical rainforest | Definition, Characteristics, Location, Climate, Animals, Plants, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2022.
  5. ↑ Petruzzello, M. (2022, January 14). tropical dry forest. Encyclopedia Britannica. [4]
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 51(11):933-938.
  7. ↑ Mekong River Commission. (n.d.). Mekong Basin. [5]
  8. ↑ World Wildlife Fund. (n.d.). Greater Mekong. [6]
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Mikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Luang Prabang Montane Rainforests. One Earth. [7]
  10. ↑ World Bank Group (n.d.) Climate Change Knowledge Portal Lao PDR. [8]
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Wikramanayake, E., Boonratana, R., Rundel, P., & Aggimarangsee, N. (n.d.). Southeastern Asia: Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. WWF. [9]
  12. ↑ European Commission. (2021). Digital Observatory for Protected Areas (DOPA). [10]
  13. ↑ World Wildlife Fund. (2017). Annamite Range Moist Forests. [11]
  14. ↑ Mikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Northern Annamites Rainforests. One Earth. [12]
  15. ↑ a. Mikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Northern Khorat Plateau Moist Deciduous Forests. One Earth. [13]
  16. ↑ European Commission. (2021). Digital Observatory for Protected Areas (DOPA). [14]
  17. ↑ OpenDevelopment Laos. (n.d). Dominant Soil Types. [15]
  18. ↑ a. Lafont, P. , Osborne, . Milton Edgeworth , Silverstein, . Josef , Zasloff, . Joseph J. and Dommen, . Arthur J. (2022, August 25). Laos. Encyclopedia Britannica. '[[16]
  19. ↑ a. Lafont, P. , Osborne, . Milton Edgeworth , Silverstein, . Josef , Zasloff, . Joseph J. and Dommen, . Arthur J. (2022, August 25). Laos. Encyclopedia Britannica. [17]
  20. ↑ Clemson University. (2020, July 13). Climate change will cause more extreme wet and dry seasons. ScienceDaily. [www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200713125455.htm]
  21. ↑ Zhu, H. (2017). Floristic characteristics and affinities in Lao PDR, with a reference to the biogeography of the Indochina peninsula. PLOS ONE, 12(6), e0179966. [18]
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Japan International Cooperation Agency. (n.d.). Profile on environmental and social considerations in Lao P.D.R.. [19]
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Round, P. D., Srikosamatara, S., Aggimarangsee, N., & Wikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Southeastern Asia: Laos and northern border of Thailand. WWF. [20]
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Boonratana, R., Rundel, P., & Wikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Southeastern Asia: Central Laos into Vietnam. WWF. Retrieved from [21]
  25. ↑ Mikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Northern Annamites Rainforests. One Earth. [22]
  26. ↑ Mikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Northern Annamites Rainforests. One Earth. [23]
  27. ↑ Lafont, P. , Dommen, . Arthur J. , Zasloff, . Joseph J. , Osborne, . Milton Edgeworth and Silverstein, . Josef (2022, August 25). Laos. Encyclopedia Britannica. [24]
  28. ↑ Survival international. (2001). Swidden. [25]
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Lafont, P. , Dommen, . Arthur J. , Zasloff, . Joseph J. , Osborne, . Milton Edgeworth and Silverstein, . Josef (2022, August 25). Laos. Encyclopedia Britannica. [26]
  30. ↑ Wikramanayake, E., Boonratana, R., Rundel, P., & Aggimarangsee, N. (n.d.). Southeastern Asia: Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. WWF. [27]
  31. ↑ Boonratana, R., Rundel, P., & Wikramanayake, E. (n.d.). Southeastern Asia: Central Laos into Vietnam. WWF. Retrieved from [28]
  32. ↑ Asia Society. (n.d.). Legacies of War in Laos. Asia society navigating shared futures. [29]
  33. ↑ Cox, S. (2004, November). The greater annamites ecoregion. World Wildlife Fund. [30]
  34. ↑ Stuart, B. L., & Davidson, P. (1999). Use of bomb crater ponds by frogs in laos. Herpetological Review, 30(2), 72. [31]
  35. ↑ Stuart, B. L., & Davidson, P. (1999). Use of bomb crater ponds by frogs in laos. Herpetological Review, 30(2), 72. [32]
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (2016). Fifth national report to the united nations convention on biological diversity. [33]
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (2012). Lao Environment Outlook. [34]
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Miththapala, S.(2007). A strategy for addressing issues of aquatic invasive alien species in the Lower Mekong Basin. Colombo: IUCN: Mekong Wetland Biodiversity Programme and Regional Species Conservation Programme, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Asia ii+14 pp. [35]
  39. ↑ United nations environment programme. (n.d.). Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Laos PDR. [36]
  40. ↑ United nations environment programme. (n.d.). Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Laos PDR. [37]
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Laos wildlife conservation society. (2021). Wildlife health. [38]
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 GITEC-IGIP Consulting Group. (n.d). Greater Mejon Sub-region Biodiversity Conservation Corridors Project. [39]
  43. ↑ Greater mekong subregion secretariat. (2021). Countries. [40]
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Greater mejong subregion secretariat (2021). Conserving nature's resources and securing livelihoods in the lao's people's democratic republic. [41]
  45. ↑ Kasper, K. (2020). "The extent of the illegal trade with terrestrial vertebrates in markets and households in Khammouane Province, Lao PDR". Nature Conservation. 41: 25–45.


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