Course:FNH200/2012w Team13 PeanutButter

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

Peanut butter is a well known and loved snack in North America. Many people consume it on a regular basis, and this is why we decided to investigate some of its properties, attributes and qualities. In this page, we will be comparing homemade peanut butter with the widely available conventional factory processed peanut butter. We will be asking insightful questions such as: what are the main and most important differences between the two, with regards to ingredients, additives, labeling issues, regulations, and nutritional information. We will pay attention to some regulations and standards for peanut butter safety concerns with allergies and contamination, and ultimately determine which is the healthiest option.

Peanut Butter Texture

History of Peanut Butter

The mainly factory-produced peanut butter we consume today is similar in many ways to the first known peanut butter ever made, however its purpose has changed quite significantly and its recipe has been perfected. Peanut butter was originally produced in 1890 by a physician in St. Louis for his sick and/or nutrient-deficient patients, as it was a protein-rich food that was fairly easy for them to digest.[1][2][3]. At first this peanut butter was simply a ground peanut paste, however in 1895 Dr. John Harvey Kellogg and his brother created and patented a method of producing peanut butter that used steamed peanuts. [1][4] Soon after this peanut butter gained significant popularity and has since grown to become a very common staple in North American homes and around the World. Today we produce peanut butter using roasted peanuts and often various other ingredients, which have added to the superior flavour and stability of the peanut butter we enjoy so much today.[1] [4]

Ingredients

The main ingredient in peanut butter is ground peanuts. Oil is then added to give it a smooth, creamy texture, however some oils are healthier than others. Hydrogenated vegetable oils are often used in commercially produced peanut butter, and they function to prevent separation of the peanut oil from the ground peanut mass. Honey, molasses or sugar help add a touch of sweetness to peanut butter. If the peanuts are not salted, salt may be added as a final ingredient to add more flavors.[5]

  • Carbohydrates and Fat

Peanut butter contains a little less than 4 grams of carbs and about 8 grams of fat per 1-tablespoon serving.[6]

  • Niacin

Peanut butter contains about 2.5 milligrams of niacin, or vitamin B3, which is more than 15 percent of your daily needs. [6]

  • Vitamins

Peanut butter is rich in B vitamins, including niacin, B6, thiamin or B1 and Riboflavin or B2. Peanut butter is high in folate, the natural form of folic acid.

Vitamin E, another vitamin in peanut butter, satisfies 22 percent of your daily requirement. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that is important for the immune system and to protect your body's tissues and cells from damage. [6]

  • Minerals

Natural creamy peanut butter and crunchy peanut butter both have 13 g of calcium, between 0 and 2 percent recommended daily. Other minerals include iron, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium. [6]

  • Fiber

Peanut butter is a source of fiber, with 2 tbsp. containing 2 g of fiber, about 8 percent of the daily recommendation. [6]

  • Calories, Fats and Cholesterol

Two tbsp. of all-natural peanut butter contain 190 calories, 140 of which are from fat that is 80 percent unsaturated. Peanut butter is cholesterol-free, and most of the fat it contains is unsaturated fat. Natural peanut butter contains no trans fats because it is made without hydrogenated oil. [6]

Peter Pan peanut butter, for instance, the ingredients include peanuts roasted, sugar, vegetable oil partially hydrogenated (Cottonseed, Rapeseed), and salt. The peanut butters that come with oil on the top are usually all-natural and contain only peanuts, oil from peanuts and salt. Some peanut butters claiming to be natural contain extra ingredients including palm oil and sugar. Popular peanut butters often contain more than just peanuts and salt. [7]

Comparing the nutrients value of the Creamy Original Peanut Butter and the Natural Crunchy Peanut Butter: [7]

Creamy Original Peanut Butter.png
Screen Shot 2013-03-24 at 9.38.23 PM.png

Preservatives & Additives

Commercial peanut butter often uses various stabilisers and preservatives in order to prolong the shelf life of peanut butter. A few of those ingredients are listed below.

Emulsifiers/Stabilisers

Palm oil, both unhydrogenated and partially hydrogenated, is an essential ingredient in peanut butter. Although by Canadian definition it is not an additive, it is added to commercial peanut butter to prevent oil separation. Without it, the oil readily separates, and the peanut butter can spoil in a matter of days.[8] Companies have traditionally used hydrogenated vegetable oils as a stabiliser, however when unhydrogenated palm oil is used, there are no trans-fatty acids, which are a by-product of hydrogenation. Furthermore, peanut butter stabilised with palm oil has been found to have a slightly smoother texture, and can also prevent oil separation for approximately one year at room temperature. Generally, the vegetable oil is added in the grinding stage of the peanut butter production.[8]

Another interesting thing to note is that the oil released during the stage of peanut grinding depends on how finely ground the peanuts are. The more finely ground, the more oil that is produced. Therefore, less finely ground peanuts will release less oil, and is essentially partially ‘self stabilised’ as there is less oil available to separate.[8] (Food for thought: would this mean the more “crunchy” versions of peanut butter have less vegetable oil added?)

Mono-,diglycerides (MDG) are also added to peanut butter. Although their name suggests they are fats, they are actually classified as emulsifiers. They are produced from oils (such as soybean, sunflower and palm oil) and act as stabilisers in processed foods to improve the overall texture and consistency of the food.[9] The main concern with MDG is that they may contain trans fats, although we often see the label not reporting the trans fat in the labelling of peanut butter simply because the portion is too low (less than 0.5g, which is the cut-off). Mono-, diglycerides are often found in packaged, ready to eat “unhealthy” foods such as ice cream, margarine and soft drinks.[10]

Preservatives

Sodium benzoate is the sodium salt of the benzoic acid. Peanut butter uses sodium benzoate as a preservative, which can prevent mould growth, spoilage and help retain freshness.[11] However, the active ingredient that actually does the preserving is the benzoic acid. It is a very potent acid with a pKa of approximately 4.2, and it has the ability to inhibit some microorganisms. It is mostly used in acidic foods as its activity is reduced at higher pH.[12] There seems to be no apparent risks associated with the use and consumption of sodium benzoate as a preservative, and it is permitted for use in the Canadian Food and Drug regulations as a class II preservative.[13]

Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) is another additive that may be used, which can also prevent the growth of some moulds.[14] It acts as an antioxidant that is commonly added to foods to preserve nutrient value and aesthetic appeal [15]. BHA is mostly added and used in foods with high fat content, such as peanut butter.[16] Extensive studies on the toxicity of BHA have been done, and it has been found that BHA has a potential to be a carcinogen. The International Agency for Cancer Research (1986) has determined this carcinogenic effect in animals, but still lacks data for humans. Despite this, it is still permitted for use in many countries, including Canada, in very small amounts (0.01% of total fat content) as a class IV preservative.[15][17]

Homemade Peanut Butter Regulations

Homemade peanut butter, which usually has fewer preservatives than commercially produced peanut butter, is often sold at Farmers Markets. Some consumers are concerned about the safety of homemade products sold at farmers markets as they are worried about the sanitation and possible contamination of foods not produced commercially. Often there is the misconception that these products are not regulated; however, that is not the case in Canada. To ensure the safety of consumers, Food Protection BC Centre for Disease Control has set regulations for the production and sale of homemade food at temporary food markets such as Farmers Markets.

Lower Risk Foods

In British Columbia, only foods that are considered as “lower risk foods” are allowed to be sold at temporary food markets without previously having to seek approval from the local Health Authority.[18] According to the BC Centre for Disease Control, lower risk foods are defined as food or states of foods that won’t be susceptible to microbial growth or the production of toxins, hence they are of a lower risk to consumers.[18] Two factors are taken into account when deciding whether foods are considered to be low risk:

  • Food’s water activity: Must be less than <0.85
  • Food’s pH: Must be less than <4.6 [18]

In most cases, microorganisms can no longer grow when the water activity is less than 0.93 (with the exception of mould). Similarly, acid foods, which have a pH of 4.6 or less, do not support the growth of microorganisms that causes disease. A low risk food only needs to meet one of the above criteria.[18]

Peanut butter is considered a low risk food because its water activity is 0.70, which is less than 0.85.[19]

Guidelines for Packaging of Home Preparation of Foods

To further ensure the wellbeing of consumers, the BC Centre for Disease Control has set out a list of guidelines regarding the safety procedures one should take when preparing sale food items at home. In regards to the packaging of home prepared foods, the following guidelines should be followed:

  1. Lower risk food should not be prepared with high risk foods or food that can cause contamination
  2. To prevent contamination, food must be packaged or wrapped
  3. If food is packaged in jars the following guidelines must be followed:
    a. Must be sealed properly (ie. Mason-type) and must be an airtight seal
    b. Only jars which are in good condition and sanitized may be reused
    c. New rings and lids must be used[19]

Customers are also notified of the fact that these foods have not been inspected as a sign stating that “THIS FOOD HAS BEEN PREPARED IN A KITCHEN THAT IS NOT INSPECTED BY A REGULATORY AUTHORITY” must be visibly displayed at the location of sales.[19]

File:HK Central Kai Bo Foods Buddy's 花生醬 Peanut Butter Skippy April-2012.JPG
The container must correspond to its net quantity

In addition to these guidelines, homemade food must still comply with Canadian food packaging regulations. Specifically, according to Justice Canada, the container in which peanut butter is sold must correspond to its net quantity.[20] These quantities can be: 250, 375, 500 or 750 g or 1, 1.5 or 2 kg.[20]

Home Canning

Unless canned in a licensed establishment, homemade peanut butter that is sold cannot be canned

Home canning is a major health and safety concern, for if done improperly, there is a high risk of it containing C. Botulism. C. Botulism is very heat resistant, thus if not heat-processed adequately, home canned food would provide the perfect conditions for C. Botulism—is moist and oxygen free.[21] To prevent food from being contaminated by C. Botulism, the government of Canada has banned the selling of home canned food, unless the products being canned are jellies, jams or pickles.[22]

Unless canned in a licensed facility, those who sell homemade peanut butter will often just scoop the peanut butter into plastic containers instead of home canning the product.[21]

Labelling Regulations of Peanut Butter

All prepackaged food, whether homemade or commercially prepared must comply with Canadian labelling standards.[23] The following items must be visibly displayed on the outside of the package:

  1. Common Name
  2. Net Weight
  3. Ingredients
  4. Durable Life Date
  5. Bilingual
  6. Nutrition Facts Table
  7. Name and Address of Person Responsible for Food

In addition to the above information, the jar must clearly indicate that it contains peanuts as peanuts cause hypersensitivity and are one of the top 10 allergens in Canada.

There are various types of peanut butter in store and with them comes different types of claims.

No Preservatives Claim

Many homemade peanut butter recipes claim that there are no preservatives added to their product. There are also some brands like Adam’s 100% Natural Peanut Butter contains no preservatives.[24]

One can only make a claim saying that the product does not contain preservatives if it is in fact true that none of the preservatives from Division 16 of the Food and drug Regulations were added to the product.[25]

Homemade Claim

Homemade foods are foods that are not commercially prepared.[25] Some foods at Farmers market may actually be “homemade”, while many others do not actually fall into the category of “homemade”. This is because “homemade” products must be prepared in a home. Small, artisan like establishments are NOT considered homes, thus products made in such buildings cannot be deemed “homemade”.[25]

Foods that are produced commercially, but are partially derived from private recipes are sometimes described as “homemade style” or “home-style”.[25] However, they cannot claim that they are homemade if produced commercially.[25]

"Natural" Claim

Peanut Butter can be called “Natural” if nothing has been done to significantly alter its original physical, chemical or biological state.[25] This means that nothing has been removed (except for water) and nothing has been added. If vitamins, minerals, artificial flavouring or food additives have been added, then the product cannot be labelled as natural.[25] Even if the ingredients that were added are from natural sources you can only claim that product is made of “natural ingredients”, not that the product is “natural”.[25]

Natural Peanut butter does not contain hydrogenated vegetable oils, which act as stabilizers. As a result, the peanut butter will separate into layers, with the oils rise to the top.[26]

Peanut Butter Allergies

Peanut allergies are among the top 10 priority food allergies in Canada [27] and are considered to be one of the top 8 food allergens [28]. According to a 2009 report, 1.52% of Canadian children currently have a peanut allergy [29]. Peanut allergies specifically, are often present at a young age, and are usually lifelong conditions.[30] The body’s reaction to peanut butter occurs due to peanut-specific antibodies that are produced in allergic individuals. [30] These antibodies specifically bind with peanut proteins and cause the body to overreact and produce what is known as an allergic reaction. [27][30] In severe cases, merely trace amounts of peanut protein can cause an anaphylactic reaction, and just a single tablespoon of peanut butter contains 4g of peanut protein. [31] Anaphylactic reactions are severe allergic reactions that may cause death if the affected individual does not receive immediate medical attention. Peanut butter is one of the major peanut products present in Canada and as a result it is the source of much attention when it comes to allergies. In fact, many Canadian schools have even banned students from bringing peanut butter to school. [32] As well, all products in Canada that contain or may contain peanuts, including peanut butter, are required to be labeled with a warning. [27] This is not without good reason however, as peanut butter allergies are the number one cause of death as a result of anaphylaxis. [33]. The best treatment for individuals with peanut allergies is simply to avoid consuming foods such as peanut butter, which contain peanuts, as there is currently no treatment available to cure these allergies.

Safety concerns

In homemade as well as commercially processed peanut butter, there are certain health and safety concerns with regards to contamination of the product.

Salmonella

Salmonella is a genus of bacteria found in some animals and the environment, and that can cause typhoid fever and foodborne illness.[34] Contamination with salmonella occurs when water gets into contact with the peanut butter after the roasting process.[35] Salmonella is not likely to grow in a dry environment. Whatever the mode of post-process contamination, salmonella is likely to survive in peanut butters and spreads for the duration of their expected shelf life.[36]On March 23rd of 2013, the CFIA issued a recall on certain products, including peanut butter that may contain salmonella or other harmful bacteria.[37]

Aflatoxins

Aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins – toxic fungal metabolites commonly known as molds. They are produced by the genus Aspergillus that grows on certain raw foods. Aflatoxins can cause high toxicity in humans as well as animals. This contaminant can be present in a variety of foods, such as cereals, spices and tree nuts. Peanuts, maize,pistachios, as well as chillies, black pepper, dried fruit and figs are all known to be high risk foods , but contamination by the toxin has also occurred in many other commodities such as milk, cheese and other dairy products. Although primary food items are usually the ones contaminated by aflatoxins by mould growth, since the toxin is highly stable and can survive relatively high temperatures, it can be a problem in processed foods such as peanut butter. Canada has set a limit of 15 µg/kg for total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) in nuts. This is the same as the international limit recommended for raw peanuts by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. [38]

Health and Nutrition Concerns

90 per cent of Canadians surveyed consider peanut butter a healthy food.[39] However, due to its high fat content, peanut butter is often considered to be unhealthy by some people. Peanuts are naturally high in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, while it is low in saturated fat. Some peanut butters contain trans-fat from partially hydrogenated oils, which are used to maintain its creamy texture.[40]


Sugar and Caloric content

The high calorie content of peanut butter is often the reason why people are led to believe it is “unhealthy”. As we have seen in our visit to the supermarket (see video), reduced fat peanut butter actually has the same or higher caloric content than regular, full fat peanut butter. Reduced fat peanut butters often contain empty calories from added sugar replacing the natural, healthy fat from the peanuts.[41]For added sweetness, corn syrup and fructose are commonly added to peanut butter. When looking for the healthiest option, these ingredients should be avoided.[40]

Sodium

A lot of the brands of peanut butter we found in the supermarket were high in sodium from the added salt. The healthiest peanut butter is low in sodium -ideally has null sodium content. A high-sodium diet can lead to high blood pressure and increase your risk for stroke, according to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [41]

Benefits

Although a caloric food, peanut butter can be very nutritious. In general, raw peanut butter (as in less refined) is better than refined, because it retains many of the beneficial nutrients found in the skin.[42] Peanut butter has a fiber content of about 8% - Dietary fiber of peanut butter helps the people to regulate both blood cholesterol and blood sugar levels. Peanut butter is also a protein dense food. Additionally, it contains micro nutrients like vitamin E and B3, as well as beneficial minerals (iron, magnesium, potassium and calcium).[43] The minerals that peanut butter contains are in variable amounts: raw peanut butter with the skin from the peanuts contains higher amounts of minerals.[42]

It seems that the healthiest choice for peanut butter is the single ingredient, homemade variety. Commercially prepared peanut butters tend to have sugar, salt and other additives – from a health perspective, it is preferable to steer clear of those added ingredients and opt for the “natural” option. Alternatively, homemade peanut butter is also a good choice.


Homemade Peanut Butter Processing

We visited a family-owned natural food store in Kitsilano, where they make their peanut butter- along with a variety of other nut butters- in-store. This peanut butter is 100% natural. The only ingredient is the peanuts – there are no sweeteners, additives, salt or emulsifiers. The processing is extremely simple – and could easily be replicated at home using a powerful blender or food processor. The peanuts are simply ground in the store and stored in sealed plastic containers, ready for consumption. The packaging and labeling of this product is cost efficient. As indicated by the store owner (who demonstrated the grinding process for us), the storage life of this product is upwards of a few months, if refrigerated. No additives are added to increase storage life. Along with their cashew, almond and sunflower butters, this homemade peanut butter seems to be very popular with the store’s customers.

Recipe: Flourless Peanut Butter Oatmeal Cookies

Ingredients:

  • 1 egg
  • ¼ cup brown sugar
  • 1 tbsp milk
  • 1 cup peanut butter
  • A handful of raisins or chocolate chips (optional)
  • ¾ cup oats
  • 1 tsp baking soda

Instructions:

  • Preheat your oven to 350 degrees
  • Mix egg, brown sugar, milk and peanut butter until smooth
  • Add in the baking soda, oats, and chocolate chips or raisins, and stir.
  • Place cookie batter on a cookie sheet on your baking tray
  • Bake in oven for about 10 minutes.
  • Leave the cookies to cool and harden for 10-15 minutes
  • Eat!!
Peanut butter chocolate chip cookies, stacked, November 2009


Peanut butter as a butter substitute in baking

In this recipe, peanut butter is used as the source of fat necessary for baking. While it has a lower fat percentage, it replaces regular butter. As opposed to butter that is almost all fat, peanut butter has protein and fiber and can make the resulting cake or muffin heavy as well as changing the taste. [44]


Trivia

• Peanuts aren’t actually nuts! Despite their name, they are actually legumes– not unlike peas, lentils, and soybeans[45] -and grow underground. [46]

• Arachibutyrophobia is the fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of your mouth.[47]

• The reason peanut butter sticks to your mouth is that its high protein content absorbs moisture.[47]

• Adults actually consume more peanut butter than kids.[47]

• One acre of peanut crop yields 2860 pounds of peanuts, enough to make 30000 peanut butter sandwiches.[47]

• An 18oz jar of peanut butter needs 850 peanuts to be made.[47]

• The number of Canadians who say they never consume peanuts remains low at only five per cent. [47]

Peanut Butter Video Presentation

Final Exam Question

Question: What is the role of hydrogenated vegetable oil in processed peanut butters?

Answer: The hydrogenated vegetable oil stabilizes the peanut butter by preventing the peanut oil from separating from the solid peanut mass, which helps improve its shelf life and overall appearance. It also contributes to the smooth creaminess of the peanut butter.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Peanut Butter Lovers. (n.d.). History. Retrieved from http://peanutbutterlovers.com/pb-lovers/pb101/history/
  2. ↑ Skippy. (2012). History of Skippy. Retrieved from http://www.peanutbutter.com/home/about
  3. ↑ Kraft Foods. (2011). Kraft Peanut Butter: The History of Peanut Butter! Retrieved from http://www.kraftcanada.com/en/products/p-r/kraftpeanutbutter.aspx
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Holloway, S. (n.d.). The History of Peanut Butter. Retrieved from http://www.kitchenproject.com/history/PBJ/peanutbutter.htm
  5. ↑ Venegas, S. (2009). What is the nutritional value of peanut butter? Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/30258-nutritional-value-peanut-butter/
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Johanes, F. (2008). Peanut butter nutritional facts. Retrieved from http://www.menshealth.com/nutrition/peanut-butter-nutritional-facts
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Peter pan peanut butter. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.peterpanpb.com/index.jsp
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Gills, L. A., & Resurreccion, A. V. A. (2000). Overall acceptability and sensory profiles of unstabilised peanut butter and peanut butter stabilised with palm oil. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 24, 495-516.
  9. ↑ Gluten Free-Living. (2001). Mono and diglycerides. Retrieved from http://www.enabling.org/ia/celiac/monodiglycerides.html
  10. ↑ Kalmus, S. (2011). What is bad about mono- & diglycerides? Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/445850-what-is-bad-about-mono-diglycerides/
  11. ↑ Pylypiw, H. M. Jr., & Grether, M.T. (2000). Rapid high-performance liquid chromatography method for the analysis of sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate in foods. Journal of Chromatography A, 883, 299-304.
  12. ↑ Knicky, M., & Sporndly, R. (2011). The ensiling capability of a mixture of sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, and sodium nitrite. Journal of Dairy Science, 94, 824-831.
  13. ↑ Justice Laws Website. (n.d.) Food and Drug Regulations. Retrieved from http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-161.html#s-B.16.100
  14. ↑ Ahmad, S., & Branen, A. L. (2006). Inhibition of Mould Growth by butylated hydroxyanisole. Journal of Food Science, 46, 1059-1063.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Williams, G. M., Iatropouos, M. J., & Whysner, J. (1999)Safety Assessment of Butylated Hydroxyanisole and Butylated Hydroxytoluene as Antioxidant Food Additives. Food and Chemical toxicology, 37, 1027-1038.
  16. ↑ Tamura, K. M. (2010). The effects of butylated hydroxyanisole magnitude and duration on cytochrome c. BIOS, 81, 16-21.
  17. ↑ Justice Laws Website. (n.d.) Food and Drug Regulations Retrieved from http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-161.html#s-B.16.100
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 [Food Protection BC Centre for Disease Control. (2012). Guideline for the Sale of Foods at Temporary Food Markets Retrieved from http://www.bccdc.ca/NR/rdonlyres/8084EEC3-3010-4908-876E-37BF359A939D/0/GuidelinesSaleofFoodsatTemporaryFoodMarkets2012FINAL.pdf].
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Dept of Health, Education and Wellfare Public Health Service Food and Drug Administration. (2010). Water activity (aw) in foods (39). Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/iceci/inspections/inspectionguides/inspectiontechnicalguides/ucm072916.htm
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Justice Laws Website. (2013). Consumer packaging and labelling regulations (417). Retrieved from Minister of Justice website: http://www.laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._417/FullText.html
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Health Canada. (2011). Food safety tips for home canning. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/kitchen-cuisine/food-canning-conserve-aliment-eng.php
  22. ↑ Alberta Health Services. (2012). Farmers’ market home study course (EPHF-11-027). Retrieved from http://www.calgaryhealthregion.ca/publichealth/envhealth/education/documents/Farmers_Market_Home_Study_Course_June_2012.pdf
  23. ↑ Public Health Division, Environmental Health. (2009). Farmers’ market guidelines. Retrieved from http://www.gov.mb.ca/health/publichealth/environmentalhealth/protection/docs/farmers_market.pdf
  24. ↑ Adam’s (n.d.). Adam's natural peanut butter. Retrieved from http://www.adamspeanutbutter.com/product
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2011). Guide to food labelling and advertising. Retrieved from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch4e.shtml
  26. ↑ ConAgraFoods. (2013). We understand your need to question everything. Retrieved from http://www.peterpanpb.com/frequently-asked-questions.jsp
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Health Canada. (2012). Peanuts – One of the ten priority food allergens. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/pubs/securit/2012-allergen_peanut-arachide/index-eng.php
  28. ↑ Chan, J. (2013). FNH 200: Lesson 2: Chemical and Physical Properties of Food. Retrieved from http://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lesson_02#Food_Proteins_and_Food_Allergies
  29. ↑ Gagne, C. (n.d.). Canada’s First Food Allergy Statistics. Retrieved from http://allergicliving.com/index.php/2010/07/02/food-allergy-canadian-statistics-revealed/
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Al-Muhsen, S., Clarke, A.E., & Kagan, R.S. (2003). Peanut allergy: an overview. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 168, 1279-1285.
  31. ↑ Shea, L. (2011). How Much Protein Is In Peanuts?. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/277842-how-much-protein-is-in-peanuts/
  32. ↑ Canada Safety Council. (2012). Peanuts in School. Retrieved from https://canadasafetycouncil.org/safety-canada-online/article/peanuts-school
  33. ↑ Unknown.(2013) Peanut Butter Allergy. Retrieved from http://www.peanutbutterallergy.net/
  34. ↑ Wikipedia. (2012). Salmonella. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella
  35. ↑ Brendan, B. (2009, Januray 13). Scientific american. Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=salmonella-poisoning-peanut-butter
  36. ↑ Burnett, S. L., & Gehm, E. R. (2000). Survival of salmonella in peanut butter and peanut butter spread. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 89, 472-477.
  37. ↑ 4. Certain nut butters, peanuts, sugar and tahini from vicrossano inc. may contain salmonella or other harmful bacteria. (2013). Retrieved from http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/recall-alert-rappel-avis/inspection/2013/26387a-eng.php
  38. ↑ Lawley, R. (2007). Aflatoxins. Retrieved from http://www.foodsafetywatch.com/public/482.cfm
  39. ↑ Peanut Bureau of Canada. (2011). Canadians’ peanut consumption patterns. Retrieved from http://www.peanutbureau.ca/MainMenu/Media-Resources/News/Canadians-peanut-consumption-habits.html
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Wittman, L. (2011). How to buy healthy peanut butter. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/316994-how-to-buy-healthy-peanut-butter
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Stein, M. (2011). Most nutritious peanut butter. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/424929-most-nutritious-peanut-butter
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Unknown. (2007). Health benefits of peanut butter. Retrieved from http://peanut-butter.org/peanut-butter/Health Benefits of Peanut Butter
  43. ↑ Agrawal, R. (2010). Is peanut butter healthy or not? Retrieved from http://b4tea.com/food-health/is-peanut-butter-healthy-or-not/
  44. ↑ French, R. (2011). How to replace butter with peanut butter? Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/550719-how-to-replace-butter-with-peanut-butter/
  45. ↑ Wikipedia. (2012). Legume. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume
  46. ↑ The Peanut Institute. (2009). Peanut facts. Retrieved from http://www.peanut-institute.org/peanut-facts/
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 Peanut Butter. (2007). Peanut butter trivia. Retrieved from http://peanut-butter.org/peanut-butter/Peanut Butter Trivia
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