Course:FNH200/2012w Team03 EnergyDrinks

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Popular Energy Drinks

Energy drink is a beverage that contains various stimulants such as caffeine and taurine, to provide energy for our physical and mental states. In today’s fast-paced lifestyle, we heavily rely on our bodies’ energy levels to keep us alert and focused in our busy lives. Instead of consuming the traditional caffeinated beverages such as coffee and tea, the cold, sweet and carbonated taste of energy drinks has found a unique niche in the market. Since its introduction, energy drinks are now widely available in a variety of stores and continues to be advertised through various means. The main advertised function of energy drink is to provide mental and physical stimulation for a short period of time. These caffeinated energy drinks feature claims that highlight their capacity to replenish energy and alertness to the individuals consuming the beverage[1]. There are currently over 15 brands of energy drinks available to the general population. Some of the popular brands include, Red Bull, Monster and Rockstar [2]. While there are various brands of energy drinks to choose from, they often contain the same ingredients and have similar claims. However, the amounts of each ingredient may vary, which affects the intensity of said claims to boost energy. Due to its increasing availability and popularity, the consumption of energy drinks has introduced many concerns and risks [3]. Our health is always a factor when determining the regulations of a product, which is why a lot of attention has been brought to energy drinks regarding their origin, manufacturing procedures, related health concerns, and regulations.


History

The concept of consuming certain beverages and foods as energy sources has been present for hundreds of years. Coffee (a drink that is said to sustain and enhance energy) was rumored to have been found during the ninth century in Ethiopia and was later brought to the Middle East, where it became a major trade in the spice route, leading to its popularity in the western world [4]. Throughout history, other energy enhancers such as teas, spices, herbs, and certain fruits and vegetables were also introduced in people’s diets to increase and maintain higher energy levels [5]. As agrarian life shifted into the industrial era, the long hours and harsh working conditions increased societies’ yearn for quick, long lasting energy enhancers. Coffee was a popular choice for most people; however there was an increasing desire for something more powerful [6].

Above is a picture of Kaldi an Ethiopian farmer who is said to have been the founder of coffee during the ninth century. He noticed the high energy level of his goats after eating the red coffee beans and decided to try them for himself.

Prior to its availability and popularity within the masses, certain beverages were used in hospitals to provide patients with extra sources of energy. One of the very first brands of energy enhancing beverages served in hospitals was Lucozade, which was founded in 1927 in Newcastle, England [7]. Lucozade and other similar products were composed of many of the same elements used in our energy drinks today (i.e. carbonated water, glucose syrup, caffeine). They were created for the sole purpose of providing both energy and replenishment to the sickly. After the increase in popularity of energy drinks; many of these “medicinal” brands later tweaked their products so as to make them available to the public [7]. The first product to be deemed an energy drink was a Japanese product created in the late sixties, called Livonian D. Although different than most energy drinks today in taste and manufacturing, Livonian D was targeted for factory workers who had to stay awake at work during late hours. As these products became more and more popular in the eastern world, United States and other countries began to experiment and develop energy products of their own. The first energy drink to hit the shelves in the U.S. was Jolt Cola-1985. This product was marketed towards students and busy professionals as “a soda with and extra kick, to help boost energy during difficult days”. Jolt Cola was an instant success and soon enough, many companies were creating their own versions of these energetic beverages [7].

Above is a chart of the most popular energy drinks of 2012 according to the public in the United States of America.[2]

After the creation of Jolt Cola, energy drinks have gained immense popularity in North America. Statistics state that in “2005 an estimated 2.3 billion energy drinks were consumed in the United States, a mere five years later in 2010 the numbers increased to 6 billion. Surveys in the US also show that currently 6% of young men and 45% of troops overseas report to consuming energy drinks on a daily basis” [8]. Despite current economic hardships, the popularity of energy drinks continues to increase, while other beverages such as soda have been experiencing decreases in sales. In 2012, the most popular energy drinks in the market were Red Bull, followed by Monster, and Rockstar. Though many new and innovative energy drinks are out in the market, these three products have been in the lead for the past five years [2].

As energy drinks are becoming more and more popular, many of the consumers are longing for something even stronger with lasting results. As regulations and laws are being created and enforced, it will be interesting to see what changes will be made to produce an even more energizing beverage.

Production

Energy drinks of different brands and flavours may have slightly different processing techniques. As an example, one of the brans is processed through the following procedures to sterilize the beverage containers[9]:

  1. Water treatment system: Water is treated by using filters to optimize water mineral content. Only water that has been optimized for consumption is used.
  2. Preparation system: Cans are coated with lacquer to prevent the corrosion of metal upon its contact with the energy drink contents.
  3. Mixing system: All of the ingredients and treated water are mixed and measured in tanks by a computerized system.
  4. Sterilizer system: Acid and alkaline are required for sterilization to begin. Once the cans are sterilized, they go through two checkpoints to ensure its quality.
    The first checkpoint is to help avoid the conjunction of cans. While the second checkpoint is where a photo is taken by the computer and the system checks whether or not the cans are contaminated. The contaminated cans are removed.
  5. Filling and packing system: After these checkpoints, the perfect cans are placed upside down and washed by machine. Once the cans are cleaned, they are filled in by the a machine similar to the revolver. The filled cans are closed by a lid machine. In order to extend the shelf life, the cans are pasteurized, and some companies may use preservatives. Quality control procedure is then performed to ensure that consumers would not have a drink less than optimal quantity. This is done by lab workers who examine the volume, density, gas content, and pH level of the drinks every hour.
  6. Packaging: Once all cans are checked, they are packaged and wrapped with a batch number on the box, which is used for tracking the products.

Since energy drinks are low-pH foods, there is a lower chance of contamination due to microorganisms[10]. As a result, it can also be stored for longer periods of time. The high sugar content also acts as preservative. Furthermore, some energy drinks contain preservatives such as sodium benzoate [11]. Some energy drinks such as Red Bull are pasteurized to kill off any microorganisms living inside the can[12].

Ingredients

Different brands of energy drinks may vary in their amount of the ingredients, such as caffeine, taurine, vitamins, herbal supplement, and sugar[13].

The basic ingredients used and their functions[14]:

Carbonated Water: The main ingredient that provides the bubbly sensation when consuming an energy drink.

Caffeine: Reduce the feeling of sleepiness by inhibiting the release of dopamine (high concentration). Caffeine is also found in tea and coffee, and is the main health concern of energy drinks [15].

Taurine: An amino acid that regulates heart beat, muscle contractions, and energy level[13].

Guarana: Same effect as caffeine but it is more concentrated[13].

B-vitamins: Aids the conversion from food to energy; however, this might not contribute a lot to energy level due to little absorption by orally intake of B-vitamins[13].

Ginseng: Allows the increase in energy. The standard dosage is 200mg/day[13].

Ginkgo Biloba: Contain small amounts that serve no obvious benefits. Standard intake is 60mg and people who have anti-depressants should avoid this ingredient[13].

L-Carnitine: An amino acid that helps metabolism and energy level[13].

Sugars: Contributes to a large portion of the drink in the form of glucose and sucrose, the major body fuel source of energy drinks[13].

Anti-oxidants: Repair the damage caused by free radicals, ie. Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Vitamin A, and selenium[13].

Glucuronolactone: Prevents the depletion of glycogen in muscle, synthesizes Vitamin C, and assists in detoxification[13].

Yerba Mate: Same effect as caffeine. Since it is a natural source, it does not have hindrances[13].

Creatine: Act as body builder that supplies energy to muscles[13].

Milk Thistle: Helps liver to detoxify alcohol[13].

L-theanine: An amino acid that can calm the brain and improve attention[13].

Inositol: A type of carbohydrate that helps nervous system and serotonin (neurotransmitter) modulation[13].

Artificial sweeteners: Hides the taste of other ingredients. For instance, aspartame, sucralose, Ace-K are used for sugar free energy drinks[13].

Health Concerns

Energy drinks have been the center of much debate due to the potential health concerns of over consumption. As a result, much research has been evaluating the safety of the ingredients of the energy drinks. In addition, energy drinks also pose a danger when consumed with alcohol as it masks the effect of the alcohol, which may lead to over consumption of the alcohol [16]. Another main concern is dehydration due to the high amounts of caffeine [1].

Caffeine

Caffeine is the main ingredient of concern in energy drinks and it is listed as an addictive substance. Approximately 9-30% of consumers are considered to be addicted to caffeine. This addiction is generally revealed after cessation of caffeine. In addition to addiction, withdrawal also occurs after cessation of caffeine. Symptoms include headache, fatigue, drowsiness, decreased energy, difficulty concentrating, depression, anxiety, irritability, and reduced alertness. In some individuals, flu-like symptoms may result, such as muscle aches and feelings of coldness and night sweats. Withdrawal typically occurs 12-24 hours after the last dose of caffeine and peaks in 48 hours, while the symptoms persist for 2-9 days. Note, even short-term use of small amounts of caffeine (eg. 100mg for 3 days) may cause withdrawal; however, the severity is dependent on the amount of consumption[17].

As mentioned earlier, in the presence of alcohol, caffeine is known to mask the depressant effects. As a result, this decreases the physical and mental impairment from alcohol leading to increased risks of toxicity from excessive consumption of alcohol. When used in combination with energy drinks, it has been found to lower cognitive functioning.

Intoxication is used to describe the abuse of caffeine and could be fatal. Under the DSM IV classification, there are 4 caffeine-induced disorders: intoxication, anxiety, sleep disorder, and not otherwise specified[17].

Diagnostic criteria requires:

  1. Recent consumption of caffeine typically greater than 250mg or 2-3 cups of coffee
  2. 5 or more of the symptoms (flushed face, nervousness, restlessness, excitement, insomnia, diuresis, GI disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling speech, tachycardia or arrhythmia, periods of inexhaustion, or psychomotor agitation)
  3. the symptoms cause distress or social/occupational impairment
  4. symptoms not caused by other conditions or agents.
Chemical Structure of Caffeine

Current maximum daily intake:

Children aged 4-6: 45mg

7-9: 62.5mg

10-12: 85mg

13-18: 2.5mg/kg

Adults: 400mg

There is little concern if consumed within the recommended daily intake. Caffeine seems to have the most adverse effects on the human body if overdosed. The lethal dosages are estimated to be 5-10g of caffeine or 150-200mg/kg of body mass. This is equivalent to 80-100 cups of coffee for an average adult.


Adverse Effects

The use of caffeine is normally well tolerated and is the most commonly used drug in North America. Generally, it is believed that children and the elderly populations are more susceptible to the adverse effects of caffeine.

There have been ongoing debates regarding the risk of cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis with the use of caffeine. However, there are more than 100 clinical studies that have investigated this matter and concluded that ingestion in moderate amounts is not associated with any increased risks. Nonetheless, studies have found caffeine to increase blood pressure and heart rate. In some cases, tachycardia (>100 beats per minute) can be induced, or even arrhythmia. Research has indicated that caffeine may increase cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

Apart from the cardiovascular system, caffeine has also shown to have severe effects on the dermatological, endocrine, musculoskeletal and central nervous system. In the dermatological department, there had been reports on the development of uticaria (rash and hives) upon caffeine consumption. Moreover, high caffeine dosage may damage the endocrine system. Some effects include impaired insulin sensitivity and increased blood glucose concentration. There have also been reported cases of caffeine influencing the musculoskeletal system, causing tremor or fractures. More commonly, caffeine is known for its effects on the central nervous system. Caffeine may cause headache, anxiety, sleep disturbances, jitteriness, and restlessness[17].

In addition, caffeine may cause disturbances to the gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems. Minor gastrointestinal effects include upset stomachs, nausea and pain. In more severe cases, it may cause vomiting, diarrhea and fecal incontinence; however, it is unclear if caffeine is the causative agent. Furthermore, research has shown that caffeine can result in acid reflux heartburn. Conversely, caffeine consumption can result in urinary urgency, known as diuretic. When caffeine is consumed in high amounts, dehydration can occur.

Taurine

Taurine is a non-essential amino acid served to regulate heartbeat, muscle contractions and energy levels[18]. Although it has the special property of increasing energy levels, thorough clinical studies have been done to evaluate its effects on the physical, mental, and physiological health of humans. It is important to note that clinically, the longest duration of study is up to one year. As such, there is no concrete evidence of the effect of taurine use beyond this duration[18].

Chemical Structure of Taurine

Studies have shown that allergic reactions associated with taurine consumption are very rare because it is a non-essential amino acid. Allergies that do occur upon drinking energy drinks may be from other constituents [18]. Experimental evidence has shown the effects of taurine on the cardiovascular system. Some clinical trials reported a reduction of blood pressure from consumption of taurine (systolic ~99mmHg, diastolic ~4mmHg); however, the patient population and duration was small, and a dose of 6g per day was used. In addition to a reduction in blood pressure, one trial also found taurine to reduce platelet aggregation in blood [18]. There are claims that taurine benefit the gastrointestinal tract by increasing fat absorption. Unfortunately, no research on healthy individuals has been performed to provide evidence to support this claim [18]. Taurine has been found to act on the central nervous system by suppressing the sympatheic nervous system, which causes drowsiness and ataxia to individuals. The consumption of taurine has no known psychiatric effects. However, it is suspected to induce mania when used in combination of caffeine, vitamin B and glucuronlacton[18].

Apart from the effects of taurine mentioned above, there have been occurrences of death. Reports of death have been documented following the consumption of an energy drink containing taurine, caffeine, glucuronolactone, vitamin B, and others (Red Bull). The reason of death was investigated and was a resultant of severe dehydration due to the combined effects of caffeine, alcohol and exercise. Individuals who have high cholestestrol, tirglycerides, hypotensive, anatiplatelet, anticoagulant therapy, or bipolar disorder should be cautious of their taurine dosages. Similarly, those who are subjected to alcohol use, caffeine use, and exercise should also be just as cautious.

Summary of evidence suggests that taurine use is likely to be safe when used orally by adults for up to 3g a day for up to 1 year[18]. In children, it is concluded to be possibly safe at 30mg/kg a day for up to 4 month[18]. However, these findings are purely based on available clinical studies and may differ from the actual regulations by Health Canada, which is a daily maximum level of 3000mg [19] .Taurine is likely safe for adults and children when taken orally in appropriate amounts. It is proven to be used safely in adults for up to 1 year and children for up to 4 months with no reported adverse effects[20].

Clinical research suggested that the combination of taurine and caffeine can improve mental performances; however, there is currently insufficient evidence for this claim[20]. Because the upper limit of energy drink intake is determined by caffeine, an adult can theoretically drink up to 5 cans (80mg/can, 400mg daily maximum). Using Red Bull as an example, drinking the daily maximum would result in a total intake of 5g of taurine a day. Based on the review of clinical trials, there are no significant health concerns to the use of taurine in the healthy population [21].

Carbohydrates

Energy drinks contain various carbohydrates that provide energy when consumed. Carbohydrates are a broad term for sugars. The main fuel of energy drink is glucose; however, other carbohydrates such as glucurnolactone are also present. Carbohydrates are essential for a healthy diet since it provides energy for the body to function, especially our brain. However as with anything we eat there is a limit. High intake of carbohydrates may lead to unwanted health problems. Energy drinks contain high sugar content, which may lead to high risk in health problems such as type II diabetes[22]. Normally, the carbohydrates provide fuel for us to function throughout the day. However in the cases of excess consumption, the extra amount is stored in our body as fat. This may lead to obesity which further leads to other health concerns such as hypertension and heart problems[23]. Sugars in general also cause a sugar crash which may hinder physical and mental performance, one of the side effects of energy drinks[24].

Chemical Structure of Glucurnolactone

A carbohydrate of interest is glucurnolactone. Like glucose and sucrose, it is used to provide immediate energy to the body. It is normally produced by the body from glucose to detoxify drugs and metabolism of hormones[25]. It also is used for the synthesis of ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C [14]. The amount of glucurnolactone in energy drinks is much higher than the daily intake from a normal diet. Currently, there are no evidence reporting potential harmful effects of glucuronolactone on our body. There has been a report in the past stating that glucuronolactone can induce brain tumor formation; however, this was later refuted[26]. Some side effects that have been documented include dizziness and rapid heartbeat.

Regulations

Energy drinks are sold as dietary supplements containing vitamins, minerals and herbs [27]. Despite its nutritional supplements, there are health concerns due to its high caffeine content. There has been continual debate in certain countries, on whether or not energy drinks should be banned. In countries such as Norway and Denmark, the Red Bull energy drink is banned [28]. Conversely, in USA and some other nations, energy drinks are not banned for sale, but are not allowed for sale on school campuses [29]. In Canada, energy drinks are not banned and is widely available. Although energy drinks are permitted for sale in Canada, there is continual research and debate concerning the regulations and safety of energy drinks.

Canada's Proposed Guidelines

Over the years, there has been an increase in popularity in energy drink consumption among Canadians. To protect and ensure the safety of energy drinks, Health Canada has proposed a set of guidelines to not only manage the availability of energy drinks, but to also manage the potential risks of consuming energy drinks[30].

The purpose of proposed guidelines:

  1. A set of requirements in labeling and formulation on energy drinks
    In Canada, energy drinks are treated as a food product. The requirements will follow the Consumer Packaging and Labeling Act and Regulations. The set of requirements will protect consumers by providing the most accurate and true information about the product. In addition, it will ensure that the claims are not deceptive, and there will be maximum allowable levels of additives and ingredients.
  2. Educate consumers about the product
    The purpose is to provide consumers with the necessary information and materials, to acknowledge and understand the risks associated with the consumption of energy drinks. Such information will allow consumers to be more cautious and aware of its effects.
  3. Research and monitor the long-term effects
    The goal is to work together with provincial, territorial and international partners to research and gather data to set out labelling and consumption regulations. Additionally, Health Canada wishes to collect and provide scientific evidence for consumers to gain a better understand of the risks or benefits associated with energy drinks.
  4. Cooperate with stakeholders to develop risk management
    Health Canada hopes to develop risk management through advertising and marketing. For example, energy drinks will not be allowed to be advertised to children. By doing so, this will reduce the risks of children being subjected or influenced to consume energy drinks.

Eligibility of Energy Drinks

A set of regulations is used to evaluate the eligibility of energy drinks to be sold in Canada. The eligibility of an energy drink is evaluated upon its alcohol and caffeine content as well as it’s vitamins, nutrients and amino acids content. Such ingredients are regulated to ensure the safety in consumption of the product, and to ensure the information provided is not misleading to the consumers[19].


Alcohol & Caffeine Content:

  • Concentration of content must be between 200ppm (mg/L) and 400ppm, no more and no less
  • Amount of caffeine in a single-served container cannot be greater than 180mg
  • The energy drink must not contain alcohol


Vitamins, Nutrients and Amino Acid Content:
According to Health Canada, the minimum allowable amounts for each stated vitamin and mineral for its stated serving size, must contain at least 5% of the daily value per reference amount. On the contrary, the maximum allowable amounts of vitamins and minerals are stated by Health Canada, as shown in the table.

Daily Maximum Level of Vitamins and Minerals From Caffeinated Energy Drinks.

It is important to note that vitamin C and folic acid cannot be added in energy drinks. Studies have shown that people on a daily basis consume greater than the upper limit for vitamin C and folic acid. The further addition of the two, may result in over consumption, which may lead to illness[19].

Canada’s Advertising, Labeling and Claim Regulations

Advertising

Advertisements must contain information regarding any risks or benefits accompanying the consumption of the product. The information provided must be true and fair, and cannot be misleading to the consumers. More importantly, advertisements cannot be directed to adolescents nor can samples be provided to them.[19].

Labeling

All the labeling requirements follow the Consumer Packaging and Labeling Act and Regulations of Canada. Labels must clearly state the reference amount and the serving size. All ingredients listed and their proportions must be relative to the stated size of the container.[19].

In addition, labels must have the following declarations:

  • Quantitative declaration of caffeine content
  • Qualitative declaration of caffeine
  • Caution statements
  • Quantitative declaration of ingredients other than caffeine

Claims

Claims associated with physical performance must not contain messages that are misinforming to the consumer. No studies have provided evidence to support the suggestion that energy drinks can improve and aid in physical performance. In fact, because energy drinks are caffeinated beverages, consumption of energy drinks during physical activities could lead to dehydration as opposed to rehydration.

Claims linked to specific health claims cannot imply that long-term consumption will provide benefits towards health. Similarly, the message must not suggest that the daily intake of such product can improve health. There is no scientific evidence to prove of such claims, and so it cannot be advertised to consumers as it may lead to misinterpretation[19].

Video

Summary

Energy drinks are a type of beverage that contains various stimulants, mainly caffeine and taurine. Their main purpose is to provide temporary energy for our physical and mental states. There are currently 15 major brands and the popularity of its use is growing. Throughout history, society has been trying to obtain more energy due to the increasingly long hours of work. The concept of energy drinks began in Newcastle, England in 1927. At the time, it was only used in hospitals to provide energy for patients, the early energy drink was much simpler and was not open to the public. The first energy drink to reach out to the public market was Livonian D in Japan, and Jolt-Cola later on in the U.S. Today the market is primarily dominated by Red Bull, Monster and Rockstar.

The production of energy drinks begins with sterilizing the ingredients and checking for contaminants. The low-pH of energy drinks increases the shelf life of the product, while its high sugar content acts like preservatives. Depending on the brane, other preservatives may also be present. Furthermore, some energy drink brands pasteurize their product to kill off any microorganism that may be present.

Energy drinks generally have the same ingredients, mainly carbonated water, caffeine, taurine and sugar. Other ingredients are added to provide extra energy such as ginseng. However, the amount of these ingredients varies from brand to brand. Each energy drink contains a substantial amount of caffeine, taurine and sugar that may lead to potential health problems. Potential problems include dehydration, cardiovascular disease, increased blood pressure, diabetes and obesity. Energy drinks should not be consumed with alcohol because it masks the effect of alcohol and the caffeine can also dehydrate the body.

Although drinking one can is generally safe, the main concern with energy drink is overconsumption. Due to the risk of overconsumption, mainly caffeine, there has been much debate about regulation and potential ban on energy drinks. In countries like Norway and Denmark, the sale of energy drinks is prohibited. On the contrary, Canada permits the sale of energy drinks, but strict labelling requirements are in place. Most of these requirements are concerning caffeine. Each energy drink must contain less than 180 mg per serving and 200-400 ppm in concentration. Furthermore, labels must declare the presence of caffeine content and its amount, as well as any caution statements. Importantly, energy drink advertisements cannot contain misleading messages and cannot be targeted to adolescents.

Exam Question

Question:
What is(are) the purpose(s) of Canada's proposed guidelines that ensure and protect the safety of energy drink consumption?


Answer:

  1. A set of requirements in labeling and formulation on energy drinks
  2. Educate consumers about the product
  3. Research and monitor the long-term effects
  4. Cooperate with stakeholders to develop risk management

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Safe Use of Energy Drinks" Health Canada. 2012-10-06. Retrieved 2013-03-18. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/food-aliment/boissons-energ-drinks-eng.php
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "The Top 15 Energy Drink Brands" Energyfiend. Retrieved 2013-03-17. http://www.energyfiend.com/the-15-top-energy-drink-brands
  3. ↑ "The History of Coffee" National Coffee Association USA. Retrieved 2013-03-22. http://www.ncausa.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=68
  4. ↑ "4 Foods that Will Give You Natural Energy" Fitday. Retrieved 2013-03-21. http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/nutrition/healthy-eating/4-foods-that-will-give-you-natural-energy.html#b
  5. ↑ "The Basics: History of Coffee" Eagle Coffee Inc. Retrieved 2013-03-23. http://www.eaglecoffee.com/the-basics/history-of-coffee/
  6. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "From Hospital to Rave Clubs" edrinks. Retrieved 2013-03-21. http://www.edrinks.net/energy-drinks/drink-history.aspx
  7. ↑ Sepkowitz, K. "Energy Drinks and Caffeine-Related Adverse Effects."JAMA. 2013. 309(3). 243-244. Web. Retrieved 2013-03-20. http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1487123
  8. ↑ "Energy Drink Plant - Miskolc Hungary" Youtube. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TREfuytsBOU
  9. ↑ "Energy Drink pH Chart" Fit4maui. Retrieved 2013-03-20. http://fit4maui.com/water/pu/sports_drink_ph.html
  10. ↑ "Monster Energy Drink Ingredients" EnGoBi. 2011-11-03. Retrieved 2013-02-28. http://engobi.com/tag/monster-energy-drink-ingredients/
  11. ↑ "FAQ" Redbull. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://energydrink.redbull.com/does-red-bull-contain-any-preservatives
  12. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 Seifert, S.; Schaechter, J.; Hershorin, E.; Lipshultz, S.; "Health Effects of Energy Drinks on Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults" Pediatrics. 2011. 127(3). 511-528. Web. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3065144/
  13. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Energy Drink Ingredients" Energyfiend. Retrieved 2013-03-17. http://www.energyfiend.com/energy-drink-ingredients
  14. ↑ Wolf, L. "Caffeine Jitters." Chemical and Engineering News. 2013. 91(5). 9-12. Retrieved 2013-03-17. http://cen.acs.org/articles/91/i5/Caffeine-Jitters.html
  15. ↑ Campbell, B.; Wilborn, C.; La Bounty, P.; Taylor, L.; Nelson, M.; Greenwood, M.; Ziegunfuss, T.; Lopez, H.; Hoffman,J.; Stount, J.; Schmit, S.; Collins, R.; Kalman,D.; Antonio, J.; and Kreider, R.; "International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: energy drinks" JISSN. 2013. 10(1). Web Retrived 2013-03-18. http://www.jissn.com/content/10/1/1#sec6
  16. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Caffeine." Natural Standard. Somerville: 2013 Retrieved 2013-03-18. Available from: URL: http://naturalstandard.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/databases/herbssupplements/caffeine.asp
  17. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 "Taurine." Natural Standard. Somerville: 2013 Retrieved 2013-03-18. Available from: URL: http://naturalstandard.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/databases/herbssupplements/taurine.asp
  18. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 "Category Specific Guidance for Temporary Marketing Authorization - Caffeinated Energy Drinks" Health Canada. 2012-04-10. Retrieved 2013-03-16.http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/legislation/guide-ld/guidance-caf-drink-boiss-tma-amt-eng.php
  19. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Taurine." Webmd. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-1024-TAURINE.aspx?activeIngredientId=1024&activeIngredientName=TAURINE
  20. ↑ "Caffeine" Health Canada. 2012-10-06. Retrieved 2013-03-18.http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/food-aliment/caffeine-eng.php
  21. ↑ "Diabetes Myth." American Diabetes Association. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/diabetes-myths/
  22. ↑ "Obesity Information." American Heart Association. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/WeightManagement/Obesity/Obesity-Information_UCM_307908_Article.jsp
  23. ↑ Hendrickson,K.; "Side Effects of a Sugar Overdose." Livestrong. 2011-03-28. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.livestrong.com/article/242637-side-effects-of-a-sugar-overdose/
  24. ↑ Samson, J.; "What are Glucuronolactone Benefits, Side Effects, Glucuronic Acid, Glucuronidation?" FeelGoodTime. 2012-10-21. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://feelgoodtime.net/what-are-glucuronolactone-benefits-side-effects-glucuronic-acid-glucuronidation/
  25. ↑ "Glucuronolactone" MrSupplement. Retrieved 2013-03-10. http://www.mrsupplement.com.au/glucuronolactone
  26. ↑ Sifferlin,A.; "Are Energy Drinks Fatally Caffeinated?"Time. 2012-10-24. Retrieved 2013-03-11. http://healthland.time.com/2012/10/24/are-energy-drinks-fatally-caffeinated/
  27. ↑ Ressig, C.; Strain, E.; and Griffiths, R.; "Caffeinated energy drinks—A growing problem" Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2009. 99(1-3). 1-10. Web. Reterived 2013-03-11. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376871608002858
  28. ↑ Wood, A.; "Fight against energy drinks begins with parents." My Daily News. 2012-10-29. Retrieved 2013-03-11. http://www.mydailynews.com.au/news/fight-against-energy-drinks-begins-with-parents/1598077/
  29. ↑ "Health Canada's Proposed Approach to Managing Caffeinated Energy Drinks." Health Canada. 2012-05-10. Retrieved 2013-03-16. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/legislation/pol/energy-drinks-boissons-energisantes-eng.php
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