Course:EOSC311/2026/Geological Landforms and Navigation Systems
Introduction
Before the development of the technology that exists today, people relied on their own navigation strategies to find new landscapes. They learned to read coastlines, ice formations, ocean currents, island chains, and more in order to navigate with precision. By examining Greenland’s fjords and ice sheet, the Arctic tundra and coast, and the Pacific Ocean, it was found the these strategies can be used across a variety of environments. Furthermore, investigating how Kalaallisut speakers, Inuit travellers, and Polynesian navigators all developed their own relationships with their environments demonstrates how geology plays a role in shaping the human mind. The connection between landscape and navigation shows that spacial cognition is embodied as it provides one the opportunity to adapt to their environment and learn to recognize where they are.
Statement of connection and why you chose it
As Cognitive Systems students in the Psychology stream, we chose this topic as it explores the relationship between the environment and human cognition. By learning and expanding our knowledge to geology, we were able to further understand how those environments occurred and why the navigation systems chosen by different people can work. The use of many varying strategies being used shows that spatial reasoning is not an entirely mental process but is shaped by interactions with the physical world as well. Different cultures have developed their own ways of perceiving and interpreting information they gain from the environments they inhabit. This project helps show how cultural knowledge and experience influence cognitive strategies and show that there are multiple effective ways for humans to organize and understand space. The understanding of geological processes helps us understand the science behind the cultural knowledge that gets passed down and turns into usable strategies.
Ice Sheet
Greenland’s most dominant geological feature is the Ice Sheet, which covers the majority of the land and has a bedrock surface near sea level underneath it. According to Britannica Encyclopedia, the Greenland Ice Sheet is a "single ice sheet or glacier covering about 80 percent of the island of Greenland" and is the second-largest ice mass on Earth after Antarctica. Glacial erosion has shaped most of its landscape, through carving valleys, transporting sediment, and influencing the formation of many of Greenland’s modern landforms. More specifically, glacial activity has carved fjords, eroded the landscape through abrasion and plucking, while glacial melting continues to impact landscapes and coastlines (Raikar, 2026).
Coastline and Fjords
Next, Greenland’s coastline is characterized by numerous fjords. These landmarks formed through centuries of glacial activity and erosion, causing deeply carved U-shaped valleys into the bedrock. Later, rising sea levels can fill these valleys after the Glaciers retract, forming these landmarks. Considering they are formed after glaciers carve U-shaped valleys, they are usually surrounded by steep mountains, and form much more steep-sided inlets that extend far inside the landscape (Nesje et al., n.d.)
Mountains
The exposed areas of Greenland are generally mountainous, supported by some of the oldest continental crust found on Earth. These mountain ranges along the coast both contain and border the Greenland Ice Sheet. Much of southern and western Greenland is part of the North Atlantic Craton, an ancient block of Archean continental crust. Geological studies show that much of the bedrock is made up of granite-gneiss and granite-greenstone complexes, with tonalitic-granodioritic gneisses being the most common rock type. These rocks were formed billions of years ago during Earth’s formation and have been changed through metamorphism and tectonic process. In addition, repeated glacial activity and erosion exposed the ancient bedrock, creating the rugged mountainous terrain seen in Greenland today (Kolb et al., 2015).
Greenland's geology and topography (fjords, coastline, mountains, and inland ice) impacts how the Kalaallisut speakers navigate space. As much of Greenland’s interior is covered by the Ice Sheet, and bordered by tall mountains along the coast, settlements have been mainly concentrated along the coastlines that are deeply carved by fjords. Therefore, travelling has mainly occurred by sea and along coastlines. As explained by McMahan et al. (2022) in their paper titled “A socially anchored approach to spatial language in Kalaallisut”, the Kalaallisut speakers navigate using landscape-based directions such as “inland”, “seaward”, and “along the coast” rather than relying on relative directions like left and right. The concepts of "up" and "down" are linked to geological features, with “up” meaning mountainous terrain and inland ice, and “down” referring to the coast and sea. This demonstrates how Greenland’s physical geology impacted spatial cognition and navigation practices, as speakers mentally organize space through geological features rather than relative directions (McMahan et al., 2022).
The Arctic tundra and coastal environment are shaped by a multitude of geological features such as permafrost, glacial and coastal processes, and pressure ridges. These features act as key aspects of the landscape and provide Inuit travelers with critical information. Inuit people often use navigational strategies that rely on observations of landforms, ice conditions, weather patterns, and other environmental indicators.
Permafrost
Permafrost is ground that remains frozen at or below 0 degrees C for at least 2 consecutive years. It developed over thousands of years due to the low Arctic temperatures. Water within soils, sediments, and bedrock fractures were frozen permanently. In a lot of regions there is only a thin active layer at the surface that will thaw a little during the summer before refreezing in the winter. This permafrost has a large influence on both the shape and the development of Arctic landforms. This is because it limits the water infiltration and also alters surface drainage patterns. Water often gets trapped near the surface and creates wetlands, ponds, and just overall poorly drained terrain. The repetitive cycles of freezing and thawing produce distinct landforms such as patterned ground and ice wedges.
Coastal Processes
Arctic coastlines are constantly being changed by coastal processes such as wave action, sea ice movement, storms, and the seasonal freeze-thaw cycles. Wave action occurs when wind-generated waves are repeatedly hitting the shoreline. This causes the removal of sediments and gradually erodes coastal deposits. This process is even more impactful in the summer when the sea ice retreats and coastlines are more exposed. The movement of the sea ice also impacts coastal erosion levels. When driven by winds and ocean currents, large chunks of sea ice can scrape against the shorelines and transport sediments while simultaneously eroding coastal materials.
Pressure Ridges and Snowdrifts
One of the more distinct surface features in the arctic are the pressure ridges and snowdrifts. Pressure ridges are formed from sea ice when large ice sheets get pushed together by winds or strong currents. When the ice is being pushed, because it cannot move through itself it fractures and buckles upwards and downwards. This leads to the creation of irregular ridges that may extend several metres above the original ice level. Snowdrifts form when strong repetitive winds transport loose surface snow across the land and deposit it in accumulations. The shape and the orientation of the snowdrifts is quite varying and depends on the main wind direction, the local topography and the surface roughness. The pressure ridges and snowdrifts together show how wind, ice movement, and climatic conditions shapes the arctic landscape and reflect the ongoing geological processes that happen there.
These geological process and features seen in the Arctic landscape are critical influences as to how Inuit navigation and travel works. Inuit travelers use the landscape and observations of these geological features as indicators to safely move across the tundra and coastal environment. Landmarks such as the Pressure ridges and snowdrifts are used to help travelers know where they are and where to go. Inuit hunters assess the ice thickness through its appearance, color, and movement, while also identifying hazardous areas such as open water and thin ice. The pressure ridges indicate that the ice has undergone a lot of movement and deformation. The jagged ridges lead to rough and uneven terrain that can be hard to navigate. The Inuit use their knowledge of how pressure ridges are formed in order to identify areas that have compressed or stable ice and are able to then determine safer alternative routes. The snowdrifts also help because the shape reflects prevailing wind directions. So, during storms or whiteout conditions, the snowdrifts can help travelers maintain some sense of direction even with low visibility. Their ability to interpret the geological features in such ways shows their deep understanding of geological processes and allows Inuit communities to travel safely.
Ocean Basins[1]
Ocean basins are large underwater regions that cover approximately one-third of Earth’s surface. They are mainly made of basalt, which forms the basement layer of the seafloor. Basins are susceptible to the movement of tectonic plates and are formed by seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges. As the underwater volcanoes erupt, new oceanic crust is formed, pushing existing crust away from the ridge. When tectonic plates pull apart, new ocean basins can form. Alternatively, when plates collide, the ocean basin between continents is destroyed by subduction. Ocean basins act as a historical record through magnetic minerals, sediment layers, and fossils. As basalt cools, the magnetic minerals inside it align with the Earth’s magnetic field and as it reverses over time, a mirror image of changes on both sides of a mid-ocean ridge is preserved. Sediment layers include biogenic sediments from microscopic marine life, particles from continents, and micrometeorites from space that can be studied. Similarly, fossils within sediment layers can be studied as well.
Islands[2]
An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by water, but this does not apply to the land that forms the continents. There are a few ways that islands can be formed. One way being from running water on an upland that recently underwent glaciation. When large rivers flow over irregular, glaciated surfaces, their channels can divide and form islands. Ice both forms hollows through erosion and deposits the material it has gathered, which can form natural dams, then islands. Another way can be from the rise in sea level that is typically seen following an ice age. The erosion from ice causes irregularities in the land that results in islands as the borders of the continent are flooded. Islands can also be formed by the deposition of alluvium at or before the delta of a river, the drifting of sand and gravel along sea or lake shores, the eruption of volcanoes, or the growth of coral. Lastly, islands can be formed from human activity.
Coral Reefs[3]
Coral reefs are mainly built by the animals, coral polyps and there is an immense variety of coral species. Organisms and fish use corals for shelter, finding food, reproduction, and caring for their young. There are benefits of coral reefs including protecting coastlines from storms and erosion, providing jobs and recreational opportunities, and acting as a source of food and medicine. Coral reefs are threatened by diseases, predators, storms, pollution, sedimentation, fishing, and climate change.
Currents[4]
A current is the steady and predictable movement of a fluid within a larger body of that same fluid. Water currents exist in rivers, lakes, and oceans. River currents are created from the force of gravity, which causes its water to flow downwards from the high points of the river to the low points, ending at a larger body of water. Their strength is impacted by the volume of water flowing, the river's steepness, and the riverbed’s surface features, which include sandbars, basins, and dams. Ocean currents can flow near the surface and far below it. They can be caused by winds, the spin of the Earth from east to west, and seawater density.
Wave Refraction[5]
Wave refraction occurs as waves approach the shore, and their movement is impacted by the ocean floor. The shallower the water becomes, the more slowly the waves move forward, and the reduction in speed is what characterizes refraction. It causes the wave crest to be bent as it moves towards the shore. This leads to different types of breakers that can be characterized based on how they collapse onto the beach.
Polynesian navigators had a number of tools that helped them to navigate and find land. In terms of oceanographic tools, they used wave refraction, the slowing of a swell that causes a wave to bend around an island, and reflection, how the waves hit the coast and bounce back. These wave patterns created distortions that they would be able to feel through the motion of the canoe and determine the direction of land up to 50 miles away. Te Lapa, or underwater lightning, consisted of streaks and flashes of light deep beneath the surface that dart out from the direction of land and are most visible on dark rainy nights. Currents were detected based on the shape and steepness of waves. Back-bearings on land were used when departing to assess the strength and direction of a current. In terms of geological tools, they typically aimed for a block or screen of islands instead of a single point. This helped to account for any errors, as it increased their chances of hitting some island instead of trying to reach a single point. Land based birds helped them to tell where an island was as well, as they would typically fly out to fish and return to land at dusk, indicating the direction of an island. Cumulus clouds often pile up or appear stationary over an island, indicating its location. Furthermore, the bright reflection of a shallow lagoon can tint the bottom of the clouds green, giving more indication to the island’s location. During long voyages, the presence of deep reefs can be recognized by changes in water colour and steep short waves help to confirm position.
Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections
These sources demonstrate that navigation and spatial cognition are influenced by the physical environment. Across Greenland, the Arctic tundra, and the Pacific Ocean, landforms such as fjords, sea ice, currents, and islands act as practical navigation systems that shape how people interpret and move through space. In Greenland, the Kalaallisut speakers have adapted their language and direction to identify the Ice Sheet, mountainous terrain, coastline and deep fjords. Next, in the Arctic tundra and coastal environment, Inuit navigation is influenced by permafrost, sea ice conditions, pressure ridges, and snowdrifts. Lastly, in the Pacific Ocean, Polynesian navigators use ocean basins, currents, wave refraction, islands, reefs, and atmospheric and marine indicators. This supports the idea of embodied cognition, that landscape helps structure how people mentally map and remember space. It is a reminder that throughout history, humanity has used cues and geological observations to allow them to adapt to their environment, and recognize where they are in space.
Overall, a main strength of this research is that it brings together different regions and cultures, showing the consistent pattern that navigation is tied to landscapes and environmental processes rather than fixed mapping systems. However, a limitation is that this project involves more secondary sources rather than primary resources, and focuses on Indigenous navigation systems, meaning there may be other under-studied or undocumented systems that are not included here. Further research could compare if specific geological features are associated with similar navigation strategies across cultures and continents, to see if the way humans interact with their environments are more universal than we think.
References
- ↑ Dunn, D.A. (2024). "Ocean Basins". EBSCO.
- ↑ Sitwell, O. F. G (May 31, 2006). "Island". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
- ↑ "Coral reef ecosystems". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. February 11, 2026.
- ↑ Rutledge, K; McDaniel, M; Teng, S; Hall, H; Ramroop, T; Sprout, E; Hunt, J; Boudreau, D; Costa, H (May 27, 2025). "Current". National Geographic.
- ↑ Lovejoy, D.W. (2024). "Ocean Waves". EBSCO.
- ↑ Lewis, D (1975). We, the navigators: The ancient art of landfinding in the pacific. Australian National University Press.
Kolb, J., Bagas, L., & Fiorentini, M. L. (2015). Metallogeny of the North Atlantic Craton in Greenland. Mineralogical Magazine, 79(4), 815–855. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.2015.079.4.01
McMahan, H., Grenoble, L. A., & Kleist Petrussen, A. (2022). A socially anchored approach to spatial language in Kalaallisut. Linguistics Vanguard, 8(S1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1515/lingvan-2020-0013
Nesje, A., Dahl, S. O., Valen, V., & Øvstedal, J. (n.d.). What is a fjord – How the Sognefjord was formed. Fjords.com. https://www.fjords.com/en/western-norwegian-fjords/fjord-guide/what-is-a-fjord/
Raikar, S. P. (2026, January 13). Greenland Ice Sheet. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Greenland-Ice-Sheet
Denchak, M. (2018, June 29). Permafrost: Everything You Need to Know. NRDC. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/permafrost-everything-you-need-know
Gautier, A. (2023, January 23). How does Arctic sea ice loss affect coastlines? National Snow and Ice Data Center. https://nsidc.org/learn/ask-scientist/how-does-arctic-sea-ice-loss-affect-coastlines
Panikkar, B., Lemmond, B., Else, B., & Murray, M. (2018). Ice over troubled waters: navigating the Northwest Passage using Inuit knowledge and scientific information. Climate Research, 75(1), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01501
Shur, Y. L., & Jorgenson, M. T. (2007). Patterns of permafrost formation and degradation in relation to climate and ecosystems. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 18(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.582
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