Course:EOSC311/2025/The Taste of Terrain: Geology’s Role in Meat and Dairy Quality
Summary
Across the world, regional landscapes have long been recognized for shaping the food that they produce; subtle differences in land, soil, and water can result in noticeable variations in taste and quality when consumed. Terroir refers to the combination of physical and environmental factors, such as soil composition, sedimentary deposits, and water availability, that influence the quality and character of food products. While commonly associated with wine, terroir also plays a crucial role in shaping the flavour and nutritional profile of animal-based products like milk, cheese, and meat. These influences highlight the interconnection between geological processes and biological systems within animals. The minerals present in rocks, such as calcium, potassium, and iron, are gradually released through weathering processes and become available to plants in the soil. As animals consume these plants, the underlying geology of a region affects the composition and taste of the products that they yield. Different rock types, such as limestone, volcanic basalt, and glacial till, lead to variations in soil texture, drainage, mineral availability, and microbial activity, all of which shape the forages that animals rely on. This link between geology and flavour has been observed for centuries; records from ancient Egypt and Greece noted that certain lands consistently produced better food and wine, a concept that can be explained through the lens of terroir.
Statement of Connection
As an Applied Animal Biology major, I chose to explore the connection between geology and the quality of animal-based food products because it offers a unique connection between earth science and biological systems that directly affect animal health and nutrition. I was especially interested in how geological processes that are specific to certain regions, such as glaciation and volcanic activity, affect the mineral content and microbiomes in the plants and animals that consume them. I have a metabolic deficiency that requires me to be extra mindful of what I put into my body, which has made me especially curious about the real origins of food and how environmental and biological factors influence its nutritional value. I wanted to learn more about how significantly geological variations can impact animal metabolism and determine the flavour, texture, and nutritional makeup of animal products. This topic allowed me to apply core concepts from my major, such as digestion, nutrient absorption, and microbial symbiosis, by considering how different soil and mineral inputs influence the rumen microbiome and metabolic pathways in livestock. It highlights how the physical environment and an animal’s internal biology work together to shape the food products we consume, and piqued my own personal interest in relating animal biology to Earth and ocean science.
The Role of Soil and Water in Animal Product Quality
i) Forage quality
Forage quality plays a critical role in shaping the flavour and nutritional value of animal-based foods. Pasture-fed animals that graze on a diverse mix of grasses, herbs, and other plants, as opposed to grain-based diets, are often found to produce milk, cheese, and meat with more distinct flavours that have additional health benefits. This difference is largely due to the presence of beneficial compounds in fresh forage, such as polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamin E, omega-3 fatty acids, and selenium (Williams, n.d.). These nutrients not only enhance the taste but also contribute to the nutritional value and shelf life of the final products. Antioxidants found in forage-rich diets, particularly in regions where soils are naturally higher in certain minerals, help protect fats and cholesterol in milk and meat from oxidative breakdown. This extends the shelf life of dairy products and may even lower the risk of heart disease and certain cancers in people who consume them. Furthermore, the variety and presence of aromatic plants in pastures, many of which are shaped by regional geology, influence the concentration of flavour-rich compounds in milk. Wind, water, and glacial erosion are all natural processes that change the soil. This has a direct impact on the type and quality of cattle feed that grows in a region as these changes are capable of showing up in aged and fermented cheeses. In regions with glacial outwash soils, like parts of Prince Edward Island or Washington, the well-drained soils can make plants stressed without water (Noble Research Institute, n.d.). Because of this stress, plants make more concentrated chemicals, resulting in products having a greater richness in flavour.
ii) Water quality
Regional geology has an important influence on water quality, which can have a major impact on the health and metabolism of animals eating the forage. Groundwater and surface water, whether from aquifers, streams, or ponds, include minerals and trace elements that differ significantly based on the geological background of the region. For instance, water flowing through iron or sulphur-rich rock strata often contain elevated concentrations of those minerals, which even at seemingly low levels can influence the taste, texture, and nutritional content of milk and meat. When mineral content is too high in water, animals may no longer desire to drink due to foul taste or odour, leading to decreased growth rates, impaired milk production, and weaker immune function. This is often seen in parts of Western Canada and the U.S, such as in southern Alberta, where naturally high sulphate levels in groundwater have been linked to evaporite minerals and agricultural runoff. Due to the sulphate-bearing minerals in the region, it can induce mineral imbalances, diarrhea, and even neurological disorders like polioencephalomalacia in ruminants (ex., cows) (Olkowski, 2005). Also, high amounts of iron or manganese, which are frequent in areas where minerals are mined or naturally occur, can change the composition of milk. When that milk is used for food products, many times it leads to a foul taste and may stop the human body from absorbing important minerals like copper or zinc (Mann et al., 2013). Geological processes such as rock weathering, sediment transport, and aquifer dynamics determine which minerals dissolve into water systems. In areas with gypsum or shale aquifers, sulphate and heavy metal levels in water can rise, allowing these elements to enter an animal’s body. Water quality directly affects animal biology as it places an imbalance in metabolism, which is reflected in milk fat content, protein levels, flavour notes, and even product shelf life. Through the water that animals drink, it deeply influences their physiological functioning and the quality of the food they produce.
Case Studies
Volcanic Soils
Volcanic soils are formed through the weathering of volcanic rock and ash, a process that breaks down primary minerals into nutrient-rich particles available for plant uptake. This geological process results in soils that are often high in essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium, all of which are critical for plant and animal health. In volcanic regions like the Azores archipelago, these fertile soils support lush, year-round pastures, which directly influence the composition and quality of bovine milk fat. Research from Silva et al. (2018) notes that volcanic soils in the Azores improve the dietary value of milk fat by increasing beneficial components, potentially contributing to the region’s unique flavour profile and supporting European certifications like Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). These certifications are used across Europe to legally protect regional foods that are deeply tied to their place of origin. To qualify, the product must be made in a specific geographic area using traditional methods, and its characteristics must be influenced by local environmental conditions, including soil, climate, and geology. These soils boost the flavour and health value of azorean butter, highlighting its connection to local geology and landscape while boosting the reputation and market value of authentic regional foods. Similarly, in Washington State, volcanic activity has shaped the soil landscape through deposits of volcanic ash and mudflows, creating complex soil profiles. Most of the time, the top layer of these soils is soft and rich in nutrients, which is ideal for plants. Under that lies a much harder and rockier layer, which makes it more difficult for water to drain. While the presence of compacted volcanic ash or “hardpans” can cause poor drainage and perched water tables, this can actually help forage by causing mild water stress. The stress triggers the production of secondary plant metabolites, such as antioxidants, flavonoids, and polyphenol compounds that influence not only the flavour of forage but also the nutritional quality of animal products. For grazing animals, more diverse and mineral-rich forage translates to higher levels of vitamins, and flavour-enhancing compounds in their milk and meat (Sound Native Plants, n.d.). The chemical differences driven by volcanic geology are absorbed through digestion and ultimately manifest as richer, more complex flavours.
Limestone-Rich Soil
Limestone-rich soils develop when limestone rock breaks down. This rock is mostly made of calcium carbonate, and as the rock breaks down, it releases calcium directly into the soil. This raises the mineral content and buffers the pH, making the soil neutral or slightly alkaline. These traits have a large effect on how plants grow, which in turn affects the animals that graze. Forage produced in areas with considerable amounts of limestone tends to have a lot of calcium and minerals that are good for animal systems. Certain geological events, such as the Missoula Floods in Washington, spotlight how large-scale glacial flooding stripped away organic matter and deposited mineral-rich sediments. These events reshaped the soil composition across entire regions, affecting long-term nutrient availability and creating conditions that support mineral-dense forage (U.S. Department of the Interior, n.d.). This geological influence is especially significant when it comes to cheese. The calcium and phosphate absorbed by animals through their diet are eventually transferred to their milk, where it plays a vital role in curd formation and cheese texture. As Lucey & Fox (1993) explain, calcium aids milk proteins in sticking together more readily, which speeds up the process of rennet coagulation. It does this by making protein particles less likely to repel each other, letting them clump together and become curds sooner. This results in firmer curds, improved structure, and a cheese product unique to limestone-rich areas. The rate at which acid builds during whey separation determine how much calcium and other minerals stay in the cheese. These elements, notably calcium phosphate, are just a key part of how hard or soft the cheese comes out. As consumers, this may make all the difference when selecting a product to use in a dish or just have as an everyday snack.
Iron-Rich Soil
Iron-rich soils are distinguished by their deep red coloration, which comes from the accumulation of iron oxides such as hematite through long-term weathering processes. These types of soil usually form in warm, wet places where heavy rainfall and heat break down rocks and wash away many of the easily dissolved minerals. What’s left behind is a soil rich in iron. As a result, red soils are typically found in regions like Prince Edward Island (PEI), Hawaii, Australia, Brazil, and parts of sub-Saharan Africa. The presence of iron in the soil influences plant growth and composition. Plants that thrive in these soils may contain elevated iron levels and adapt by producing additional polyphenols, which enhance the flavour and antioxidant properties as polyphenols neutralize free radicals in animals which form during cellular processes like metabolism. These radicals are unstable molecules that can cause oxidative stress, leading to cell damage and increasing the risk of chronic diseases, but are lessened when antioxidant properties are consumed frequently in the diet. The trace iron can influence their physiology and the quality of the products animals produce. For example, increased iron intake may lead to slightly higher heme iron content in the animals’ muscle tissue, which contributes to a deeper red colour in meat and can give rise to a more “earthy” or mineral-heavy flavour. This impact on sensory traits is supported by research from Yancey et al. (2006), who found that higher iron concentrations in beef resulted in a stronger liver-like flavour in the M. gluteus medius muscle and a corresponding reduction in traditional beef flavour. This suggests that this soil can influence not only the nutritional composition of meat but also its taste profile in ways that are perceptible to consumers.
The Influence of Regional Microbiomes
Geological processes like weathering, glaciation, erosion, and volcanism not only shape soil mineral composition and physical structure, but they also dictate the types of microbial communities that thrive in soils and plants. Volcanic soils with high calcium and magnesium levels, as well as glacial outwash soils with a variety of particles, generate distinct soil conditions which encourage an good environment for types of beneficial bacteria and fungi. These microorganisms serve an important role in soil and plant health, whether by giving nutrients, improving soil structure, or protecting plants from diseases. This link between soil type and microorganisms is significant in agriculture because understanding the way various soils support different types of bacteria and fungi can help farmers grow healthier crops (Innovation News Network, 2022). Soil bacteria first settle on the roots and surfaces of forage plants, leaving a microbial "signature" that is closely related to the type of soil in which the plants thrive. When animals eat this forage, they consume more than just minerals and plant components. They consume microbes as well as their metabolites. These bacteria have an impact on the animals' rumen microbiome (in their stomachs) and influence how well the animal ferments its food, absorbs nutrients, and processes metabolic chemicals. Some of these plant components serve as precursors for volatile molecules that have a direct impact on flavour. For example, bacteria can transform certain plant chemicals, such as fatty acids and amino acids, into volatile organic compounds. These VOCs are what give meat and milk their particular flavours and aromas. Furthermore, certain lactic acid bacteria make lactic acid, which can affect the sourness of milk or cheese, whilst other microbes make short-chain fatty acids, giving different dairy products such as milk or yogurt a distinct flavour. This is why New Zealand dairy products, notably cheeses like manchego and cheddar, are famed for their unique, rich, and tangy flavours that come from the volcanic soils and microbes in the area. In contrast, the US Midwest's soils are mostly made up of glacial outwash, which is a mix of sand, silt, and clay. These soils don't have as many minerals in them; thus, the microbial breakdown makes milk taste more neutral, with less sourness or complexity. People have a lot of diverse wants and needs when it comes to diet, so knowing this might help them choose which grocery store to shop at and which products to buy. Diet and grazing diversity play crucial roles here. Pasture-fed animals consuming geologically distinct forage have a more diverse rumen and udder microbiome. This high-quality forage, combined with mineral-rich soils, helps encourage the growth of beneficial bacteria in their digestive system. Studies have found that this kind of diet increases the populations of specific bacterial groups like Lachnospiraceae and Prevotella, which are important for breaking down food and producing volatile fatty acids. These fatty acids help the animal grow and influence the taste and aroma of the product. These microbial metabolites are used as a traceability marker for geographically labelled dairy products, such as PDO or PGI cheeses (Alvanou et al., 2024). These designations are given to items that have distinct qualities because of the area they come from, such as the soil and microbial populations that affect the taste, texture, and smell. For instance, Parmigiano Reggiano and Roquefort (both PDO certified) are cheeses whose particular flavours are affected by the bacteria in the area. The cows that make the milk for Parmigiano Reggiano reside in certain parts of Italy. The cheese has a nutty, savoury flavour and a crisp texture because the amino acids in it crystallize. Roquefort, on the other hand, tastes strong, sour, and peppery, and its texture is creamy and crumbly because it is made from sheep's milk and has a different fermentation process than in a cows biological system.
Conclusion
Looking into how geology affects the taste and nutritional value of animal-based foods has helped me understand how the land affects what we eat in ways that go beyond what we can see. As a student of Animal Biology, I initially examined this subject from a metabolic and physiological standpoint; however, this project has elucidated how geological processes such as weathering, erosion, and volcanic activity establish the groundwork for biological outcomes in both animals and the food they produce. This is very much in line with the Faculty of Land and Food Systems' (LFS) aspirations for working across disciplines. I've learned a lot about food systems as a whole in classes like LFS 250, and I really value that even though my degree isn't in food science. These shared underpinnings let us think about food, animals, and land all together. This link is also important to me on a personal level. While dealing with inexplicable health problems, including thyroid issues and chronic bruising, I had to follow a number of medical diets, including low FODMAP. This made me very aware of how important nutrition, food quality, and even flavour are for both enjoyment and health. I never thought that geology could help me understand the taste and nutrition of animal products before I took this course. It links the health of the land to the health of people and reminds me why it's crucial to have a well-rounded education. Whether we're looking at bacteria in soil or how animals digest food, knowing the whole story makes me a better scientist and more informed.
References
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Innovation News Network. (2022, February 1). Influencing the rumen microbiome. https://www.innovationnewsnetwork.com/influencing-the-rumen-microbiome/17663/
Kilcawley, K. N., Faulkner, H., Clarke, H. J., O'Sullivan, M. G., & Kerry, J. P. (2018). Factors Influencing the Flavour of Bovine Milk and Cheese from Grass Based versus Non-Grass Based Milk Production Systems. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 7(3), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7030037
Lucey, J.A., & Fox, P.F. (1993). Importance of Calcium and Phosphate in Cheese Manufacture: A Review. Journal of Dairy Science, 76(6), 1714-1724. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77504-9
Maltman, A. (2018, December 20). On rocky ground: The science of soil and wine taste. Decanter. https://www.decanter.com/magazine/wine-terroir-soiltaste-405096
Mann, G., Phetxumphou, K., Gibson, E., Martel, C., Duncan, S., Dietrich A., James, R., and Knowlton, K. (2013, October 31). Can iron in water affect milk production?. Herd Health. https://www.agproud.com/articles/25134-can-iron-in-water-affect-milk-production#
Noble Research Institute. (n.d.). Soil and Water Relationships. https://www.noble.org/regenerative-agriculture/soil/soil-and-water-relationships/
Olkowski, A.A., (2005). Livestock Water Quality.University of Saskatchewan.https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/waterquality/livestock/Livestock_Water_QualityFINALweb.pdf
Silva, G.C.C., Silva, S.P.M., Prates, J.A.M., Bessa, R.J.B., Rosa, H.J.D., Rego, O.A. (2018). Physicochemical Traits and Sensory Quality of Commercial Butter Produced in the Azores. Int. Dairy J., 88, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2018.08.005
Sound Native Plants. (n.d.). Native soils of western Washington. SNP. https://soundnativeplants.com/wp-content/uploads/Soils_of_western_WA.pdf
U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). The Science of Good Taste – Geology, Wine, and Food [Webinar].
https://www.doi.gov/ppa/seminar_series/video/the-science-of-good-taste-geology-wine-and-food
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