Course:EOSC311/2024/Meaning Within Mountains: Mining and Indigenous Societies of the Andes Mountains

Summary

Formed over the past 65 million years by tectonic activity, the Andes mountains are rich in mineral deposits thanks to their geological history. This richness supports extensive mining, including both underground and open-pit methods. The region's Indigenous communities maintain deep connections to their land, viewing mountains as living earth beings or "apus". These perspectives influence their acceptance of mining, which is seen as more acceptable if it aligns with traditional practices. Open-pit mining, however, is viewed more critically for its destructive impact and disregard for Indigenous practices. Additionally, water contamination related to mining is a prominent issue with consequences felt by people living in the surrounding community of a mining operation. The following report seeks to describe the relationship between Indigenous people and the mountains they inhabit.

Statement of connection and why you chose it

I am an anthropology student with a special interest in medical anthropology. A subfield of cultural anthropology that examines how health, illness, and healthcare practices are influenced by sociocultural and environmental factors. What interests me is getting to explore how different cultures understand and respond to health and disease, as well as the impact of global health issues, medical technologies, and healthcare systems on communities. Geological sciences and anthropology intersect in the study of human/environmental interactions and cultural development. Geology often provides critical context for anthropological discoveries by offering insights into the physical environments that humans have inhabited. For instance, by understanding the age and composition of the layers of rock where human remains are found anthropologists can construct timelines of human evolution and migration.

In relation to this course

Central to the content of EOSC 311 is resource extraction specifically mining. Before this course, I had already tended to associate mining with environmental degradation and human health consequences. So when brainstorming for this project I figured I would look for an instance of mining in a specific community and investigate an ailment or sickness associated with its presence. In the process of doing my research, I found myself just as interested in the cross-cultural experiences of mining and the importance of geological features like mountains in shaping and being shaped by the cultural groups inhabiting them. So while I did not end up focusing on one health consequence of mining you will find that themes of wellness on multiple levels is still very important and related.

The colorful coast indicates where the Andes mountains are located on the continent of South America.

The Andes mountains

Earth’s longest mountain chain spanning along the Western coast of South America is called the Andes Mountains. It passes through seven countries including Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, for this project I will be focusing on the Andean highland region of Peru, which is referred to as the Sierra region. Geologically, the Andes were formed through tectonic activity, primarily the subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic plates beneath the South American Plate which took place roughly in the last 65 million years during the Cenozoic era. There is some contention about both the origin of the name “Andes” as well as the physical boundaries that define its 3 sub sections. It is broadly accepted though that there is a Northern, Southern, and Central section of the mountain range. For this project, we will be focusing on the Central Andes which includes the Peruvian Cordillera.

Mineral resources!

The Andes Mountains are rich in mineral deposits due to their complex geological history and ongoing tectonic activity. Several key factors contribute to the presence of these mineral resources:

• Tectonic Plate Subduction: The Andes were formed by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. This process generates significant geological activity, including the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and deep crustal melting. The melting of the crust leads to the creation of magma, which can carry and concentrate minerals.
• Volcanic Activity: The intense volcanic activity in the Andes results in the formation of mineral-rich igneous rocks. As magma cools and solidifies, it can form deposits of metals like copper, gold, silver, and tin. Volcanic hydrothermal systems also play a crucial role in the concentration of minerals.

• Hydrothermal Processes: Hot, mineral-rich fluids from deep within the Earth move through cracks and fractures in the rocks. As these fluids cool, they deposit minerals in vein structures through the rock. This process is responsible for the formation of many of the Andes significant ore deposits.
• Metamorphism: The intense pressure and heat from tectonic activity can cause existing rocks to metamorphise, altering their mineral composition and forming valuable minerals like gold and silver.
• Geological Diversity: The Andes encompass a variety of geological environments, from volcanic arcs to sedimentary basins. This diversity provides multiple settings for the formation and concentration of different types of mineral deposits.

Together, these geological processes have equipped the Andes with rich deposits of minerals, making the region one of the world's most important sources of metals like copper, gold, silver, and tin. It is no surprise that the Andes mountains attract mining as it is quite literally a gold mine.

Peruvian highland communities

There are many communities located in the Peruvian Andes, and archaeological data suggests that the Inca people had established themselves in Cuzco (the country’s capital) and engaged in the conquest of the surrounding areas in the early 15th century. Today, descendants of the Inca are the rural Quechua-speaking people of the Andes who make up roughly 45 percent of Peru's population. Their rural settlements can be categorized into three types: families living among their fields, village communities with fields outside the residential areas, and a mix of these two arrangements with towns mainly consisting of mestizo (mixed-race) populations. These communities are tightly-knit, with frequent intermarriage among families, and much of the agricultural labor is performed cooperatively. Local religions blend Roman Catholicism with elements from the pagan hierarchy of spirits and deities. This project draws on fieldwork collected from Indigenous Quechua-speaking people of the Andes with mentions of the specific highland community Qamawara.

The importance of mountains

Macchu Picchu is a great example of terraces in Peru

Many geological features supply exceptional views while also being environmentally beneficial, and mountains are no exception. The Andes mountains can foster many unique ecosystems due to the great variation in soil, altitude, and freshwater. To create sufficient space for agriculture many farmers create terraced fields which allow them to cultivate crops on otherwise challenging or mountainous terrain.

• Terraced fields are a type of agricultural landscape created specifically for sloped terrain, the fields consist of stepped, flat surfaces that resemble a staircase. This technique has been designed to prevent soil erosion and efficiently manage water resources. The stair-like formation increases the amount of usable agricultural land on otherwise difficult topographies.

Life in the mountains

Mountains for some indigenous communities inhabiting the Peruvian highlands are very complex entities that are understood, regarded, and experienced consciously by the local people. In Peru agriculture tends to be smaller-scale crops for personal consumption and even more popular is livestock like goats, llama, sheep, and alpacas which provide a milk industry and wool for export.

When talking about indigenous communities of the Peruvian highlands it’s important to lay a foundation for understanding how their worldview is crucial in shaping their appreciation and use of geological surroundings. Indigenous communities often have deep connections to their lands and possess extensive traditional ecological knowledge. This knowledge includes sustainable practices for managing natural resources, which can be vital for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and promoting sustainable development.

Qamawara

In the community Qamawara, mountains are regarded as “earth beings” or “apus” which hold a certain level of agency in the lives of local people, plants, and animals that inhabit it or rely on its resources. Since these earth beings are sustaining life and allowing humans to cultivate the land, “Qamawarans, as other Andean people of the region, refer collectively to the mountains as fathers (taytakuna) as well as mother for the inhabited land (pachamama)” (p.136). Because of this kin like relationship it is customary for locals to offer gifts to the earth beings. This may be in the form of food, alcohol, or medicinal plants and is meant to be a partial retribution for inhabiting the mountain and indulging in its resources. Aside from just expressing their gratitude, people also make sure to gift the earth beings in order to avoid potential punishment. The understanding is that provoking the earth beings is what brings about illness, poor harvest, and even death.

Mining in the region

Considering the local knowledge what does this mean for mining? You would think that if mountains had a say in it they would not express positive views of mining and can you blame them? Qamawarans believe that this is not always the case, and that earth being’s attitudes about mining are much more complex as they consider methods and circumstances when deeming the process harmful or not. For instance, the earth beings might be displeased because large members of the community have converted to Evangelical Christianity, and have ceased giving them food offerings. To retaliate, the earth beings might permit mining activities as a form of punishment towards the converts who are no longer engaging in Indigenous spirituality.

Underground mining

Underground mining refers to a of extracting minerals and ores from deep beneath the Earth's surface. Specifically, it involves digging tunnels to reach buried mineral deposits. This method is used when deposits are too deep to be accessed through surface mining. And although underground mining is intrusive and may limit the amount of life the mountain can sustain, it seems to be pretty unproblematic for earth beings as long as they are appropriately compensated. The process of underground mining in the area is very heavily influenced by Indigenous perspectives of earth beings and the relationship that humans are obligated to have with their environments.

Open pit mining

Visual representation of open pit mining

Unlike underground mining, open-pit mining involves removing entire mountains, effectively destroying them. This process extracts metals by processing the earth's remnants, leaving behind toxic rubble that “accumulates in tailing dams or new mountains that undergo heap leaching” Additionally,

“While in underground operations Andean practices were carried out within the mines and non-indigenous people were exposed to them, in new open-pit mines these practices are absent and non-indigenous mining personnel are isolated from the practices of the surrounding communities” (p.141).

As open pit mining persists it’s important to examine the effect this will have on people living in the region, especially those who rely on earth-beings who influence their lifeworld. Additionally, Andean perspectives clearly challenge the distinction between animate and inanimate, opposing capitalist extractive industries that view fantastic geological features like mountains solely as vessels that hold natural resources to be exploited for profit.

Water and mining conflicts

So apart from practices of providing offerings and consulting with earth beings how does the presence of mining affect communities of the Peruvian highlands? Living on an extractive frontier is notoriously an experience of vast changes and disruption and often times that includes water contamination.

In the context of Peru

“Some experts calculate that over 50% of Peru’s rural communities have been affected by mining activities” (p.190). This is the frightening reality of South America’s most water-stressed country where water flowing from the Andean highlands acts as a vital water source that sustains both the downstream population and agricultural activities. The main environmental effects of mining on water quality and environmental health stem predominantly from acid mine drainage (AMD). This refers to the outflow of acidic water from metal or coal mines. Acidic water is typically formed when sulfur-bearing minerals in rocks are exposed to air and water during mining activities. The acidic drainage can also contain various heavy metals and other contaminants, which pose significant environmental risks to nearby water bodies, soils, and ecosystems. Efforts to mitigate AMD often involve treating the acidic water or preventing its formation altogether through improved mining practices and environmental management strategies. For this reason "Many non-governmental and community groups and urban environmental committees express significant concerns about water and mining" (p.191). Despite being a site of controversy and protest, and despite a history of water contamination, government policy has continued to promote the rapid expansion of mining investments. Additional factors that exacerbate this issue include a general lack of clear, trustworthy, transparent, and impartial information regarding the risks involved. Furthermore, a history of inadequate corporate environmental practices and weak governmental regulation has led communities to distrust both the central government and mining companies. So unfortunately, AMD still poses quite a big risk to communities in rural Peru who may override environmental concerns with hopes of economic prosperity. Or simply the action of the government to choose economic opportunity at the expense of cultural values and environmental concerns.

Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections

As a student in medical anthropology, you can expect to study topics such as traditional healing practices, the cultural context of medical practices, health disparities, and the social determinants of health. While conducting my research for this project I discovered that these topics are not completely unrelated to my project’s focus. This is because the same cultural context that is key to understanding trends of sickness and determinants for health are key to understanding perceptions of our natural world. Cultural literacy and the interdisciplinary study of geology and anthropology may enrich our comprehension of human past, present, and future. I suspect it will continue to do this by providing a deeper, more multifaceted understanding of history through the interplay between humans and their environment.

References

This Earth Science resource was created by Course:EOSC311.