Course:EOSC311/2024/Geopolitical Landscapes: The Political Power of Geological Resources

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Statement of connection and why you chose it

The connection between Political Science, International Relations, and Geology may not be immediately obvious, but it's significant. Politics and international relations heavily influence how governments interact with other states, manage their affairs, and handle the distribution of resources. For instance, countries often engage in violent conflicts over oil and other finite resources. In module 3 of this course (EOSC 311), we covered fossil fuels, emphasizing the controversy surrounding them, particularly from a humanistic perspective.

As I've mentioned, my major is Political Science and my minor is International Relations, but my true focus and passion lie in human trafficking. It's a common misconception that slavery was eradicated with Abraham Lincoln’s push for emancipation during the Civil War. While slaves were freed then, modern-day slavery bears a stark resemblance to historical slavery. This assignment highlights human rights violations, specifically examining their connections to resource extraction, conflict minerals, and ethical sourcing.

Introduction: What is resource extraction and how does it impact human rights

What is Resource Extraction

Historically, industries that extract resources have played a role in the construction of society for centuries.[1] Industries that extract resources were the driving force behind the Industrial Revolution and remain the foundation of economies in developed countries today.[1] Resource extraction refers to removing natural resources from the earth, which are then used as raw materials for human consumption.[2] The types of resources commonly extracted are fossil fuels, oil and gas, rocks, and minerals. The demand for these resources is growing exponentially due to the increasing global population and the use of finite resources. In today's materialistic society, people expect a high standard of living, which accelerates resource depletion.[3] To address this issue, renewable energy sources must become more readily available.[3] While many countries, companies, and individuals have taken initiatives towards clean energy, some resource extraction industries have relocated their operations from developed to developing nations

Forced Labour

Comparably, throughout history, the exploitation of human beings has also significantly shaped society. For instance, Black individuals were forcibly captured and transported to America to work as slaves, crucially supporting the financial sector through cotton cultivation by enslaved workers.[4] Whether it's colonizers, criminals, or CEOs, people will continue to exploit vulnerable individuals for monetary gain. Forced labourers, especially in developing nations, have no other choice but to accept the work and any working conditions, despite the danger.[5] Due to the power imbalance, the notion of "choice" is a facade; in reality, they are left with only one option: work or face devastating consequences.[5]

The Connection

The connection between resource extraction and human rights violations is both profound and complex, but it ultimately boils down to one main objective: maximizing profits while minimizing costs. The adverse social, environmental, and economic impacts collectively foster social inequality, ensuring the oppressor retains permanent power.[6] For example, mining activities can cause environmental pollution, negatively impacting communities and violating their right to a clean and healthy environment.[6] Additionally, resource extraction often threatens the rights and cultures of Indigenous peoples and communities. These communities frequently face displacement and conflict over land rights due to the lack of consultation from mining industries.[6]

Resource conflict and wars

Linking Resources to Conflict

The struggle for valuable resources frequently sparks conflict, particularly in resource-rich areas like those abundant in diamonds and oil. These conflicts often result in severe human rights abuses, including forced labor and, in extreme cases, genocide. Additionally, the profits from resource extraction can finance rebel groups, further extending the duration of these conflicts. To fully grasp the complex relationship between resource extraction and conflict, it is essential to explore relevant theories and mechanisms. Two prominent theories that provide valuable insights into this issue are the Rebel Greed Hypothesis and the Weak State Mechanism. Each of these concepts offers a unique perspective on how resource abundance can lead to conflict and human rights violations.

Rebel Greed Hypothesis:

The Rebel Greed hypothesis is important because discusses the relationship between resource dependency and violence.[7] The hypothesis suggests that the availability of finite natural resources like oil and diamonds incentivizes rebel groups to initiate and sustain conflicts for economic gains.[7] Rebel groups want to capture and control resources to fund their operation, sustain their fighting force, and gain political leverage.[8]

Weak State Mechanism:

The Rebel Greed hypothesis and the Weak State Mechanism are closely linked because they both demonstrate how economic incentives and governmental deficiencies interact to create environments where conflicts over natural resources thrive. Dependence on resources can undermine state institutions, leaving them vulnerable to instability.[7] In resource-dependent states, there is often a neglect of other economic sectors and governance, which can lead to corruption and increase instability.[7] The onset of conflict is often shaped by the lasting impacts of past resource production, showing that historical reliance on resources can undermine a state's ability to maintain stability and governance capacity.

Case Study - Sierra Leone

In the case of Sierra Leone, the conflict is based around the control of diamond mines. Because of this valuable resource, conflict mines, and human rights are intricately intertwined in Sierra Leone.[9] During the conflict, the term "blood diamond" was coined which means: "any diamond that is mined in areas controlled by forces opposed to the legitimate, internationally recognized government of a country and that is sold to fund military action against that government."[10] The conflict in Sierra Leone began in 1991 when the country was grappling with a corrupt government and an unregulated diamond trade, which made the state fragile enough for armed rebellion.[11] On March 23, the civil war in Sierra Leone commenced with an invasion by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), comprising 100 fighters from Sierra Leone and Liberia.[11] The beginning of this war made Sierra Leone a perfect example of how a non-state entity, warlords in this case, could emerge and take control so quickly.[9] The diamonds, now considered "blood diamonds," were used to fund the rebel groups purchase of arms.[9]

The presence of conflict mines has had severe consequences for the citizens of Sierra Leone. Many have been displaced not only because of the actions of the RUF but also due to an influx of criminal gangs and various armed groups.[9] During the conflict, 75,000 lives were claimed, 500,000 people became refugees, and 4.5 million people were displaced.[11] Amidst this turmoil, crimes against women and girls escalated dramatically, with countless instances of violence and exploitation becoming a grim reality. The rape of women and girls was used as a war tactic to terrorize the population into submission.[11] In addition to sexual violence, many women were abducted, starved, tortured, and subjected to severe abuse, exacerbating their suffering during the conflict.[11]

Conflict minerals and human trafficking

Modern-day slavery in this context, as discussed, is forced labour practices and exploitation at any point along the supply chain.[12] Conflict minerals, commonly known as the 3TG minerals (tin, tungsten, tantalum, and gold), are frequently linked to forced labor practices.[12] These minerals, extracted under harsh conditions, are often mined in regions plagued by violence and exploitation, where people are subjected to inhumane working conditions and coercion.[12]

While this is not an example of the 3TG minerals, a lesser-known mineral called mica (commonly used in makeup) is very rarely ethically sourced. Children are forced to descend into dangerous, dark mines and sift through dirt and rocks to find mica.[13] They endure treacherous conditions, navigating perilous shafts in their search for the mineral. The children in the remote part of India, as young as 4 years old, who make less than a quarter a day, are forced into the mines in order to help put food on the table.[13] Once the mica is mined by the children, traders sell it to intermediaries who market it as if it originated from legally sanctioned and reputable mines, unrelated to the source where children extracted the mica.[13] These families are caught in a cycle of poverty. Despite witnessing the deaths of their loved ones, they continue to work in the mines because they have no other choice—it's either work or starve.[13]

Geopolitical strategies for reducing conflict minerals

Closed-loop Recycling:

Closed-loop recycling entails reprocessing items such as plastics to manufacture new products within the same category.[14] This approach is championed because it decreases dependence on critical minerals, which in turn mitigates geopolitical uncertainties.[14] Essentially, by enabling organizations and companies to recycle materials internally, they retain control over the processing methods and ensure greater security and sustainability in their supply chains.[14]

Long-term Supply Contracts

Implementing long-term contracts is another strategy to enhance stability and mitigate the risks associated with conflict minerals.[14] By establishing agreements with a select few trusted sources, organizations not only ensure a steady and reliable supply but also promote ethical sourcing practices.[14] These contracts foster relationships based on transparency and accountability, thereby supporting sustainable business practices and minimizing geopolitical uncertainties in the mineral supply chain.

Compliance with Regulations

Having detailed regulations in place regarding the recycling and production processes, especially concerning the recovery of critical materials, is essential.[14] Adherence to these regulations is key to maintaining an ethical supply chain maintained by transparency and sustainability. By strictly following these guidelines, organizations ensure that materials are handled responsibly, contributing to the preservation of resources over the long term.[14] This commitment fosters trust among consumers and shows dedication to environmentalism and ethical business practices, thereby supporting a sustainable practice.

Avoiding Gray Markets

As discussed previously regarding mica, once the mineral departs from its source, traders can make claims about its origins without accountability. Choosing to avoid gray markets and instead sourcing from reputable, legally regulated sources is another effective strategy to mitigate the use of conflict minerals.[14] While the onus should not just be on the consumer, it is important for consumers to make an educated choice and avoid gray markets as well.[15] As noted, money drives these practices, and if consumers continue to support corporations engaged in unethical business practices,[15] human rights violations will continue to happen.

Corporations have a responsibility to source minerals ethically

Dodd-Frank Act Section 1502

The Dodd-Frank Act was created in 2010 with the purpose of addressing conflict minerals and its connection to the myriad of human rights abuses. The purpose of the act is to reduce funding for armed groups and associated human rights abuses by increasing supply chain transparency.[12] For example, publicly traded companies in the U.S. must disclose their use of conflict minerals from the DRC or other countries.[12] Companies must conduct a reasonable country of origin inquiry and due diligence on their conflict minerals' source and chain of custody.[12] However, if conflict minerals are sourced from the DRC or neighboring areas, companies must file a Conflict Minerals Report with the SEC.[16] These companies also have a responsibility to be transparent and readily disclose information about the source materials from problematic sources on their websites for consumers.[16]

The purpose:

The aim is once again to achieve enhanced supply chain transparency by connecting consumer products to conflict minerals. Despite the well-intentioned efforts of the Dodd-Frank Act, which appears reasonable and a step in the right direction, critics argue that while it promotes transparency, it falls short in addressing the fundamental issues of conflict and human trafficking.[12] Also, critics claim that the legislation places financial pressures and creates administrative burdens on businesses, while also creating challenges for local communities and economies.[12] Therefore, while it aims to increase accountability, the Act's effectiveness in resolving the root causes of these complex issues remains under scrutiny.

Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections

The connections between resource extraction, conflict minerals, and human rights violations show the serious challenges societies face today. This project explored how our need for resources often harms human dignity and the environment. Resource extraction is important for society and economic growth, but it also displaces vulnerable communities and causes long-term suffering. Conflict minerals worsen these problems by funding armed groups through the exploitation of vulnerable people. "Blood diamonds" are a clear example of how minerals from conflict zones lead to widespread suffering, especially for women and children.

Companies in global supply chains play a big role in fixing these issues. They need to avoid unregulated markets and follow rules closely to reduce human rights abuses linked to resource extraction and mineral trade.

In conclusion, tackling the intricate connections between resource extraction, conflict minerals, and human rights violations demands coordinated efforts both domestically and globally. Effective solutions must promote sustainable development, uphold human rights, and ensure transparent management of natural resources. It is through united action and ethical management that we can move towards a future where economic prosperity coexists with social justice and environmental conservation.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Reed, D. (2002). Resource extraction industries in developing countries. Journal of Business Ethics, 39(3), 199-226. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016538006160
  2. ↑ Seck, S. L., & Simons, P. (2019). Resource extraction and the human rights of women and girls. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, 31(1), i–vii. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjwl.31.1.01a
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 University of California Regents. (n.d.). Understanding Global Change - Resource Extraction.https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/resource-extraction/#:~:text=The%20extraction%20of%20resources%20refers,fishing%20and%20hunting%2C%20and%20water.
  4. ↑ National Geographic. (January 03, 2003). How Slavery Helped Build a World Economy. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/how-slavery-helped-build-a-world-economy?loggedin=true&rnd=1718864591273
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 openDemocracy. (November 17, 2020). Exploitation is the rule, not the exception. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/beyond-trafficking-and-slavery/exploitation-rule-not-exception/
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Bebbington, A., Bebbington, D. H., Burneo, M. L., Hinojosa, L., & Warnaars, X. (2008). Protests around Mining: Epiphenomena or Development Phenomena? Development and Change, 39(6), 1-21.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Humphreys, M. (2005). Natural resources, conflict, and conflict resolution: Uncovering the mechanisms. Journal of conflict resolution, 49(4), 508-537.
  8. ↑ Lujala, P. (2010). The spoils of nature: Armed civil conflict and rebel access to natural resources. Journal of Peace Research, 47(4), 483-497. DOI: 10.1177/0022343309350015
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Silberfein, M. (2004). The Geopolitics of conflict and diamonds in Sierra Leone. Geopolitics, 9(1), 213–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650040412331307892
  10. ↑ Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2024, June 09). blood diamond. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/blood-diamond
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Johnson, E. (December 06, 2002). Blood Diamonds: The Conflict in Sierra Leone. Stanford Edu. https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297a/Conflict%20in%20Sierra%20Leone.htm#:~:text=By%201991%2C%20Sierra%20Leone%20had,Liberia%2C%20invaded%20east%20Sierra%20Leone.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Schleper, M. C., Blome, C., Stevenson, M., Thürer, M., & Tusell, I. (2022). When it’s the slaves that pay: In search of a fair due diligence cost distribution in conflict mineral supply chains. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 164, 1-37.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Refinery29. (2019, May 04). The Dark Secret Behind Your Favorite Makeup Products | Shady | Refinery29 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeR-h9C2fgc
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Nygaard, A. (2022) The Geopolitical Risk and Strategic Uncertainty of Green Growth after the Ukraine Invasion: How the Circular Economy Can Decrease the Market Power of and Resource Dependency on Critical Minerals. Circular Economy Sustainability 3, 1099–1126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-022-00181-x
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Cespedes, F. V., Corey, R. E., Rangan, K. V., (July 1988) Gray Markets: Causes and Cures. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/1988/07/gray-markets-causes-and-cures
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. (2017, March 04). Disclosing the Use of Conflict Minerals. https://www.sec.gov/opa/Article/2012-2012-163htm---related-materials.html


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