Course:EOSC311/2023/Role of Geological Factors in Defining National Borders

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Statement of Connection

As a student of political science with a keen interest in understanding the complexities of global affairs, this course in geology has provided me with a unique lens through which to explore the relationship between politics and geological factors. The India-Pakistan-China border dispute, influenced by diverse geological features, holds significant relevance for me. By exploring how geological factors shape territorial claims and politics, and drawing upon the concepts learned in Modules 2, specifically plate tectonics, I aim to deepen my understanding of the interconnectedness between political science and the natural world.  This topic allows me to synthesise my knowledge and contribute to the broader understanding of the relationship between politics and geology.

Introduction

Current Border Dispute: Complex Territorial Contention Among India, Pakistan, and China

The borders between nation-states are shaped by a myriad of factors, encompassing political, historical, and often overlooked geological elements. This captivating case study delves into the intricate interplay of geological forces and their profound impact on territorial claims, specifically examining the India-Pakistan-China border dispute.

Spanning this region are diverse geological features, with the majestic Himalayan mountain range standing sentinel along the contested borders. Over millions of years, tectonic activities have created an array of mountain passes, valleys, and slopes, effectively serving as natural barriers that significantly influence military strategies. Throughout history, the Himalayas have stood as a formidable shield safeguarding the Indian subcontinent, impeding the movement of large armies and favouring the defenders. This awe-inspiring natural barrier has fostered a relatively undisturbed flourishing of the subcontinent.

Moreover, the Himalayas contain a vast network of freshwater rivers, serving as a lifeline for over 1.3 billion people. The control and management of this invaluable resource render the region a critical focal point for nation-states.

Through an exploration of the relationship between political ambitions, historical contexts, and the awe-inspiring geological wonders, this study delves into the multifaceted dynamics that shape territorial claims in the India-Pakistan-China border dispute. By comprehending the enduring impact of geological factors, we gain insights into the complex interplay between nature and geopolitics.

Tectonic Movement and the Formation of the Himalayas

The Collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate

The Indian continent holds a captivating geological history, once being part of the ancient supercontinent Gondwanaland, which emerged nearly 600 million years ago. Around 180 million years ago, Gondwanaland underwent a split triggered by sea-floor spreading and the emergence of deep-seated mantle plumes, resulting in the formation of Western Gondwana (encompassing Africa and South America) and Eastern Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, India, Seychelles, Australia, and Antarctica). Approximately 120 million years ago, the division of Western Gondwana led to the separation of South America from Africa, while another fragment containing India, Madagascar, and Seychelles detached from Antarctica and Australia. During its northward journey around 65 million years ago, the Deccan flood basalts erupted, coinciding with the repositioning of the western Indian Ocean spreading ridge, leading to the separation of Seychelles from the Indian plate. Subsequently, the drifting Indian plate embarked on a collision course with Eurasia, commencing at the northeastern corner of Greater India and progressing westwards until around 40 million years ago.

At this convergent plate boundary, where the Indian and Eurasian plates meet head-on, a continental-continental collision ensued. Due to the relatively light nature of continental rocks, neither plate was subducted. Instead, the crust buckled, resulting in upward or sideways movement. The collision between India and Eurasia gave rise to extensive deformation along the northern margin of the Indian plate, with a significant portion of the Indian plate subducting beneath the Asian plate. This monumental collision also laid the groundwork for the birth of the Himalayas, the world's youngest and highest mountain range.

Over millions of years, the ongoing convergence between these two colossal plates gradually pushed up the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to their current heights. Most of this monumental growth occurred in the past 10 million years. Today, the Himalayas, soaring as high as 8,854 meters above sea level, stand as the glory of continental mountains, captivating the world with their stunning grandeur.

The Himalayas as a Historical Barrier and Protector of the Indian Subcontinent

The Himalayas have long served as a protective shield, saving India from catastrophic upheavals brought on by large-scale conquest or mass migrations. Contrary to popular notions, invasions of India from external forces have been limited to small military expeditions, uprooting local dynasties without launching organized conquests. This is due to the fact that the narrow flank provided the sole route of invasion, making large-scale conquest impractical. The Himalayan barrier's daunting peaks and challenging terrain have deterred would-be conquerors, ensuring the preservation of different religions, social structures, and uninterrupted cultural heritage.

What Makes the Himalayas a Barrier

Geological Features

Kali Gandaki Gorge, Nepal

The Himalayas stand as the tallest mountain range on our planet, with a collection of over 50 peaks towering above 24,000 feet (7,315 meters). Notably, among the 14 highest summits worldwide, 10 belong to the Himalayas. Stretching across an impressive length of about 2,900 kilometres, this awe-inspiring range reveals varying widths ranging from 240 to 330 kilometres. It is essential to note that the Himalayas aren't confined to a single range but rather encompass three parallel ranges that majestically rise from the plains of India and Pakistan. Within these ranges, the Himalayas have a diverse landscape enriched with eroded river gorges and some of the deepest valleys our world has ever witnessed. One such remarkable example is the Kali Gandaki Gorge situated in Nepal.

Composed primarily of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock formations, the Himalayas are particularly susceptible to frequent landslides and rapid erosion, shaping their striking topography characterized by steep slopes, jagged peaks, and V-shaped ravines, instead of flat valleys or lakes. The interaction between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate brings about a heightened state of seismic activity in the region, making it prone to occasional and, at times, devastating earthquakes. Historical records indicate that between the years 1870 and 1996, approximately 50 significant earthquakes rattled the Himalayan region, underscoring its seismic nature and the challenges it presents.

Climate

As one climbs higher in the Himalayas, something fascinating occurs—the temperature gradually drops by around 3°C (about 4.5°F) for every 500 meters gained. On the summits of these magnificent mountains, there are powerful winds that can reach speeds of up to 135 kilometers per hour (90 miles per hour). At the same time, the temperature plunges to bone-chilling levels, often falling well below zero degrees.

In fact, the coldest temperature ever recorded on Mount Everest occurred in December 2004, when it reached an astonishing -42°C (-44°F). This serves as a remarkable example of the extreme cold that can be experienced in this region. These harsh weather conditions demand great caution and preparation from climbers and adventurers. The combination of freezing temperatures and strong winds creates a challenging environment that requires careful planning and respect for nature's power.

The Ongoing India-China-Pakistan Border Dispute

The ongoing border dispute entangling India, China, and Pakistan persists as a multifaceted and delicate matter. Competing assertions regarding specific regions have fuelled tensions and sporadic clashes. Navigating this intricate issue demands diplomatic endeavours, open channels of communication, and a steadfast dedication to fostering mutual comprehension. It is imperative that all involved parties strive towards peaceful resolutions, fostering stability and bolstering regional security. In order to achieve this, stakeholders must actively partake in constructive dialogues, addressing concerns in a fair and equitable manner while seeking viable solutions that satisfy all parties involved.

Understanding the History of the disputes

Disputed territories in the Kashmir region of the Himalayas

There is no denying that one of Asia’s longest-standing conflicts revolves around territorial disputes among its major nations: India and Pakistan regarding the region collectively referred to as "Kashmir." How did this occur? After Britain granted independence for colonial subcontinent territories in 1947- two sovereign states emerged - namely Pakistan (then West & East) and India. Thus arose differing claims regarding who officially owned Jammu & Kashmir. These rifts engendered sporadic skirmishes & finally led to formalized 3 wars between India and Pakistan. Significantly, events unrolled after tribal fighters from Pakistan entered Jammu & Kashmir forcing its leader to cede power to India - an act condemnable as invasion of national sovereignty by Pakistani trespassers. Consequently, an Indo-Pakistani War took place with United Nations mediated ceasefire; leading to partitions with the Line of Control serving as the current de facto border. Following additional hostilities during the war of 1971, the Simla Agreement came into play, officially establishing the Line of Control that demarcated the territories under Indian and Pakistani control. This pivotal agreement, forged through diplomatic channels, aimed to bring stability and delineate the boundaries in the aftermath of the conflict. The ongoing Sino-Indian border dispute revolves around a complex territorial disagreement concerning the sovereignty of multiple regions. This includes two relatively sizable areas, along with several smaller ones, situated between China and India. The first disputed territory, known as Aksai Chin, falls under Chinese administration. The other contentious region lies south of the McMahon Line, encompassing the former North-East Frontier Agency, presently referred to as Arunachal Pradesh, which is administered by India. The 1962 Sino-Indian War unfolded across both disputed areas, with Chinese troops launching attacks on Indian border posts in Ladakh, located in the western region, and crossing the McMahon Line in the eastern part. Additionally, a brief border clash occurred in 1967 in the Sikkim region.

Geopolitical Motivations: Why is Kashmir Important

It is important to analyse the reasons that propel each country's pursuit of control over the disputed region. The Kashmir border dispute unveils a tapestry of complex dynamics, with India, China and Pakistan fiercely vying for authority over specific territories.

Karakoram Highway - passing through Pakistan occupied Kashmir territory

Kashmir holds profound significance for both India and Pakistan, playing pivotal roles in their respective national interests. For Pakistan, the waters flowing from Kashmir, particularly the Indus and its tributaries, are vital for irrigating the fertile fields of Punjab. These rivers serve as Pakistan's primary source of freshwater, making the control of water flow through dams and channels an enduring and critical concern. Furthermore, Kashmir's strategic geographical position is of great importance. The Silk Route, an essential land connection between Pakistan and China, passes through the region. This assumes even greater significance due to China's border disputes with India and its significant political and military alliance with Pakistan. The Silk Route empowers China to maintain a strong stance against India, its primary regional rival. An impactful example showcasing the strategic significance of the Silk Route occurred in 1965 when Pakistan reopened the road. Pakistan entrusted complete control of Gilgit, a modern air force base situated along this route, to China.

Siachen Glacier highlighted in red

This decision holds immense importance as Gilgit now serves as a gateway for China to penetrate deep into Indian territory, effectively circumventing the natural security provided by the Himalayan range in northern India. These multifaceted factors underscore the immense geopolitical and strategic importance of Kashmir to the interests of India, Pakistan, and China.

There exist various territories that hold immense geo-political significance. One such territory of utmost importance is the Siachen Glacier situated in the Karakoram Pass. It serves as a critical boundary, preventing the potential convergence of Pakistani and Chinese forces within Kashmir. The prevention of this convergence is vital for India's national security along its northern border. If Pakistan and China were to establish military connectivity at Siachen, it would create a formidable alliance comprising India's two primary adversaries. This joint force would possess the capability to undertake coordinated and potentially decisive military actions against India. Such a development would pose a significant threat to India's defense and overall stability in the region.

Galwan Valley Clash Site

India has consistently objected to development projects in Pakistani Kashmir involving international partners, particularly China. Delhi firmly maintains that the region under Pakistan's control is its own sovereign territory, illegally occupied, and insists on resolving the Kashmir issue bilaterally. One specific project that has been a subject of India's protest is the construction of the Karakoram Highway, with objections dating back to the 1960s. China, on the other hand, defends its involvement by stating that the Kashmir issue should be addressed between India and Pakistan. China denies any intention to influence the question of sovereignty through its economic and developmental activities in the region. However, tensions between India and China have been escalating. The two countries are currently locked in a standoff along their disputed border in the Himalayan region. The presence of rivers, lakes, and snowcaps in the area means that the actual control line can shift, resulting in face-to-face encounters and potential confrontations between their respective soldiers. Despite military-level talks, tensions persist. In December 2022, troops clashed for the first time in over a year, and efforts to de-escalate the situation have been underway since a major clash in June 2020. The Galwan Valley battle, characterized by the use of non-lethal weapons, marked the first fatal confrontation between the two sides since 1975.

Conclusion - Implications of Geology in the Political World

In conclusion, it is clear that the ongoing border disputes and conflicts in the Himalayan region are not straightforward matters. Case in point is Kashmir which involves many intricate geopolitical issues across various domains. Territorial claims coupled with historical events drive much tension along with strategic considerations based on economic interests as well as limited resources such as water sources and transportation routes.

The challenging terrain poses additional challenges which includes towering mountains, steep valleys besides shifting borders, a geographical challenge unique to this area. Moreover geological processes come into play too, responsible for sculpting uplifts & shaping daunting military challenges for both all parties. Understanding the geological elements of the Himalayan region is critical for understanding the countries involved's particular problems and vulnerabilities. Geology sheds light on the origin and evolution of mountains, the risk of natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides, and the availability and management of critical resources such as water.

Efforts to address border disputes and conflicts will necessitate a multifaceted approach that includes diplomacy, dialogue, and a commitment to mutual understanding. International partners and organisations, such as the United Nations, can play a critical role in encouraging peaceful resolutions and promoting regional stability. Finally, the Himalayan boundary disputes serve as a reminder of the delicate interplay between geopolitics, historical events, and the geological characteristics of the region. A better grasp of geology as a discipline can assist shed light on the underlying elements influencing these conflicts and contribute to the development of long-term solutions that benefit all parties concerned.

References

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