Course:EOSC311/2023/Geological Disasters: Prevalence Rates and Contributions to Personality Disorders

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Introduction

Geological events and disasters occur around the world up to an average of 400 events per year in various different forms such as volcano eruptions, sandstorms, earthquakes, and many more.[1] The aftermath of many events like trauma, grief, and economic and environmental impact can often lead to increased mental health prevalence rates in affected individuals and communities.[2] After experiencing a natural disaster, many face the challenges of developing mental health disorders ranging from posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder to more memory-focused disorders like dissociative amnesia.[3] This page aims to analyze the connections between experiencing a traumatic geological event and mental health developments not only on an individual level but also as a contributing factor toward intergenerational effects. This page also briefly examines the impacts of potential antioxidant supplementation such as zinc and magnesium for individuals with mental health problems as an adjunctive to typical antidepressant medications.

Natural Disasters

Tectonic Plates Map Figure 1. A world map showing all of the tectonic plate directions and locations

From 2018 to 2023 Canada experienced 35 major natural disasters ranging from floods and thunderstorms to wildfires, however not all natural disasters have been recorded and accounted for during these times.[4] The impacts of geological events such as these can range from catastrophic to relatively unnoticeable. Across different continents and countries, these events happen at different frequencies such as coastal regions experiencing flooding and landslides due to increased precipitation levels from changes in the global water cycle.[5]

Earthquakes

A more common geological event that many people and communities experience during their lifetime is an earthquake. Earthquakes are the shaking that occurs when rock on a fault breaks due to irreversible deformation causing the broken rock to emit a strong vibration from the hypocenter which then makes its way to the earth’s surface called the epicenter.[6]

Plate Tectonics

Alfred Wegner’s once-doubted plate tectonic theory is now used to explain how continents and landforms are formed[6] Most earthquakes are connected to tectonic plate movements and can be used to explain distributions of global earthquakes.[7] Earth’s outer core consists of 15 tectonic plates that compose the lithosphere which moves in different or similar directions causing deformations at boundaries causing earthquakes.[7] These boundaries are categorized into three types: transform, divergent, and convergent.

Transform boundaries occur when plates slide past each other while in the same plane, but no material is created nor lost, instead causing shallow-depth earthquakes.[7] Most of these earthquakes occur in mid-ocean ridges as two oceanic plates slide[6]

Divergent boundaries occur when plates are pushed apart by magma from the mantle causing new material to form and surface.[7] Earthquakes from this are present from the fractures that develop when the two plates begin to move apart however the earthquakes are lower scale and more frequent.[7] These boundaries often occur around mid-oceanic ridges around the mid-Atlantic ridge.[6]

Convergent boundaries occur when two plates move towards each other causing one plate to descend underneath the other. However, different boundaries may form depending on which type of plates intercept each other.[6] When boundaries form between an oceanic and continental plate, a subduction zone forms causing one plate to descend into the mantle.[7] Oceanic and continental plate collisions are known to form the most significant impacts producing large-scale earthquakes with higher magnitudes.[7] Two continental plates instead of descending below one another, form an upwards landmass due to one plate crumbling forcing one plate above the other leading the bottom plate to sink into the mantle.[6]

The Water Cycle

The water cycle is a lengthy process where water is constantly being cycled through different stages and forms from the earth to oceans and the atmosphere. This process starts when water from streams, oceans, and other sources begins to evaporate and transform into a gas state where the atmosphere condenses clouds to eventually create water drops.[6] Water then returns to the earth through precipitation and flows back into water sources or even the soil in the ground creating groundwater to filter through the ground moving back into the streams or oceans.[6] By understanding the water cycle, other geological events such as hurricanes can be examined in regard to traumatic geological events.

Hurricanes

Hurricane Damage Figure 3. Damage from Hurricane Ike in 2008.

Hurricanes or also called tropical storms are warm water-based systems that use energy from moisture in the atmosphere as well as ocean water to form severely strong winds with a minimum of 120km per hour. [8] Hurricanes form by pulling heat from warm water oceans and forming tropical waves to move across tropic areas causing air to rise while low-pressure forms underneath.[9] The heat pulled from the water allows hurricanes and storms to begin a spinning formation from Earth's natural rotation.[10]. The air that is raised up goes through a cooling process where the water begins to condense to form droplets creating more heat into the storm[10]    

Hurricanes are not unknown to Canada and do occur in places along the Atlantic Ocean such as New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, but do not occur as frequently as they do in the United States due to the need for warm ocean locations.[10]

Personality Disorders

Psychiatric personality disorders are officially defined through the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) as an alternative way of behaving, thinking, and feeling from one’s own cultural expectations resulting in stress and daily functioning problems that occur over a long period of time.[11] There are various types of personality disorders including paranoid personality disorder (PPD), major depressive disorder (MDD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and borderline personality disorder (BPD)[11]. Many personality disorders are treatable through means of different forms of therapy such as cognitive behavioral therapy and for more severe cases electroconvulsive treatment, while paired with medication such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.[12]

The 2004 Khao Lak tsunami in Thailand that devastated almost a quarter million lives is an example of a geological natural disaster resulting in high severity and trauma for many of the survivors.[13] The effects of this event were recorded by survivors who took neuropsychiatric interviews and concluded that phobias and personality disorders were the most pronounced disorders that had developed after the event.[13] In this case, events such as natural disasters are likely to increase the risks of developing psychiatric disorders, mainly PTSD and MDD or other forms of depressive disorders in regard to the severity of the natural disaster.[12] Individuals who also develop depression are also exposed to developing comorbid disorders like PTSD and PPD.[12] Places that experience more geological events are at risk of developing depression, fear, and anxiety from more extreme events due to higher levels of exposure in comparison to geological locations with fewer hurricanes.[12]

Personality disorders and symptoms are not unknown in relation to natural disasters. Many studies have discussed and examined the relation between personality disorders and genetics suggesting that personality disorders can be passed down and inherited by children of the affected parents.[14]. While various different factors contribute to the early onset and development of personality disorders, biological factors perhaps play one of the larger roles by means of predisposition.[14]

Major Depressive Disorder

One of the most prevalent disorders of 2008 and estimated to rank first by 2030 is major depressive disorder (MDD).[15] Approximately 5-10% of the population experience depression with women being twice as likely to experience major depression compared to men.[16] Major Depressive disorder can be described as a persistently depressed state, lack of energy and interest in previously enjoyable activities, suicidal thoughts, lack of concentration and feelings of guilt or negativity towards oneself, changes in appetite, agitation, or irregular sleep disturbances.[15] In order for someone to be diagnosed officially with MDD through the criteria of the DSM-5 an individual must have met at least five of the previously listed symptoms.[15] There are many different causes of the development of MDD such as biological, hormonal, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial contributors.[15]

MDD and depression are commonly linked to development after experiencing a geological event by increasing the symptoms of depression or by accelerating pre-existing mental health problems making those individuals more vulnerable.[2] By experiencing major natural events survivors suffer from an increase in symptom severity when already predisposed to a depression-based trajectory.[2] The connection between natural disasters and MDD is a risk factor of lowered mental health resilience after 12 to 18 months after events indicating the impact on mental health from geological disasters.[2]

Studies have shown that genetics contribute to individuals being predisposed to depression since identical twins share a full set of genes while fraternal twins only share about half of their genes, meaning that heritability can be observed in approximately 45% of depression cases.[16] Individuals with parents who have MDD are two to three times more likely to be predisposed to also developing MDD especially if the depression is reoccurring during childhood to early adolescence.[16]

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is diagnosed in approximately 1 in 11 people, with an increased chance of diagnosis in women as well as individuals from ethnic groups like African American, Native American, and Latinos.[17] PTSD forms from experiencing a traumatic event or events like natural disasters, war, assault, or terrorist acts and results in disturbances in feelings and thoughts regarding the traumatic event.[17] Common symptoms are flashbacks, nightmares, sadness, fear, detachment, and isolation from others, causing individuals to possibly have intense negative reactions to things like loud sounds.[17] Official DSM-5 criteria for PTSD are exposure to literal or perceived death or violence, presence of reoccurring reactions and distress, strong avoidance of similarly associated stimuli, irregular cognitive and mood alterations, and changes in reactivity towards events.[18] It is likely that PTSD develops after 3 months of experiencing traumatic events and is often comorbid with other mental health problems like acute stress disorder or reactive attachment disorder.[17]

PTSD is one of the most common results from experiencing a natural disaster as prevalence rates vary according to severity and risk factors, with geological events acting as an early onset catalyst to developing PTSD.[1] Research consistently results in observations of PTSD symptoms in natural disaster survivors such as prevalence rates increased by 6.9% of the Texas population after experiencing the 2008 Hurricane Ike.[19]

Similar to depression and MDD, PTSD creates risk factors contributing to 35% of PTSD heritability by shaping the neural stress circuits in the brain creating risk and resilience to PTSD.[20] Certain genes related to serotonin transport have been connected to PTSD making individuals who have experienced more severe cases of trauma to be at higher risk of PTSD symptoms.[20] While there is less supporting evidence of heritability for PTSD studies examine it to be moderately heritable being correlated through genetics.[21]

Mineral Medication Supplements

Synapse Depression Figure 2. The first figure on the left show a normal neurotransmitter synthesis process. The middle image is that of an individual with depression, fewer enzymes are able to be synthesized. The right image is of one who which has returned to its normal state after treatment.

Living with PTSD, MDD or any kind of personality disorder is not easy, as typical treatment consists of various types of therapy such as cognitive behavioral therapy, group therapy, and exposure therapy while pairing therapy sessions with medication like antidepressants and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs).[15] These are the more common forms of treatment for overlapping and comorbid personality disorders however studies have also looked into mineral supplements to treat certain disorders like depression.[22] Zinc and magnesium have been observed as forms of supplements for treating depression.

Magnesium supplements have been used for only a few clinical trials; however, it has been reported that magnesium chloride is effective for older individuals who suffer from type 2 diabetes and depression.[22] Magnesium citrate has also been observed to help individuals decrease depression waves for patients who have fibromyalgia.[22] The theory behind this idea is based around magnesium working with ketamine to help strengthen synaptic sprouting as patients with depression have been recorded to have increased cortisol levels while having magnesium deficiencies.[23] Magnesium supplements were recorded as increasing long-term potentiation for the hippocampus while improving activation of the prefrontal cortex by improving synaptic plasticity.[23]

Low zinc levels have also been associated with depression symptoms as it is also strongly associated with neurotransmitter pathways as well as the immune system which is linked to depression.[24] A cross-sectional study conducted in Japan followed eating habits as well as depression levels through surveys and questionnaires to assess the pathophysiology of depression.[24] Individuals who had lower intake volumes of zinc and copper were at higher risk of depression while individuals who had higher amounts were not due to additive effects.[24]

It should be noted that the mineral supplementation theory has been tested and associated with depression levels, however, it is not consistent enough to draw a conclusive correlation between mineral supplementation and depression treatment. This topic is in need of more future research looking at a more in-depth analysis of the effects.

Conclusion

While geological disasters are not the sole cause of individuals being predisposed or developing personality disorders, they are connected through prevalence rates and severity of mental health symptoms displayed.[2] Individuals who frequently experience natural disasters ranging from low severity to high are at risk of experiencing more mental health burdens due to the higher exposure rate.[12] Early onset personality disorders experienced through geological trauma are not limited to only survivors as children and future generations are also at risk of developing mental health problems as indirect results of geological events.[20]

It is important to understand not only the physical consequences of a natural disaster, but also the mental and generational consequences as natural disasters will not stop anytime in the future, so it is important to prepare and be aware of the risks as a result. Geological events affect people and communities in physical, economic, behavioral, and emotional ways with lasting effects that all overlap and contribute to the prevalence of personality disorders.[20]

Treatment is also an area that is continued to be explored and examined for improvements to current treatments and new emerging treatments like mineral supplements. While studies have supported mineral supplements for treating mainly depression, there is much hope that these treatments will help improve depression and can be extended to other mental health disorders.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Brown, R. L., Innes, P. A., Carter, J. D., Wood, A., Love, S., & Kannis-Dymand, L. (2023). Beliefs about traumatic memories, thought control strategies, and the impact on PTSD symptoms after a natural disaster. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 211(3), 182-189. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001586
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Agyapong, B., Shalaby, R., Eboreime, E., Obuobi-Donkor, G., Owusu, E., Adu, M. K., Mao, W., Oluwasina, F., & Agyapong, V. I. O. (2022). Cumulative trauma from multiple natural disasters increases mental health burden on residents of fort McMurray. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1), 2059999. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2059999 Bains, N., Abdijadid, S., (January, 2023). Major Depressive Disorder. National Library of Medicine
  3. ↑ Miyagawa, A., Kunii, Y., Gotoh, D., Ito, M., Itagaki, S., Matsumoto, T., Kumakura, T., & Yabe, H. (2021). Differential diagnosis of memory impairment in areas affected by a natural disaster:A case report. Fukushima Journal of Medical Science, 67(1), 38-44. https://doi.org/10.5387/fms.2020-13
  4. ↑ Public Safety Canada. (2013). Canadian Disaster Database. https://cdd.publicsafety.gc.ca/srchpg-eng.aspx
  5. ↑ AghaKouchak, A., Chiang, F., Huning, L. S., Love, C. A., Mallakpour, I., Mazdiyasni, O., Moftakhari, H., Papalexiou, S. M., Ragno, E., & Sadegh, M. (2020). Climate extremes and compound hazards in a warming world. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 48(1), 519-548. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-071719-055228
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Panchuk, K. (2019). Physical Geology: First University of Saskatchewan Edition (First University of Saskatchewan Edition). University of Saskatchewan.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 British Geological Survey. (2023). What Causes Earthquakes? https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/earthquakes/what-causes-earthquakes/
  8. ↑ Government of Canada. (2022). Get Prepared: Hurricanes. https://www.getprepared.gc.ca/cnt/hzd/hrrcns-en.aspx
  9. ↑ National Ocean Service (2023). How does the ocean affect hurricanes? https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/hurricanes.html#:~:text=At%20these%20latitudes%2C%20seawater%20is,winds%20collide%20and%20turn%20upwards.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 National Ocean Service (2023). How do hurricanes form? https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/how-hurricanes-form.html#:~:text=Warm%20ocean%20waters%20and%20thunderstorms,enhancing%20shower%20and%20thunderstorm%20activity.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Drescher, J. (September 2022). What are Personality Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/personality-disorders/what-are-personality-disorders
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Beaglehole, B., Mulder, R. T., Frampton, C. M., Boden, J. M., Newton-Howes, G., & Bell, C. J. (2018). Psychological distress and psychiatric disorder after natural disasters: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 213(6), 716-722. doi: https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.210
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Hussain, A., Weisaeth, L., & Heir, T. (2011). Psychiatric disorders and functional impairment among disaster victims after exposure to a natural disaster: A population-based study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 128(1), 135-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.018
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Thapar, A., & McGuffin, P. (1993). Is personality disorder inherited? an overview of the evidence. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15(4), 325-345. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00965036
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Bains, N., Abdijadid, S., (January, 2023). Major Depressive Disorder. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Levinson, F., (2023). Major Depression and Genetics. https://med.stanford.edu/depressiongenetics/mddandgenes.html#:~:text=Heritability%20is%20probably%2040%2D50,(psychological%20or%20physical%20factors).
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Taylor-Desir, M,. (2022). What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd
  18. ↑ Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2014). Trauma-Informed Care in Behavioral Health Services. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207191/box/part1_ch3.box16/
  19. ↑ Pietrzak, R. H., Southwick, S. M., Tracy, M., Galea, S., & Norris, F. H. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and perceived needs for psychological care in older persons affected by hurricane ike. Journal of Affective Disorders, 138(1), 96-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.018
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Banerjee, S. B., Morrison, F. G., & Ressler, K. J. (2017). Genetic approaches for the study of PTSD: Advances and challenges. Neuroscience Letters, 649, 139-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.02.058
  21. ↑ Smoller, J. W. (2016). The genetics of stress-related disorders: PTSD, depression, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology (New York, N.Y.), 41(1), 297-319. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.266
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Tarleton, E. K., Littenberg, B., MacLean, C. D., Kennedy, A. G., & Daley, C. (2017). Role of magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression: A randomized clinical trial. PloS One, 12(6), e0180067. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180067
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Murck, H. (2013). Ketamine, magnesium and major depression – from pharmacology to pathophysiology and back. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47(7), 955-965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.02.015
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Nakamura, M., Miura, A., Nagahata, T., Shibata, Y., Okada, E., & Ojima, T. (2019). Low zinc, copper, and manganese intake is associated with depression and anxiety symptoms in the japanese working population: Findings from the eating habit and well-being study. Nutrients, 11(4), 847. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040847


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