Course:EOSC311/2022/ Geological Processes and The Welfare of Animals

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In this project, I explore the interconnections between applied biology and geology with a focus on animal welfare and geological hazards. Geological hazards described in detail include earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides. Direct and indirect impacts on the welfare of animals of each geological process are explored with examples from events around the world. Welfare implications such as the death of a million sheep and destruction of several hectares of shoreline forest habitats by single volcanic and landslide events are investigated. I conclude by highlighting the role of geologists in mitigating hazards and the need to understand and integrate geological aspect in ensuring the welfare of animals.

Introduction

Statement of Connections and why I chose this topic

The relationships of animals and humans dates back to thousands of years and through the ages ethical considerations of the human-animal bond have also evolved. Animal welfare science continues to interpret and improve the wellbeing of animals we depend on for food, companionship, entertainment, ease of work, development of vaccines, ecosystem services among other very diverse uses. Recent research and discourse in animal welfare has expanded into the interconnections of the wellbeing and health of the environment, humans and animals.[1]

My major is Applied Animal Biology and I am passionate about exploring interconnections that bridge the gap between human and animal welfare for the wellbeing of both, while creating sustainable environments. In studying geology I found geological processes fascinating as they create amazing geological features as well as threaten life on earth in the form of hazards. The dynamic nature of the earth's surface means landscapes are constantly changing which, impacts resources both animals and humans depend on for survival. As geology is key to understanding past, present and future life on earth, I explore the effects of geological hazards particularly volcanoes, earthquakes and landslides with a focus on the welfare of animals. I explore ways in which geological studies can be incorporated in understanding and mitigating harms towards informed animal welfare interventions.

Geology and Animal Welfare

What is Geology?

In simpler terms, geology is the study of the Earth and natural forces acting on its surface.[2] Geology integrates multiple disciplines such as geophysics and through these studies we get to know compositions of rocks and minerals, how the earth's features changed over billions of years as well as predict future events. Geological processes such as volcanism, erosion, sedimentation, earthquakes, glaciation, and landslides help in not only understanding the dynamic features of the Earth but, shed light into past environments and the effects of human activities over time.[2] A fascinating aspect of geology is how these processes can take millions and billions of years in shaping the Earth's features. Geological time itself is traced to billions of years ago, before animals inhabited Earth. Therefore, animals play a critical role in geological studies through e.g., the use of fossils in relative dating methods.[2] In addition, fossils have a key role in understanding the evolution of life through different geological stages and these paleontological studies are crucial in understanding the ancestors of present animals.[2]

What is Animal Welfare?

Animal welfare is described as the wellbeing of animals, which depends on a combination of multiple factors under three spheres namely: biological health and functioning, affective states and natural living or behavior.[3] Good welfare encompasses proper health and biological functioning, minimization of negative affective states such as pain and the ability to express natural behaviors such as grazing. Animal welfare issues vary across species from companion animals, farm animals, lab animals, marine animals, zoo animals to wildlife. A wide range of human activities such as poor handling, pollution, and habitat encroachment for e.g., agricultural and infrastructural development negatively impact the welfare of animals. However, there are some natural processes which may or may not be related to human activities such as landslides and extreme weather conditions, which also implicate welfare. To assess impacts, various physiological and behavioral indicators such as diseases, injuries, body cortisol levels, body vitals, reproductive rates and abnormal behaviors like sham chewing are measured and/or observed.[3] While ethical considerations on welfare differ, it is apparent that negative welfare decreases farm animal production and decreases biodiversity which has direct impacts on the economic and social wellbeing of humans among other adverse effects.[1] Interdisciplinary studies on animal welfare are therefore vital for animals to be free from hunger and thirst, discomfort, pain, injury or diseases, fear, and distress and to express normal behavior as stated in the "Five Freedoms" proposed by the Farm Animal Welfare Council of the United Kingdom.[3]

Geological Processes and Animal Welfare Issues

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are vibrations or motions of the earth which range from slight tremors to violent motions. The impact of earthquakes depends on depth from the surface for example, shallow earthquakes (0 to 70 km) cause more damage compared to deeper earthquakes (300-700 km).[4] Most earthquakes occur along plate boundaries, and this is explained by the plate tectonics theory in geology. However, some do occur at mid continents which are more complex as multiple fault interactions are involved.[5] The earth’s upper layer consisting of the crust (oceanic and continental) and the uppermost mantle all known as the lithosphere, is divided into several tectonic plates.[2] These plates are in constant motion as they lie on top of the mantle which is less viscous at plate boundaries.[4]

Map showing tectonic plates of the Earth
Major Tectonic Plates

There are three types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform or conservative. [2][4] Violent earthquakes with magnitudes as high as 7.7 usually occur along convergent and transform boundaries.[6] At transform boundaries, plates slide past each other creating destructive earthquakes at shallow depths along the boundaries.[6] Where the Pacific plate moves past the North American plate a major earthquake occured known as the Fort Tejon earthquake which ruptured the San Andreas fault approximately 350 km south eastward.[7] Areas near convergent boundaries experience shallow to deep earthquakes as plates move towards each other.[6] Nepal is prone to earthquakes as it is situated near a convergent boundary where the Indo-Australian plate is subducting under the Eurasian Plate. In 2015, the country experienced major earthquakes with magnitudes as high as 7.8 causing adverse effects such as, the death of 9000 people and the partial or complete destruction of about 900,000 buildings.[8] At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other creating new crust between them. Earthquakes in these regions e.g., the Mid Atlantic ridge, are narrow, infrequent, and usually have lower magnitudes.[4]  It should be noted that very high magnitude earthquakes recur at the same site only after long intervals when strain builds up from slow plate movement.[6]

Animal Welfare Impacts

Depending on the magnitude, earthquakes impact the physiological and psychological welfare of animals as they experience loss of habitats, declines in sources of food, increased injuries and mortality. Confined animals which are dependent on humans for care and feeding are at greater risk of structures such as paddocks, faltering and trapping them inside. This was witnessed during the 2010 Canterbury earthquake at Weedons Poultry farm were about 3000 chickens were killed by the collapse of two stands.[9] In addition, as humans lose their homes and flee to safety, hunger and death from starvation increases, as animal feed and water supplies are disrupted. Limited veterinary care in urgent situations also exacerbates the risk of increased infectious diseases and unattended injuries.  All these factors can lead to the death of shockingly high numbers of animals, for example the Nepal 2015 earthquakes resulted in over 100,000 farm animals dying.[10]

Animals also experience distress as indicators such as escape behaviors are increasingly observed. During the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake residents witnessed their cats fleeing and some never returned.[11] Subsequently the increased numbers of stray animals post-earthquakes can expose them to multiple stressors such as injury, diseases, hunger and even death. [12] Behaviors such as vocalizations which indicate fear responses have also been observed in animals such as horses, dogs, sheep, and pigs right before and during earthquakes.[11] Activation of stress responses also has longer effects on behaviors as seen in the decline of laboratory rats breeding rates by 10%, observed weeks after the Canterbury earthquake.[9]

Biodiversity is also disrupted by earthquakes as seen in the dramatic decline of groundwater crustacean species like copepods and the subsequent decline in population turnover rates.[13] With low reproduction rates there is an increased risk of local extinction of these species which, have significant roles as decomposers in the ecosystem.[13] Species such as abalones are vulnerable to displacement from suitable habitats and the increase in suspended sediments threatens life cycles as individuals and populations are harmed.[14] Earthquakes therefore have a wide range of impacts from immediate harms such as injuries to long term harms such as chronic stress which all threaten their welfare and conservation.

Volcanoes

A volcano is a location where magma and associated particles rise to the Earth’s surface and are released on ocean floors or land surfaces and/or to the atmosphere.[4] [2] Magma is molten rock usually formed from partial melting of existing rocks through decompression or flux melting; when magma reaches the earth’s surface it is then called lava.[4] Volcanoes have various shapes and sizes, and examples from smallest to largest include cinder cones, composite, and shield volcanoes.[4] Eruptions can be explosive or effusive depending on various factors for example, when magma encounters water it produces large amounts of hot steam which induces very loud or phreatic explosions.[15] Volcanism is associated with plate tectonic motions; at subduction zones where plates are converging, at rift zones where plates are diverging as well as at mantle plumes or hot spots.[4] Around the margins of the Pacific Ocean there are a series of subduction related volcanoes, commonly known as the “Pacific ring of fire”.[2] Mount Saint Helens is a composite volcano which is part of the Pacific ring of fire and it is located at the Cascadia subduction zone where the Juan de Fuca plate converges with the North American plate.[4][2]

Illustration of different emissions from volcanoes
Types of Volcanic Hazards

While volcanism can create amazing geological features such as volcanic rocks they can also be hazardous. Emissions from volcanoes include gases e.g., carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, small particles of rocks known as tephra, lava flow as well as a combination of small particles known as volcanic ash.[4] Explosive volcanoes can cause volcanic related mudflows, earthquakes, tsunamis, large expanses of ash clouds, ash storms, hot and rapid pyroclastic density currents as well as vertical fall of a mixture of tephra, gases and ash known as pyroclastic falls.[4][2][16] The violent eruption of Mount Hudson in 1991 produced ash which covered more than 100,000km2 of Patagonia. [16] Another example is the 2011 Cordón-Caulle eruption which ejected large volumes of tephra, which covered Chile and Argentina and reached as far as the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. [17] Therefore, volcanic activity can continue for long periods of time pausing extensive risks to life over large areas.[16]

Animal Welfare Impacts

Volcanoes can cause direct harms to animals e.g., increased mortality as well as indirect harms through destroying environments they depend on for shelter, water, and food. Impacts from explosions, contact with lava flow and/or volcanic ash as well as ingesting or inhaling volcanic particles can cause pain, suffering and immediate death. The 1980 Mount Saint Helen eruptions are believed to have caused the death of an estimated 100% of large mammal populations such as mountain goats and black tailed deer in the area.[18] Inhaling volcanic particles such as volcanic gases can cause breathing difficulties and respiratory diseases. In addition, ingestion of vegetation or water contaminated with ashfall, and other particles can cause gastrointestinal diseases, severe teeth abrasions and immobility.[19][18] Other physiological effects include skin and eye irritations as well as blindness.[18] Devastating effects have also been recorded in farm animals for example the 1991, the Mt. Hudson eruption caused the loss of about a million sheep and thousands of cattle.[16] Disease outbreaks such as enterotoxemia in sheep have also been traced to ash ingestion as well as diarrhea in cattle. [17]

Destruction of the environment and contamination of resources can have long-term adverse effects on welfare. Forests can be covered with tephra long after an eruption, causing high mortality of species such as arboreal squirrels from contact with the particles.[18] Pasture and open water resources can all be contaminated leading to high mortality and multiple physiological afflictions. Inaccessibility of forage, limited supplementary feed and lack of clean water supplies also cause starvation and dehydration in livestock such as sheep, cattle, and goats.[16] The 2011 Cordón-Caulle eruption resulted in the death of approximately 22% farm animals as farmers lost forests to contamination which they depended on for feeding their livestock.[17] In addition, increased predation of livestock by wildlife is also observed as wild animals also face food shortages. On the other hand, wild population densities are also threatened through the disruption of environments crucial for their development. For example, accumulation of 5 to 40 cm of ash sediments in gravel stream beds was found to inhibit spawning of salmon and the development of their embryos.[17] Animals are also displaced from their natural habitats which can increase their risk of predation, competition for limited resources and harms from human-wildlife conflicts.

Volcanic activity therefore transforms habitats, resources and geological landscapes which can impart both immediate and long-term welfare implications as populations may take long to recover.

Landslides

Mountain valley
High Risk Landslide Area in Manang District, Nepal

A landslide is the downhill movement of debris after slope failure or slope instability.[2] Landslides are caused by a range of sudden triggers such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, glacier retreat, intense precipitation and human activities like deforestation.[2][20] They are more common on steep sided mountainous areas, however, larger failures are less frequent compared to minor ones.[4] The differences in landslides depend on a wide range of factors such as types of movement, steepness of slopes, volume of debris, sliding area, velocity and materials on the slope. [20] Mass movement of debris and rock falls can change landscapes for example, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake dislodged about eighty million cubic metres of soil which buried multiple villages and created two artificial lakes. [21] Landslides can also cause tsunamis, floods as well as destroy large expanses of forests, for example; several hectares of shoreline forests were destroyed by a tsunami induced by 3 million cubic metres of rock slide into Chehalis Lake near Vancouver.[20]

Animal Welfare Impacts

The most severe welfare implications caused by landslides result from habit destructions, destructions of vegetations, contamination of water bodies and changes in geological features where animals inhabit. Loss of forest areas and grazing lands can cause disorientation, widespread hunger and even starvation. Destruction of habitats both on the earth’s surface and marine ecosystems undermines the welfare of animals, decreases reproduction, and threatens population densities.[21] In Nepal, nearly 16 000 animals died due to floods and landslides from 2000 to 2009.[22]

Integration of Geology in Animal Welfare Interventions

Geological hazards largely undermine the welfare of all lifeforms. While human welfare often takes precedence, recognizing the interdependence and complex connection between animal welfare, human welfare and environmental welfare is crucial for the wellbeing and sustainability of all life forms.[1] During geological hazards there have been multiple cases of humans endangering their own lives to save their livestock and companion animals.[16] Multiple psychosocial and economic harms are experienced such as the direct loss of livelihoods as farms are destroyed.[12] While animal welfare emphasizes the inherent value of individual animals despite their apparent uses to humans, recognizing their value to humans is a key step in policy changes in favor of animals. For example, recognition of public health threats posed by refusal to evacuate active disaster areas led to the inclusions of companion animals in emergency evacuation responses in the United States' laws in 2006.[16] In addition, international guidelines were also developed in 2009 toward rapid response, protection, and recovery of livestock; published in “Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards” handbooks.[16] Therefore, consideration of animal welfare in disaster management and response is fairly recent and there is still a long way in ensuring harm reduction for all animals during disasters.

Geological understanding of natural hazards such as volcanoes is key in determining threats to animals and possible ways to mitigate them. Geologists have an important role in hazard mitigations and early response through e.g., monitoring seismicity and finding ways to accurately predict disasters.[2] Predicting hazards such as landslides is very difficult and sometimes nearly impossible, however, identification of high-risk areas is crucial in ensuring the implementation of emergency preparedness protocols by people to protect themselves and their animals.[4] Animal welfare scientists can contribute their understanding of animal behaviors and develop ways to mitigate stressors during disasters e.g., in evacuation or during recovery after disasters. Ways to assist in the recovery of wildlife at individual and population levels can also be explored especially reducing harms to animals from human-wildlife conflict post disasters. Farm animals are exposed to high risks especially in intensive farm production settings, therefore governments should ensure all farms have implemented measures to protect their livestock such as strong building structures and the use of updated protocols. These structures and protocols can only be improved through a combination of efforts from multiple disciplines including animal welfare science and geology.

Conclusion

Geological hazards are inevitable however the implementation of interdisciplinary approaches can help minimize the loss of large numbers of animal life as well as mitigate harms animals are exposed to. Improving the welfare standards of animals can not be ensured without emergency preparedness, hazard response protocols, guidelines and contingency plans. Focus on geological disasters is imminent now more than ever as they exacerbate the negative impacts animals already face from climate change and unsustainable human activities.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Pinillos, R. G. (2018) One Welfare: A framework to improve animal welfare and human welfare. CABI.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 Armstrong, J. E. (1990) Vancouver Geology. Vancouver, B.C: Cordilleran Section Geological Association of Canada
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Fraser, D (2008). Understanding animal welfare: The science in its cultural context. (Kirkwood J.K. & Hubrecht R.C, Eds.) Wiley-Blackwell
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 Earle, S. (2015). Physical Geology. Victoria, B.C: BCcampus. Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/geology/
  5. ↑ Liu, M., Stein, S., & Wang, H. (2011). 2000 years of migrating earthquakes in North China: How earthquakes in midcontinents differ from those at plate boundaries. Lithosphere, 3(2), 128-132. https://doi.org/10.1130/L129.1
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Sykes, L.R. & Quittmeyer, R.C. (1981). Repeat times of great earthquakes along simple plate boundaries. In D.W. Simpson & P.G. Richards (Eds), Earthquake prediction: An international review, (Vol.4 pp. 217-247). American Geophysical Union. https://doi.org/10.1029/ME004p0217
  7. ↑ Toppozada, T. R., Branum, D. M., Reichle, M. S., & Hallstrom, C. L. (2002). San Andreas fault zone, California: M≥ 5.5 earthquake history. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 92(7), 2555-2601. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120000614
  8. ↑ Pokharel, T., & Goldsworthy, H. M. (2017). Lessons learned from the Nepal earthquake 2015. Australian Journal of Structural Engineering, 18(1), 11-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13287982.2017.1309818
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Glassey, S., Wilson, T.M. (2011) Animal welfare impact following the 4 September 2010 Canterbury (Darfield) earthquake. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2, 49-59. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/6130
  10. ↑ Asokan, G. V., & Vanitha, A. (2017). Disaster response under One Health in the aftermath of Nepal earthquake, 2015. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health, 7(1), 91-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jegh.2016.03.001
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Fidani, C. (2013) Biological anomalies around the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake. Animals, 3(3), 693-721. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3030693
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Dalla Villa, P., Watson, C., Prasarnphanich, O., Huertas, G., & Dacre, I. (2020). Integrating animal welfare into disaster management using an 'all-hazards' approach. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 39(2), 599-613. http://doi.org/10.20506/rst.39.2.3110
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Galassi, D. M., Lombardo, P., Fiasca, B., Di Cioccio, A., Di Lorenzo, T., Petitta, M., & Di Carlo, P. (2014). Earthquakes trigger the loss of groundwater biodiversity. Scientific reports, 4(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06273
  14. ↑ Takami, H., Won, N. I., & Kawamura, T. (2013). Impacts of the 2011 mega‐earthquake and tsunami on abalone Haliotis discus hannai and sea urchin Strongylocentrotus nudus populations at Oshika Peninsula, Miyagi, Japan. Fisheries Oceanography, 22(2), 113-120. https://doi.org/10.1111/fog.12008
  15. ↑ Yuen, D. A., Scruggs, M. A., Spera, F. J., Zheng, Y., Hu, H., McNutt, S. R., ... & Tanioka, Y. (2022). Under the surface: Pressure-induced planetary-scale waves, volcanic lightning, and gaseous clouds caused by the submarine eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai volcano. Earthquake Research Advances, 100134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eqrea.2022.100134
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 Wilson, T., Cole, J., Johnston, D., Cronin, S., Stewart, C., & Dantas, A. (2012). Short-and long-term evacuation of people and livestock during a volcanic crisis: lessons from the 1991 eruption of Volcán Hudson, Chile. Journal of Applied Volcanology, 1(1), 1-11  https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-5040-1-2
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Elissondo, M., Baumann, V., Bonadonna, C., Pistolesi, M., Cioni, R., Bertagnini, A., ... & Gonzalez, R. (2016). Chronology and impact of the 2011 Cordón Caulle eruption, Chile. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 16(3), 675-704. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-675-2016,
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Andersen, D. C., & MacMahon, J. A. (1985). The effects of catastrophic ecosystem disturbance: the residual mammals at Mount St. Helens. Journal of Mammalogy, 66(3), 581-589.https://doi.org/10.2307/1380942
  19. ↑ Wilson, T. M., Cole, J. W., Stewart, C., Cronin, S. J., & Johnston, D. M. (2011). Ash storms: Impacts of wind-remobilised volcanic ash on rural communities and agriculture following the 1991 Hudson eruption, southern Patagonia, Chile. Bulletin of Volcanology, 73(3), 223-239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-010-0396-1
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Alimohammadlou, Y., Najafi, A., & Yalcin, A. (2013). Landslide process and impacts: A proposed classification method. Catena, 104, 219-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.11.013
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Owen, L. A., Kamp, U., Khattak, G. A., Harp, E. L., Keefer, D. K., & Bauer, M. A. (2008). Landslides triggered by the 8 October 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Geomorphology, 94(1-2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.04.007
  22. ↑ Samir, K.C. (2013). Community vulnerability to floods and landslides in Nepal. Ecology and Society, 18(1). http://www.jstor.org/stable/26269258


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