Course:EOSC311/2021/Ports have shaped Human Geology
Ports have played a crucial role in the socioeconomic development of our global population worldwide. Throughout history, migration to coastal cities has been key to trade, production, and aquaculture, as civilizations development and technologically advanced to where we are today. The Hoyle Anyport Model describes port cities as an evolution of 6 phases: settlement, expansion, specialization, decay, conflict, and redevelopment (Ng, et al, 2014). In this wiki text, I will analyze how ancient and modern port cities have development in spheres of urban development through migration, technological advancements, and international trading. Egypt, an ancient world civilization that has existed since 6,000 BCE, has transformed into a country in control of one of the most important waterways in the world. Vancouver, a city that has been transforming into a Pacific Ocean power hub, has transformed from a Europe heavy exporting machine to a new market in Asia. Through these two analyses, we hope to gain a historical understanding of how supply chain and geology play a role in the shaping of human civilization today.
Background
If you were to look at a map of the world, you would probably notice something unique. If you analyzed all the major cities in the world, you would notice that most of them lie close to a coastline. Over 40% of the global population is always within 150 kilometres of the ocean (Ng et al, 2014). 8 of the 10 largest cities in the world, including Tokyo, Mumbai, and New York City, are all located near the water ("Largest Cities in the World", n.d.). Why is this! Well, that is exactly what this Wikipedia page was designed to solve. Why do the majority of our population live and want to live so close to a body of water? Let’s take a look.
Ports have always played a vital role in the socio-economic development of cities and countries. Water has always been a convenient renewable resource that human beings have taken for granted. Back in history, it was quite a terrible feat, as people didn’t know how to swim yet, when they were sent on voyages, there was a high chance they would never return. As boating and shipping became a more popular transportation mode, populations began moving out to coastlines. Soon, shipping became the key mechanism for cities as it drove transportation, commerce, and communication. Back then, it was the only form of international trade or migration, as new areas were being constantly found in North and South America, Asia, and Africa. Ports became a vital segment of a cities economy, as new products would be shipped out and brought in, jobs would be directed close to ports and citizens had to move closer to the waterways.
By the 1900s, the maritime industry became more cost-effective with the introduction of efficient shipping, cheaper labour, and larger vessels. Ports became a vital indicator of how well an urban economy was developing. Take, for example, London, Lisbon, or Venice who were all economically expanding at rapid paces (Ng et al, 2014). If we fast forward to modern times today, we can still analyze most capital cities as located close to ports. Even with the introduction of cheaper and more effective transportation methods such as rail and air, ports have still reigned supreme for exporting and importing mass goods. As cities saw innovations in technologies, they too innovated, incorporated intermodal techniques to connect the ports to rapidly expanding cities through railways and roads. Therefore, while cities may have developed further inland, they are still connected and heavily dependent on ports to transport their goods.
For the rest of this page, we will be comparing and contrasting port cities throughout history, and how technological innovation has changed the main motivation of port cities. We will look at Egypt and Vancouver, two-port cities with opposite pasts, that have a similar socioeconomic structure. Through the historical contrasting lenses, we hope to see how similar humanity has expanded even as generations have passed between both cities.
Statement of Connection
I decided this choose this topic as I felt it had a decent connection between my main study, Global Supply Chain and Logistics Management, and Geology. I have always been fascinated with how many of the world’s largest cities have been conglomerated around coastal waterways and ports. I wanted to find the reason for it, and I believe it tied in quite well with what we studied in Geology, especially the chapter on water and petroleum. I went as far back as 6,000 BCE, comparing ancient cities with today’s modernized cities to answer how technological advancement may have affected human geography and the geology of shipping and port cities. As well recent developments in advanced supply chain capabilities have made shipping faster than ever, increasing carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions, which ties into chapters where we learned about climate change and the carbon cycle.
Egypt
To understand Egypt and its economic advantages, we must go back to the Ancient Egyptian times during the Predynastic Period (6000-3150 BCE) (Mark, 2017). While initially a domestic trading stronghold, Egypt’s wealth slowly poured out of the nation and into the surrounding area, namely Lybia, Sudan and Syria. It was not until 4,000 BC that the first evidence of boating and maritime trading commenced. Egypt, stationed next to one of the oldest waterway systems in the world, utilized the Nile River, to trade with its neighbouring country Sudan (Amin, n.d.). With expanding shipbuilding and distance, the Egyptians increased maritime intake and began trading as far South as Punt (modern-day Somalia) through the Red Sea (Mark, 2017). As shipping increased, so too did international trading through waterways, expanding Egypt’s influence around the Mediterranean stronghold. Because of the increase in maritime trading, populations in Europe began migrating Northeast to the coast.
The great civilization of ancient Egypt did collapse eventually, yet a piece remained behind as the country of Egypt, located on the north of the African continent today. Still situated next to the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea, Egypt has continued to be a stronghold of maritime shipping and trade. In 1869, the country manufactured the Suez Canal, a small waterway cutting across the Middle East and African continent, which allows ships to pass through at a price, for a trade-off of avoiding a 6,000-mile additional journey around Africa (Huber, 2015). Before this state-of-the-art infrastructure, when Europe wanted to trade with Asia or Oceania, ships had to travel across Europe around the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. With this new re-engineering, ships could save 5,777 nautical miles (Fletcher, 1958). This piece of engineering also completely changed the face of maritime travel and the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Just one year later after being built, of the 1.63 billion yards of cotton goods sent East of Europe, 57% went through Egypt (Fletcher, 1958)!
As the Suez Canal was so thin, early ships were not able to make it through safely, crashing at the entry or exits. Nations began altering shipbuilding techniques, leaving sailing ships ineffective, and bringing prominence to steamships. What also empowered this, was the new route through the Mediterranean Sea, which passed by many coal-heavy nations, allowing for more constant pick-up of fuel sources. When the price of coal double soon after, shipbuilders re-engineered again to create the compound engine (Fletcher, 1958). With the Suez Canal, nations also saw the opportunity to expand international trade by moving coastal as safe point stops to the final destination in Asia or Oceania. If you looked at a map of the countries surrounding the Sea, you would notice that most have their largest cities or capitals situated along the coastal borders. Algeria has Algiers, Tunisia has Tunis, Libya has Tripoli, and Egypt has Alexandria (Kästle, n.d.). All these countries have benefited from an easier transportation method for migration, international trade, and increased tourism.
Vancouver
Let’s move our vast expertise of coastal cities and ports into new territories. The idea of urban metropolitans nearing sea borders is not a concept that has died with age. If we take a closer look at the Greater Vancouver Area, we can find a conglomerate of cities working together to support the Port of Vancouver. But to really understand its growth, we must begin by taking a look at British Columbia’s history dating back to 1791 (Cornwall, 1952). The Vancouver port was first seen by European settlers and migraters in 1791. While looking for the Northwestern passage, they caught a glimpse of what would come to be called Vancouver. It occupied the entire Burrard Inlet which extends 15 miles inward from Vancouver to the English Bay. However, these European settlers didn’t think much of the area and continued onwards. It wasn’t until 1859 that industry first began building in the Vancouver region. Coal was being mined for the first time in the area, in Coal Harbour which is an extension of the Burrard Inlet (Cornwall, 1952). Soon after, the area expanded to begin the production and exportation of forestry found all over Vancouver. As more European settlers move to the area for work, they expanded their search for a new base and went as far as New Westminster, Nanaimo, Victoria, and Port Moody.
Geographically, what they found is that access to the interior from the sea was barred by the Coast Mountains, that extended all the way to Alaska. Economically, it wouldn’t be feasible to move too far inland as the Canadian Pacific Railway was just beginning its expansion into the Greater Toronto Area, and roads were not yet fully utilized. At this time, 4 ports existed in British Columbia: Vancouver, Victoria, New Westminster, and Nanaimo (Cornwall, 1952). Each had their own competitive advantage. Nanaimo became a centre hub for coal, New Westminster was the sight of the gold rush, and Victoria had its Hudson’s Bay Company Centre dedicated to forestry. Vancouver was seen as the central geologic port that each would come to deliver goods, which would be bunched together, and then sent off globally to South America or Europe (Cornwall, 1952). What was found was that trees became the major, easiest, and most reliable resource to exploit and export, and it was majorly produced in Vancouver. With that, the Port of Vancouver became the central hub and port, and other ports came to be known as out-ports. There were other attractions to Vancouver as well. It had a natural harbour with optimal sea level height, closest to the Burrard Inlet’s exit, and was connected to the agricultural lowlands of the Fraser Valley which is how the majority of new settlers enjoyed their food source (Cornwall, 1952). This also made it the optimal area for new settlers to come in, expanding its population at a much faster rate compared to the out-ports.
A snag of the Port of Vancouver’s industry came during the expansion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, when it was decided that the rail would expand to Port Moody instead of Vancouver. This was the supposed optimal location due to its symmetry with the end of the Burrard Inlet. The problem was that Port Moody was made of mudflats and receding tides, not optimal for large ships that wanted to enter the area (Cornwall, 1952). With this blunder, it took an additional 4 years, until 1886 when the Canadian Pacific Railway expanded to Vancouver. By this point, the Port of Vancouver became the major hub of British Columbia. However, with the recession and the downturn of the gold rush, improvements and expansions began slowing down, and Vancouver was slowly losing its credibility as a newcomer’s favorite city. In 1913, it was decided that the Vancouver Harbour Commission would be established to help Vancouver prosper into different industries. Under their leadership, new docks, terminal railways and elevators for shipments were built. Vancouver also expanded into the grain and what industry, becoming somewhat of a boom supply for Europe, especially as World War 1 was to commence (Cornwall, 1952). The problem was, Vancouver’s geography on the western side of Canada meant there was no possibility of beating the lead times of Atlantic United States and Eastern Canadian ports. With the help of the Panama Canal which finished construction in 1919, Vancouver could recover and increase its shipments rapidly, cutting through Latin America, instead sailing to the very tip of South America.
With the success of wheat, and lumber shipments, Vancouver became a world export center, and fast forwarding to today, still is one of the most important ports in North America. Moving back to the original question of how ports influenced the geographical locations of cities, we can tell that industry was an extremely important benefactor of how Vancouver became the central hub for what it is today. Out of the 15 main commodities Vancouver exports, 9 of them are produced in coastal communities: lumber, paper, pulp, shingels, doors, canned fish, processed fish, fish meal, and fish oil (Cornwall, 1952). Even as different modes of transportation exist nowadays, making aquatic transportation practically irrelevant, Vancouver’s coastal environment continues to prosper as an economic, social, and populous hub.
Consequences
With the increase of urban development, comes the substantial rise in the population of port cities. Relaying back on the background section, 8 of the 10 most populous cities are now located to ports. With an increase in population, comes an increase in global shipping traffic, as advanced supply chains are put in place to feed and satisfy nearly 8 billion people. There have been some negative direct and indirect consequences from this heavy traffic.
The Mediterranean Sea is home to one of the most diverse marine biodiversity cultures in the world. With nearly 17,000 different species, this has been closely monitored by marine biologists worldwide (Katsanevakis et al, 2014). With the introduction of the Suez Canal, the increase in shipping has negatively affected marine life through the introduction of alien species. Nearly 1,000 new species have been introduced, creating negative effects including the displacement of native species, the modification of habitats, changed community structures, and modified food webs (Katsanevakis et al, 2014). For humanity, it has led to an impact on our human health with a decrease in aquaculture in the area, and economic losses for the same reasons. Climate change and increases in greenhouse gases have also modified the area, as the Mediterranean Sea sees an above-average increase in sea surface temperatures.
Another negative consequence of increased shipping worldwide has been underwater noise pollution. This is a type of pollution that we as humans cannot see or feel, which makes it much more difficult to interject and fix. This goes against the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14, which states protection for life below water. Underwater noise pollution has become a greater consequence of global shipping as ports take more ships with more efficient supply chains put in place (Seyedvahid, n.d.). These noises can cause poor biological growth rates, breeding patterns, decreased immunity and lower reproductive rates. A great case study was conducted in the Port of Vancouver with the decision to move forward with the Kinder Morgan Trans Mountain Pipeline. A predicted increase in tanker traffic exporting oil from Alberta would increase air pollution, greenhouse gases, and noise pollution (Seyedvahid, n.d.). As most global economies still rely on fossil fuels to conduct energy, gas, and plastic production, this decision, while economically viable, will hurt social and environmental global factors.
Conclusion
Through the case studies of Egypt and Vancouver, we have uncovered how port cities have developed originally as a means of international trade, into a means of migration, marine species harvesting, and tourism. Infrastructure in alternate countries can also bring rise to neighbouring cities moving closer to coastal waterways to take advantage of such innovation. Take for example Libya with the Suez Canal, or New Westminster along the Fraser River. While port cities provide the advantage of proximity to shipping, they would be useless without intermodal infrastructure backing it up. As new modes of transportations continue to arise at faster speeds, including airfare, trucking, and railway, none can compete with the cheaper, long-term alternative of shipping. We should expect this pattern to continue as cities continue rapid population climbs.
What does this mean for the geology of the Earth? Obviously, if we were at the times of Pangaea, shipping would do nothing for us, as we could all be interconnected by a single railroad. However, with the separation of Earth’s continents, we need to take into consideration some geological consequences. These include increase pollution from fossil fuel burning ships, underwater noise pollution, and destruction of marine habitats. Most port cities are situated at the current sea level, and with melting glaciers due to increasing greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere, ports may need to develop higher elevation infrastructure that can cost a global fortune. This all comes down to a cause-and-effect tree, as the outbreak of trade and economies worldwide unleashes havoc on Earth’s geology.
To combat this, we need to continue the innovation that led Egypt from a land of land to marine trade and its development of the world’s busiest waterways. We need to create sustainable evolution that can create ships that can run on solar or hydro energy, emit less underwater noise, and protect habitats. Some of the biggest ports today now exist in China, and while they are one of the greatest greenhouse emitters, they are also one of the greatest change-makers for the green revolution. Through sustainable shipping and port cities worldwide, we can continue human evolution in a way that doesn’t hurt our planet, or ourselves. In addition, due to hinterlands and intermodal transportation, we are beginning to build ports further away from urban development. This is to minimize noise, congestion, and disturbance to city planning. Just because we are not directly affected by ports anymore, doesn't mean we can ignore all the problems already mentioned. We must combat this philosophy of 'Not In My Neighbourhood (NIMBY)' and change the shipping landscape. We have lived through it for the past 8,000 years, and we know the effects it has on our biodiversity, therefore, let us work together to make change!
References
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Cornwall, I. H. B. (1952). A geographical study of the Port of Vancouver in relation to its coastal hinterland (T). Retrieved from https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0106529
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