Course:EOSC311/2021/Geology’s Impact on Psychology Though MRI
Magnetic Resonance Imagining (MRI) is the most prominent imaging technology used in the field of psychology for research and diagnosis. The hardware components of MRI machines are only available because of geological resources.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging - Function & Usage
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How MRI Works
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is an advanced medical tool that allows physicians to produce detailed three dimensional representations, or ‘images’, of patients’ bodies without the need for invasive procedures (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.). MRI is made possible through a variety of specialised technologies and techniques (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.).
When imaging a subject, the patient must enter a cylindrical chamber containing powerful electromagnets. These magnets produce an intense magnetic field which redirects protons in the patients’ tissues (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.). A radiofrequency (RF) pulse is then applied, which disrupts the magnetic equilibrium of the protons. When the RF pulse is removed, sensors in the MRI are able to detect the speed at which the protons realign and how much energy is released by the change (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.).
Measuring the difference between the protons orientation and location during and after RF pulses, as well as the energy released, allows computers to generate three dimensional representations of the data, which can then be interpreted to understand the type, shape, and layout of tissue present (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.).
Operators may also inject patients with Gadolinium contrast agents which increase the speed at which the protons realign, improving imaging (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.). The less time required to take an image, and the less movement the patient makes, the higher quality the result (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.).
MRI Usage in Psychology
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MRI, along with the specialised form known as functional MRI (or fMRI), are particularly useful for psychologists looking to study the brain. MRI is more effective than some other forms of imaging when it comes to examining soft tissues, such as the brain and nervous system (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.). MRI may be used to distinguish the different types of brain matter (white and grey), individual regions of the brain and their activity, locate tumors or aneurysms (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.), and in some cases may even allow scientists to predict patients’ choices before they verbalise them (Moran & Zaki, 2013).
While scientists have utilized various techniques to monitor patients’ brain structures and regional activity for many decades, MRI has emerged as an effective, non-invasive, and generally-safer alternative (Cacioppo et al., 2008; Moran & Zaki, 2013). Additionally, while psychologists once had to rely primarily on more interpretive or intuitive techniques to understand psychological behaviour and its connection to the physical regions of the brain, MRI has allowed for a more nuanced and complex understanding of the interconnected web of neurological connections that underlie human thought and behaviour (Cacioppo et al., 2008).
More recent developments in the field include the use of real-time fMRI, which no longer requires a slow imaging process (Moran & Zaki, 2013). Through the development of new techniques and technologies, psychologists’ understanding of human cognition can continue to be revised and refined over time (Cacioppo et al., 2008).
Key MRI Hardware & Resources
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MRI scanners are large intricate machines that require many specialized parts to properly function. Key hardware includes superconductive magnets composed of niobium alloys and cooled in liquid helium, gradient coils etched in copper, and contrast agents utilising Gadolinium. These natural resources are necessary for effective MRI performance.
Superconductive Magnets
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MRI scanners rely on superconductive magnets in a cylindrical coil (or solenoid) shape in order to generate the magnetic fields required (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-b) to attract patients’ protons. Superconductive magnets also tend to be highly stable, which is crucial for the MRI effect, as it requires a “homogenous static magnetic field” (Rajan, 2012).
These superconductors, which make up about 90% of all magnets in a typical MRI scanner (Rajan, 2012), are constructed using highly conductive copper-covered niobium/tin or niobium/titanium alloys which, when cooled to approximately -260℃, perform with zero electrical resistance (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-b).
Key Resources
Niobium
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Niobium (Nb) is important to the production of MRI superconductive magnets, as it is combined (most commonly) with tin or titanium to create highly conductive alloys with zero electrical resistance when held at extremely low temperatures (Rajan, 2012). It is a soft and flexible, yet durable, metal and, as such, is well-suited for this application (Lide, 2008, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014).
Niobium is primarily sourced from weathering-enriched, magmatic (Woolley & Kjarsgaard, 2008, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014), igneous rock formations bearing carbonatite complex-related ore deposits (Papp, 2013, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014). The majority of these carbonatite intrusions are found in fairly rare and specific geological conditions, forming in areas that are alkaline and typically at continental or cratonic margins (Woolley & Kjarsgaard, 2008, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014) that are between 2.8 billion and 85 million years old (Mackay & Simandl, 2014).
The vast majority of the world’s supply of Niobium comes from Brazil (Mackay & Simandl, 2014), where deposits take the form of plugs, dikes, sills, or zoned formations (Gold et al., 1967, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014). While other countries, including Canada, do contribute to available Niobium, Brazil’s supply accounts for roughly 90% of available Niobium (Papp, 2013, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014). Primary Brazilian producers are Araxá and Catalão I and II (Mackay & Simandl, 2014). The majority portion of remaining Niobium production (about 7%) is produced in Canada at the St. Honoré mine (Mackay & Simandl, 2014).
Helium
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In order to continue functioning properly, superconductive magnetic coils must be kept very cold (Rajan, 2012). To achieve this stable low temperature, the magnets are submerged in a cryogen - most commonly, liquid helium (Rajan, 2012). If cryogen levels drop below safe limits, the resulting output of excessive heat can be catastrophic - even life-threatening (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-b). As such, it is crucial that helium be refilled or replaced every 3-6 months, depending on the scanner model (Rajan, 2012).
Helium is primarily derived by extracting crude Helium (which has a percent, by volume, of about 50-70%) from natural gas reserves (National Research Council et al., 2000) which may be found within chambers explored by oil and gas companies (Qaed, 2021). To do this, producers typically must first penetrate a cap rock which sits atop and contains the gas reserve (Rocky Mountain Air Solutions, n.d.). Helium often accompanies significant uranium deposits, as a majority of the world’s supply is produced as a natural byproduct of decaying uranium (Rocky Mountain Air Solutions, n.d.).
Following extraction, it is piped and transported to a refining plant (Rocky Mountain Air Solutions, n.d.), where it is purified to various commercial grades (National Research Council et al., 2000). It can then be conserved and stored underground for future use (Anderson, 2017).
The United States is currently the world’s leading producer of Helium (National Research Council et al., 2000) with Qatar and Algeria following, respectively (Qaed, 2021).
Gradient Coils
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In order for the images produced by the MRI scanner to be as accurate as possible, the machine utilizes gradient coils - specifically-etched and oriented bands of copper - to produce variations in the magnetic field strength between points in the patients’ body (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-a; Rajan, 2012)
Simply put, gradient coils are loops of wire or thin conductive sheets on a cylindrical shell, which lies inside the bore of an MRI scanner (Harmonay, 2018). When an electrical current passes through these coils, they produce a secondary magnetic field which interacts with the more stable primary field (Harmonay, 2018). This gradient field distorts the primary field in slight but predictable patterns (Harmonay, 2018), allowing image ‘slices’ to be properly localised and encoded for accurate interpretation (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-a; Rajan, 2012).
Key Resource
Copper
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The majority of copper is mined from porphyry deposits, which occur primarily at subduction zones along continental margins or at island arcs (Earth Science Australia, n.d.). Most of these deposits are found in rock dating to between the Palaeogene and Neogene (Earth Science Australia, n.d.). Most modern copper mines are open-pit mines.
The top three producers of copper are currently Chile, Peru, and China, respectively (Statista, 2021).
MRI Contrast
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Gadolinium-based contrast agents (or GBCAs) react with particles in a patients’ body to improve the visibility of tissues in imaging scans (Drugwatch, 2020; National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.). They do so by increasing the reaction time of protons, brightening and clarifying the image (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, n.d.). Improving the quality of images is crucial for more accurate diagnosis of ailments, such as tumors, blood clots, and inflammation as well as brain region activity (Drugwatch, 2020).
Key Resource
Gadolinium
In order to negate the natural toxicity of pure Gadolinium, GBCAs are mixed with other, safer ions, which surround the Gadolinium (Drugwatch, 2020). This process, called chelation, protects the body while maintaining the image-enhancing effects of the Gadolinium (Drugwatch, 2020). Typically, patients’ kidneys are able to process and expel the chelated metal before any harm occurs (Drugwatch, 2020).
Gadolinium is classified as a light rare earth element (or LREE) (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, n.d.). Like Niobium, accessible deposits of Gadolinium and other economically important REE’s are often found in alkaline igneous formations with carbonatite-related structures and placer deposits left behind following erosion (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, n.d.). Gadolinium, specifically, can occur within many minerals but is primarily extracted from bastnasite (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2021).
Responsible for over 60% of the world’s annual supply, China is currently the world’s leading producer of REE’s, with an estimated 132,000 tons produced in 2019 (Government of Canada, n.d.).The following top producers, USA, Myanmar, Australia, and India, account for most of the remaining 40% (Government of Canada, n.d.).
Sourcing Concerns & Effects on Psychology
Sourcing Concerns & Potential Difficulties
Niobium
While recent discoveries of Niobium in Canada may prove valuable in the future, currently, the world relies almost exclusively on Niobium sourced from carbonatite deposits in Brazil (Mackay & Simandl, 2014). Over 90% of the world’s supply of Niobium comes from a single country (Mackay & Simandl, 2014) and very little is effectively recycled - only about 20% (Papp, 2013, as cited in Mackay & Simandl, 2014). If other viable sources of Niobium are not established, a simple drop in Brazilian production of the rare resource could render the production of the superconductive alloys necessary for MRIs impossible (Mackay & Simandl, 2014).
Helium
Experts also have concerns about the long-term sustainability of Helium consumption, with current estimates predicting scarcity of the resource some time after 2030 unless measures are taken to reduce consumption or improve Helium recycling (Olafsdottir & Sverdrup, 2020). Additionally, Helium often escapes or is released into Earth’s atmosphere, where it is no longer economically viable to harvest or reclaim - and where it will eventually escape into space due to its exceptionally low density (Olafsdottir & Sverdrup, 2020). While there are possible innovations in development that may negate MRI’s reliance on helium, or find alternative sources - such as mining the moon’s surface for Helium (Matar, 2020) - these developments have yet to change popular procedures.
Copper
Copper, while less precious than some of the rare or quickly-depleting resources required for other MRI components, is still a necessity and comes with its own set of concerns. Open pit mining practices used to extract copper from the earth can have major environmental impacts. Concerns such as acid mine drainage show the need for further research, or a greater reliance on recycled material, in mitigating or reducing the environmental implications of continued copper extraction.
Gadolinium
Recently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began warning patients of the potential hazards presented by the use of Gadolinium-based contrast agents (Drugwatch, 2020). It seems that, contrary to earlier beliefs, chelation may not be a sufficient practice to negate the dangers of this toxic metal (Drugwatch, 2020). Gadolinium may remain in patients’ bodies beyond its initial use - potentially for months, or even years (Drugwatch, 2020). This is particularly concerning to vulnerable individuals, such as patients with inflammatory conditions or who are taking specific medications, children, and women who are pregnant (Drugwatch, 2020). Despite it currently being the safest known contrast agent, the elevated risks have prompted researchers to begin looking for safer alternatives (Drugwatch, 2020).
General Concerns
Currently, only wealthier nations and individuals (approximately 30% of the world’s population) have access to MRI technology, due to the high costs and complexities of creating, operating, and maintaining the machines (O’Reilly & Webb, 2019). A combination of rare and difficult-to-source natural resources, costly and complicated components, and the need to frequently replenish or replace these integral parts means that it will take significant innovation or more accessible alternatives to resolve this disparity (O’Reilly & Webb, 2019).
Potential Effects on the Field of Psychology
Currently, the startup costs for acquiring an MRI scanner may run as high as $1.5 million (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-b). On top of this, there are significant complexities involved in properly preparing a space to house and operate the machine - from magnetic and radiofrequency shielding, to vibration mitigation and structural reinforcement, and the development of extremely reliable uninterruptible power supplies (Murphy & Ballinger, n.d.-b) which contributes to the inaccessible nature of MRI technology as well as the prohibitive cost to healthcare suppliers and researchers around the globe.
While some innovation is currently underway to find more accessible, lower cost, alternatives to existing MRI technologies - such as research into Cryogen-free MRI scanners, which would mitigate Helium requirements (O’Reilly & Webb, 2019) - these advances have yet to overtake the ‘traditional’ models in popularity or usage, as they are currently less effective (O’Reilly & Webb, 2019).
There may be geological or economic advances to be made as well. If the rare resources required for MRI development were able to be sourced more efficiently, utilized more effectively, or renewed more sustainably, this could decrease their costs and allow for more accessible and affordable MRI technology.
Conversely, if deployment of MRI technology continues to increase, it is likely to lead to further resource depletion, which could have adverse effects on the availability or applicability of MRI. This would have a significant effect on many medical fields, including psychology. As MRI and fMRI are crucial to modern methods for understanding patients’ neurological condition as well as for research aimed at better understanding human behaviour and related physiology, the loss of MRI as a tool for psychologists and other physicians would be monumental.
References (APA)
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