Course:CONS370/2019/The impacts of the policy of protecting the culture of Chinese Ethnic Minorities and forest resources on the Manchu and Oroqen Ethnic Minorities in Greater Khingan Range, Heilongjiang, China.

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A beautiful scenery in Greater Khingan range

Greater Khingan Range is located in Heilongjiang province, northeast China, which contains the largest forest area in China. The Manchu Ethnic Minority has lived here since ancient time. [1][2] Their residence, food, and language have deep connections with Greater Khingan forest.[3] The Oroqen Ethnic Minority developed a unique forest hunting culture in the Greater Khingan Range.[4] The form and development of their traditional culture are based on aboriginal forestry. However, recently some elements of their cultures have disappeared because of the invasion of mainstream culture, deforestation, and inappropriate government policies. The policies from 2010 to 2019 mainly focus on controlling ecological deterioration and economic development. The Three-North shelterbelt project protects forest ecosystems and helps the restoration of degraded environment. Nevertheless, there are some issues such as insufficient funds, degradation in afforestation projects, and the implementation of the policies which have exacerbated the neglect of the traditional management practices of Ethnic Minorities.[5][6] In this case study, we assess the main issues in the protection of aboriginal forestry ecology and culture. In response to current issues, our recommendations are: (1) Increase financial input (2) Promote restoration of forests (3) Take the traditions of Ethnic Minorities into consideration.[7] (4) Increase job opportunities for Ethnic Minorities (5) Improve the management system of government departments.

Description

A brief map of China

Location

Greater Khingan Range (50°11'-53°33' N, 121°12'-127°00' E) is located in the northwestern part of Heilongjiang province, is next to Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and it is the northernmost frontier of China.[8] It contains the largest forest area in China.[9] Greater Khingan Range has abundant natural resources such as medicinal plants, rare wildlife, water, mineral sources, and contains profound traditional culture of different Ethnic Minorities.[8]

History

Ethnic Minorities and forests

Many Ethnic Minorities including the Manchu, Mongolian, Evenks and Oroqen Ethnic Minorities have lived in the Greater Khingan area since ancient time.[1][2] Their culture and traditions have deep connections with Greater Khingan forests.[3]

A Manchu bride
The Manchu Ethnic Minority   

In terms of the Manchu Ethnic Minority, their culture and history originated in the forests of Greater Khingan Range in ancient China. The legendary ancestor of the Manchu Ethnic Minority is Aisin-Gioro Bukūri Yongšon, who was born in the Paektu Mountain in Greater Khingan Range forest.[1] The recorded ancestors of the Manchu Ethnic Minority named Jurchen, Sushen, Tungusic Mohe also settled down in northeast China.[1] Nowadays, the Manchu Ethnic Minority is widely distributed in northeast China including Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Jilin provinces.[3] Manchu language is directly integrated into the northeast dialect.[3][10] Many cities and landscapes still use their Manchu names. For example, the northernmost river in China is the Yalu River, which is a Manchu name.[3] Additionally, their residence and diet are affected by living in the mountain and forest. Traditionally, people ate hotpots after hunting in the forest because it was convenient and fast.[2][3] Manchu houses are generally facing south and funnel-shaped, which is developed from the ancient cave dwellings.[2][3] Therefore, the traditional culture of the Manchu Ethnic Minority is built on the Greater Khingan forest.

The last shaman of Oroqen
The Oroqen Ethnic Minority

The Oroqen Ethnic Minority were famous for their hunting economy and developed a unique forest hunting culture in the Greater Khingan.[4] The recorded history about them can be traced back to the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).[4][11] The history book Hulunbeier recorded that the Oroqen Ethnic Minority were familiar with the forest conditions because they lived in the forest from birth.[4] The earliest meaning of “Oroqen” is people in the forests or people domesticated deer.[4][12]Thus, their relationship with the forest can be seen from their name.

National laws and policies   

The Chinese government has set up several laws and policies to protect the rights of Ethnic Minorities and give them equal status with the Hanzu—the largest Chinese ethnic group since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Constitution of the People's Republic of China

It was implemented in 1982, and the most recent amendment was passed on March 11, 2018.[13]

Article 95: Local governments consist of people's congresses and local people's governments.[13]

Article 112: The organs of self-government of Ethnic Minorities autonomous areas consist of the people's congresses, people's governments of autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, and autonomous counties.[13]

The state government designate the Ethnic Minorities autonomous areas in places where many Ethnic Minorities are concentrated. However, there is no Ethnic Minorities autonomous government in the Greater Khingan Range, so the Greater Khingan government is not run and composed by Ethnic Minorities.

Land Administration Law of the People's Republic China (1988 Amendment) 

Article 12: Collectively owned land may be contracted and operated by collectives or individuals to engage in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery production.[14]

Forest Law of the People's Republic China (2016 Amendment)

Article 4: Units and individuals using collectively owned forests, forests and woodlands shall apply for registration to the competent forestry authority of the county-level government, and the county-level government shall issue a license to confirm the right to use forests and woodlands.[15]

Contemporary policies

The Three-North protection project (The fifth phase 2010-2019)

In order to set up the overall development planning of the Greater Khingan Range, an operational forestry conference was held by the party central committee in the year xx. The most typical case is the Three-North shelterbelt project. "Three-North" shelterbelt project is implemented in three northern areas of China, northwest, north China and northeast including Heilongjiang, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu and other nine provinces, cities and autonomous regions, with a total area of 406.9 [thousand or million?] square kilometers.

The Three-North protection project is planned within a period of 70 years and will be carried out in seven phases: the first phase from 1979 to 1984, the second phase from 1985 to 1994, the third phase from 1995 to 1999, the fourth phase from 2000 to 2009, the fifth phase from 2010 to 2019, the sixth phase from 2020 to 2029, the seventh phase from 2030-2039, and the eighth phase from 2040-2049. At present, the fifth phase has been implemented.[5]

This project is an ecological project based on trees. The goal of the environmental project is not only to restore the original state of the natural environment, but also to create a more suitable environment for humans and wildlife, and to develop a more harmonious relationship between humans and nature with the sustainable use of natural resources.

Tenure arrangements

Map of Qing dynasty

History of Tenure Arrangements

Before the establishment of the People's Republic of China, forests were treated as open access in the Qing Dynasty [insert dates]. There was no explicit legal provision for forest land ownership. The farmland was mainly private, divided into monarchs' private land, private land of landlords, and private land of farmers.[16] The Manchu and Oroqen Ethnic Minorities living in Greater Khingan Range had rights to use land, timbers, animals, and plants to maintain their lives.   

In 1949, the People's Republic of China was established, followed by the enactment of a series of new legislation. In 1950, the Chinese state government promulgated the Agrarian Reform Law of the People's Republic of China.[17] This law aimed to abolish the land ownership of feudal exploitation of the landlord class and implement the land ownership of the peasants.[18] In terms of forests ownership, vast forests were directly classified as state property. [17]  

From 1958 to 1978, the People’s Commune system was implemented.[17] Some households formed a mutual-aid group for forest management.[17] Families owned Farmland, and collectivization developed rapidly in this period.[17] There was no specific management approach for Ethnic Minorities.

Common property

In 1982, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China was adopted and implemented at the Fifth National People's Congress, which has been used nowadays.[13] It stipulated the rural and suburban land is owned by the local villages and is regulated by the local governments.

  1. Natural resources such as forests, mountains, grasslands, wasteland, and tidal flats are all owned by the state, that is, owned by the whole people; except for forests and mountains, grasslands, wastelands, and tidal flats that are collectively owned by law. (Constitution of the People's Republic of China, Article 9)[13]
  2. Land in rural and urban suburbs is collectively owned except as required by law to be owned by the state. (Constitution of the People's Republic of China, Article 10)[13]
  3. Collectively owned land shall be owned collectively by the village peasants under the law, and shall be operated and managed by agricultural collective economic organizations such as village committees. (Land Administration Law of the People's Republic China, Article 8)[14]

For strategic reasons, state forest companies manage a large proportion of these forests.[9] Ethnic Minorities in Greater Khingan Range have forests near their villages, but forests far from the villages belong to state property. According to the Forest Law of the People's Republic China, Article 5 (2016), villages using forests and woodlands need to submit applications to the local government.[15] Operators [clarify what you mean by Operators] have an obligation to protect the ecological environment and promote sustainable economic development, and they also have the rights to use timber, firewood to increase income (Forest Law of the People's Republic China, Article 12 and Article 15).[15] No laws mentioned the duration of the common property.

Administrative arrangements

The Greater Khingan Range Administrative Bureau

The Greater Khingan Range Administrative Bureau is an organ of People's Government of Heilongjiang Province. It is the administrative organ of the Greater Khingan Range in Heilongjiang province.[19]

The Greater Khingan Range Administrative Bureau implements the decisions and orders from People's Government of Heilongjiang Province, and it directs the work of its subordinate departments and people's governments of counties (districts) in the region of Greater Khingan Range. It is responsible for People's Government of Heilongjiang Province, and the work it accomplished should be reported up to People's Government of Heilongjiang Province.

State Forestry Administration of P.R.China badge

Forestry Administration Bureau of The Greater Khingan Range

Forestry Administration Bureau of The Greater Khingan Range is directly under the National Forestry and Grassland Bureau, which is a department-level unit with 10 forestry bureaus and 61 forestry farms under its jurisdiction. The total jurisdictional area is 8,027,897 hectares, of which the forestry operating area is 7,912,967 hectares, accounting for 98.57% of the total area. The total population number in the district is 530,000. Forestry Administration Bureau of The Greater Khingan Range was established in January 1965. It collaborates with The Greater Khingan Range Administrative Bureau, and they have implemented the management system of integrating government administration with enterprise management.[19]

Affected Stakeholders

The Manchu Ethnic Minority communities 

The Manchu Ethnic Minority has more than 10 million population, accounting for 9.28% of the Ethnic Minorities.[20] It is one of the primary Ethnic Minorities living in Greater Khingan Range. As affected stakeholders, people who live in Manchu villages rely on vast forests to survive. The policy of prohibiting hunting and limiting deforestation has had a significant impact on their lives. Furthermore, since there is no autonomous region set up here, local governments do not pay enough attention to Ethnic Minorities, leading to the disappearance of their traditional culture. Although the Manchu Ethnic Minority has their own language, the number of people who can read and write their native tongue is scarce.[10] Their custom developed in forest activities is being forgotten by the younger generation of the Manchu Ethnic Minority. In response to this condition, the Manchu Ethnic Minority objectives are to promote their culture and educate their young people about the language and traditions. Also, local villages develop tourism to solve the unemployment caused by environmental protection policies. The Manchu Ethnic Minority power is higher than the power of the Oroqen Ethnic Minority since they have more people and there are also some Manchus working in the local government. 

The Oroqen Ethnic Minority communities 

The Oroqen Ethnic Minority is one of the least populous of the Ethnic Minorities in northeast China. According to the sixth national census in 2010, there were 8,659 people in the Oroqen Ethnic Minority.[12] They were nomadic hunters, and their gatherer tribes were distributed in the northernmost Chinese forests.[9] Oroqen people were born in forests and are forest-dependent. Their clothes are fur coats and suede caps created to meet the cold weather and hunting life.[12] Similar to the Manchus, the Oroqen Ethnic Minority also believe in shamanism, manifested as nature, totems and ancestor worship.[4][12] Their dance derives from wrestling with black bears.[12] Additionally, their food, architecture, transportation are all based on forests.[4] However, the implementation of recent policies prohibits them from hunting and having access to some forest lands. Therefore, their lifestyle has gradually changed from hunting to farming. Their traditional knowledge and culture are gradually being eliminated. So their main relevant objectives are to protect the traditional culture and participate more in forest management. At the same time, they tend to improve living standards through local tourism and selling local specialties. Nevertheless, since they live in the forest for a long time and the population size is small, they do not have a strong power to influence policy decisions. Their relative power is their understanding of the Greater Khingan forest because they are familiar with forests and their traditional knowledge is summarized in long-term management practice. This knowledge is beneficial for the development of local conservation strategies. Moreover, Oroqen villages with unique culture is a special tourist attraction that can attract people to go sightseeing. 

Interested Outside Stakeholders

Forest sanatorium:an emerging industry

Based on the ecological advantages, the Greater Khingan Range has introduced Zhang Zhongjing health care hospital of Beijicun village. This forest recuperation project has many functions such as medical care and tourism, and it is available to all age groups. By experiencing forest while convalescing and directly experiencing the forest, participants will be able to reduce stress influence. In the long run, it is believed that their immune system will be promoted and the possibility of cancer will be decreased which benefit their health. In 2017, it received 18,000 old people, and 6.85 million tourists in total, with a tourism revenue of 6.5 billion RMB. As government policies restricted logging severely, the Forest sanatorium has become a part of the transformation of economic gain, from harvesting to a more sustainable form. The objective of the investor and operator in the forest sanatorium is to get economic benefits from the beautiful landscape and abundant forest resources and to improve the public health level.[21]

The morning sun shines into the silent forest in Greater Khingan Range

Ecologists: forest restoration and ecosystem functions

After the deforestation in 1960-1980s, the available forest resources were gradually exhausted and ecological functions were seriously degraded. In this occasion, it is high time that actions should be taken to restore the ecosystem and maintain the biodiversity. Ecologists can collaborate with the local government to recover the forest ecosystem in Greater Khingan Range. The objective of the ecologists is to reverse the loss of forests and degradation of the ecosystem. With the help of the studies conducted by ecologists, afforestation, wetland protection, soil erosion control, grassland restoration, mine environment management and the Songhua river water pollution prevention have all been implemented In recent years.[22]

Government: Heilongjiang provincial department of culture and tourism

The government in Heilongjiang province can make use of the beautiful scenery and the culture of local Ethnic Minorities in the Greater Khingan Range. For instance, new tourism projects can be established based on the hunting and fishing culture of Manchu. Some themes such as “Hunter in the Greater Khingan Range” can be advertised to attract tourists.[23] The beautiful natural environment and abundant resources in the Greater Khingan Range provide favorable conditions for the living and multiplying of the Manchu nationality, which will also become the precious resources for its tourism development in the future. As mentioned above, the cultural characteristics of Manchu nationality have a deep connection with the forests and nature. With the worship and respect of nature, the cultural tourism resources of Manchu are also closely related to nature. The objective of the government is to develop historical and cultural resources and boost tourism, which will bring economic benefits. Besides, promoting tourism will solve the problem of employment of people in Ethnic Minorities.

Forest companies

In recent years, the development of forest industry is increasingly rapid. Driven by investment, China has become a big forestry country. In 2015, the total forestry industrial value was higher than the growth rate of the national economy.[24] In this occasion, the investment of forest companies should be encouraged. The main relevant objective of these forest companies is to make a profit from harvesting the resources sustainably.

Discussion

Achievements

Mitigate the degradation of the forest ecosystem

Desertification as well as soil erosion have been curbed. During the past 40 years since the implementation of the Three-North shelterbelt project, 278,000 km2 of desertified land in the region have been treated. As a result, there was a declining trend in the degree of desertification.[5] Besides, the air pollution was also mitigated with the increasing size of the forest area.[22]

Bring economic profit

It had been reported that the grain yield had nearly doubled within the time period 1978 to 2007, with the help of shelterbelt forests for agriculture use. Besides, timber production also increased in this period. In addition to restoring the ecosystem and build up the system of shelter forests, Three-North shelterbelt project also developed commercial forests. Consequently, The arbor plantation in the project area had doubled, which also promoted the development of forest by-products and developed the local economy.

Promote the popularization of forestry knowledge

Since the implementation of Three-North shelterbelt project, the government had provided a large amount of financial support and some policies have been established to promote forestry. A large number of professional forest workers have been trained, and a variety of forestry universities were supported to popularize forestry knowledge.[5]

Issues

Combination of culture and ecology

Greater Khingan Range is rich in forest cultural heritage. However, as it is still in the initial stage of development, there are insufficient theoretical studies of forest culture. The spiritual values in forest culture, especially literature, music, painting and other forms of art related to forest, have not received enough attention, and ecological products with landscape and humanistic characteristics are insufficient. Besides, the forest culture has not been popularized and relevant education still needs to improve[25]. Despite their Indigenous knowledge of nature inherited from generations, the minority people in Greater Khingan Range lack the understanding of the ecological information of forests. Also, the evaluation system of the ecological functions, moral values, consumption values and political achievements that are suitable for the ecological culture construction in Greater Khingan Range is not yet perfect.

Change in lifestyle and loss of culture

It is true that the traditions of Manchu and Oroqen people are closely related to the forest. The two Ethnic Minorities we talked about have the common tradition of the hunting and fishing lifestyle[10], and some populations of their groups use wood to build the residence. Now that hunting and logging are strictly regulated, their sources of income have been limited and their traditions are at risk of being forgotten. Besides, China is in the key period of transition from a traditional society to a modern one. More and more people from Ethnic Minority groups prefer a modern life style than their traditional one, which is a barrier to the transmission of the culture and traditions.

Issues in Three-North protection project

As for the restoration plan implemented in the Three-North protection project, though the great improvements have already been made considering ecosystem and economic profit, some issues still exist. The actual investment of construction funds is insufficient, making some of the goals hard to achieve. In addition, degradation happens in afforestation projects [5].

Resource management and related regulations

The implementation of the policies sometimes neglect the traditional management practices of Ethnic Minorities [6]. Their symbols and traditions about nature has rarely been paid attention to. What's worse, the legal system in China still has many problems: Some powers for different regions and institutions may overlap, and some specific regulation for Ethnic Minorities remain unclear.[9] Therefore, the rights of Ethnic Minorities is difficult to be guaranteed. For afforestation works, unclear and overlapping functions of government departments result in the implementation of projects in inappropriate places, and lack of maintenance after the completion of projects.

Assessment

People living in the Manchu Ethnic Minority villages 

They have relatively low power to influence decisions and change the implementation of policies. However, they have the power to use collectively owned forests. After applying to the government for a forest harvesting license, they can harvest timber and firewood in a limited amount to earn money. For promoting their traditional culture, the village heads of the Manchu Ethnic Minority villages can organize Manchu language courses in the village schools. They can also develop tourism based on forest landscapes and historic buildings to promote their culture and maintain their livelihoods. Cooperating with local governments can increase their influence and attract more tourists.

People living in the Oroqen Ethnic Minority villages   

They have low power because they are less likely to affect government decision making. They can use forest land near their villages. Although they can no longer gain food and clothing through hunting, they receive a grant for their livelihoods under the protection of related state policies. They can get work as rangers and forest guides depend on their understanding of local forests. Additionally, they are able to improve living conditions by developing tourism.

Forest sanatoriums

Forest sanatoriums have relatively high power to affect tourism in Greater Khingan Range. As a new industry, forest sanatorium is developing rapidly, and it attracts a lot of people's attention. They can promote Ethnic Minority traditional culture when publicizing the health benefits of forests. They can also hire Ethnic Minority people to provide native food for customers and to improve the lives of poor Ethnic Minority families.

Ecologists

Ecologists often have high power because their results and findings can influence the government's assessment of the development of the forest ecological environment and shelter forests in the Greater Khingan Mountains. Some ecologists also participate in the formulation of policies. Ecologists value the forests so they can change or modify some points of the current policy-the fifth phase of the Three-North protection project and improve future afforestation plans for existing problems such as shelterbelt forest degradation, the outbreak of pine caterpillar infestation and monoculture. The Ethnic Minority traditional forest management knowledge can be taken into account in the implementation of future conservation strategies by ecologists.

Heilongjiang provincial department of culture and tourism

Heilongjiang government has a high power to make some policies, and promote the Greater Khingan natural environment and Ethnic Minority culture. Government propaganda of local forests can attract timber companies to invest in forest projects. After the promotion of the traditional culture of Ethnic Minorities, it can attract historical lovers to visit and also attract historical civilization protection organizations to participate in the protection of traditional culture and customs.

Forest companies

Forest enterprises are financial supporters of afforestation projects so they have relatively high power to influence project implementation. Companies hire local people to work, so they provide jobs for some Ethnic Minorities with employment difficulties. The join of forest companies can drive economic development and promote local GDP growth.

Recommendations

In order to promote the great prosperity and development of forest culture in the Greater Khingan forest region, and adapt to the new situation and demand of ecological civilization construction, the following suggestions are put forward.

Intensify financial support

First and foremost, the fund should be increased for the better accomplishment of the goals of the rapid development of the tourism and the afforestation projects. In addition to the government support, it is also suggested that a better investment environment condition is formed to attract investment. To be more specific, the business invitation considering forest companies should be encouraged. Local people, especially those from the Ethnic Minority communities, are suggested to learn more about marketing and forest products for collaborating with investors.

Restoring forest ecology

Develop ecological forest areas and restore the ecosystem of the Greater Khingan forests. In addition to planting trees on wasteland and restoring vegetation, strengthening forest land management and wetland management are essential. Furthermore, it is necessary to create mixed species forests, multi-strata plants spatial structures, and add some stands of dead trees in the woods as wildlife habitats. Also, biodiversity tends to increase by avoiding monoculture and invasive species. The establishment of nature reserves, ecological zones and beautiful towns can protect the ecological environment and stimulate local tourism.

Sustainable development based on the Ethnic Minorities' culture

The traditional forest ecological culture and ecological philosophy are based on the harmonious development of humans and nature. It emphasizes advocating nature, respecting nature and realizing the dynamic balance between humans and environment. The state and local governments should establish a strategy for the sustainable development of forest resources based on the traditional culture of Ethnic Minorities in the Greater Khingan Range. Additionally, forest management methods of the Manchu and Oroqen Ethnic Minorities are summarized in the long-term practices. The government staff can acquire Ethnic Minorities' knowledge when implementing afforestation projects locally.

Increase employment opportunities for Ethnic Minorities

Due to the limitation of hunting and timber harvesting, the economic source of some Ethnic Minority families have changed. They have to work to support their families. One type of work is provided by the government. They can become forest rangers and forest guides since they are familiar with local forests. The other job is provided by tourism. They can be tour guides to introduce the local scenery and traditional culture to the tourists. Homestays, B&B hotels, and souvenir business are all suitable for people who live in the mountain.

Improve the management system of government departments

Some functions of the Chinese government departments are overlapping and unclear. For instance, the Ministry of Land and Resources is responsible for the management and supervision of national land.[9][14] However, the State Forestry Administration and the Ministry of Agriculture also regulate the assessment and registration of forests and grasslands.[9][14] This situation may cause the implementation of policies that do not match the intentions. Therefore, it is necessary to define the functions of various government departments clearly. It is beneficial to the implementation of the next phase of the Three-North shelterbelt project.

References

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