Course:ASIA319/2024/Bond (羁绊)

Introduction

In traditional Chinese culture, the word 羁绊 (pinyin: jībàn) is often used to describe the deep emotional ties between people, especially for friendships or partnerships that transcend blood ties. This usage stems from its original meaning, which is to bind and care, suggesting a mutually dependent relationship. However, jiban has a deeper meaning that goes beyond the literal meaning and involves a complex social and emotional background. The word has become a symbol for young people to express deep friendship and mutual support. Gradually, the meaning of the word jiban has become richer and richer, especially in online subcultures, where it has expanded its multi-layered emotional meanings due to various influences. In order to deeply understand the use of jiban in the contemporary context, it is particularly important to study its historical roots, emotional connotations, and its semantic evolution. To explore the diversity of this keyword, it is necessary not only to trace its etymology and traditional meaning, but also to combine factors such as the emotional needs, personal identity, and collective cultural concepts of modern society. Jiban has undergone social and cultural evolution in the modern context, reflecting the complexity of the relationship between individuals and the collective in Chinese society.

The genesis of the keyword

The word jiban (羁绊) is composed of two characters: "ji" (羁) and "ban" (绊). In English, jiban means bond. In ancient China, especially during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, great social changes led to the gradual liberation of the scholar class from the shackles of the patriarchal system; they gained a relatively independent social status. This period provided conditions for the free expression of various ideas, and therefore reflected the opposite of jiban in social structure and ideological liberation. Thus, jiban could metaphorically represent social shackles and held a negative connotation.

The evolution of "ji" (top) and "ban" (bottom)

With the development of history, the meaning of the word has gradually enriched, no longer limited to material constraints, and became more frequently used to describe the emotional connection and spiritual ties between people. This usage is particularly common in Japanese anime culture, and later influenced Chinese network culture, giving the word jiban a deeper emotional meaning in the modern context. It is now used to describe friendship, dependence, and support that are difficult to give up. Today, the emergence and popularity of the term in Chinese popular culture is mainly influenced by Japan's ACGN (animation, comics, games, novels) culture.

Another meaning of jiban is derived from Japanese two-dimensional culture, such as Naruto. In Japanese, this word is written as "kizuna" and pronounced as "きずな" (kizuna), which refers to the inseparable bond between relatives and friends. It is said that the word kizuna is widely circulated is because Japan is a country with many people, little land, and scarce resources. Coupled with frequent natural disasters, living in such an environment, and the strong collective consciousness of the Japanese and other social and historical factors, this leads to a high degree of interdependence between people. Thus, bonds appear in every aspect of Japanese culture and life, including modern animation. Japanese animation has a broad audience base in China, especially among young people. Animation works often emphasize the concept of jiban, making the word gradually become more popular in Chinese pop culture. Although traditionally jiban carries a negative connotation, gradual influence by the Japanese use of kizuna has given jiban a more positive connotation in the contemporary context (pp.478).

Glossary of its explicit dictionary meanings

Book of Han, circa 111 CE

The word "jiban" (羁绊) is composed of two characters: "ji" and "ban". Jiban first appeared in the Book of Han (汉书·叙传) . The two characters together depict a constraint, or "being stuck and unable to escape" (pp.477). "Sometimes it also refers to: the friendship, love, brotherhood, sisterhood that are difficult to give up between people, it is an inseparable relationship, the maintenance between feelings and feelings. "

In ancient literature, the term jiban (羁绊) meant restraint. In the original meaning of Chinese characters, ji (羁) means "horse tie," and it can also refer to the hairstyle of ancient girls left on their heads like a horse bridle. The original meaning of ban (绊) is to tie a horse with a rope, though certain sources describe it as tying the feet with rope. It is extended to mean being blocked or entangled by something while walking. It is often used in an abstract sense, and is extended to metaphors of conspiracy or traps, such as "secretly making a trip."

Contemporary Meanings and Usage

Traditional Meaning and Literature

As previously discussed, jiban originally meant being restrained or entangled by the things around oneself. Ancient poets often used the term to refer to people or things being bound or restricted. For example, Luo Guanzhong's Romance of the Three Kingdoms in the Ming Dynasty: "This journey is like a fish entering the sea or a bird flying into the sky, and is not bound by a net or cage!" (“此一行如鱼入大海、鸟上青霄，不受网笼之羁绊也！”) The "羁绊" (jiban) here is a metaphor for the net cage, describing the freedom gained after removal of the restraint.

A similar use is in the Tang Dynasty Luo Ye's poem "Ying": "You laugh at the golden cage as a shackle, but you don't know that the jade grass is fragrant." (“却笑金笼是羁绊，岂知瑶草正芬芳。”) Here, "羁绊" (jiban) is a metaphor for the golden cage, again used to describe the restriction of freedom.

Bond as connection and foils in Japanese anime (Naruto)

The theme of mutual bond or connection in Your Name as shown through the two protagonists

Stardew Valley's bonding system with hearts representing each level of intimacy.

Jiban in Popular Culture: Meanings and Usages

In modern Chinese culture, the word jiban (羁绊) in modern Chinese is no longer limited to describing physical restraints, but has expanded to multiple levels such as emotions, culture, and society. Especially after being influenced by Japanese anime culture, jiban has gradually been used to describe the deep emotional connection between people. In Internet culture, jiban is also often used to express a strong and overwhelming connection between two people, similar to "fate." This connection is not necessarily family affection, friendship or love, but may also be complex emotions such as hatred, mutual dependence, or being regarded as an opponent.

One such example are the characters Naruto and Sasuke in Naruto (1999): This is one of the most famous bonds in Japanese anime. Naruto and Sasuke established a deep friendship from the beginning, and even though Sasuke later embarked on the path of revenge, Naruto never gave up his determination to bring him back to Konoha Village. The bond between them runs through the entire story and becomes an important factor in the development of the plot.

Similarly, the animated movie Your Name (2016), which has been very popular in recent years in Japan, China, and the West, also takes bond as its core theme. Through the exchange of bodies between the protagonists, it shows a deep connection that transcends time and space. This connection is reflected in the movie by the hair rope of "Mitsuha" and the knotted rope on "Taki's" hand. "One life binds another life and thus gains a sense of existence."

In addition, jiban also has different uses and meanings in games. In some card games, bonds can bring specific bonuses or effects, thereby enhancing the attributes or skills of the characters. In multiplayer online games, "bonds" can also refer to the cooperative relationship between players in achieving a shared goal. In role-playing games (RPGs) or strategy games, "bonds" can refer to the emotional connection between characters. This connection may affect the development and direction of the plot, and in the process of promoting the game plot, it also strengthens the player's motivation to continue the game.

In Stardew Valley (2016), there is a detailed favorability system between players and NPCs. Players can increase their favorability with villagers by talking to them, giving gifts, and completing story missions. As the favorability increases, players will trigger special events, cutscenes, and story missions with specific characters, allowing players to get to know the characters more deeply and strengthen the bond between players and characters. In the game, players can establish long-term relationships with characters, even getting married and having children. This long-term commitment and experience of living together is one of the most profound manifestations of bond, as well as one of the core endgame goals in the gameplay. Through these mechanisms and designs, players and game characters establish a deep emotional connection that goes beyond simple interaction.

Jiban in Cultural, Social, and Political Contexts

"羁绊," or "bonds," often represents a profound sense of emotional or relational ties in cultural, social, and political frameworks. Sometimes, it embodies mutual attachment and connections between people. However, in certain specific environments, an over-reliance or overly strong social “bond” may also lead to pressure, conflict, and exclusivity.

Cultural Meanings

Japanese public selected (絆, kizuna) as the Kanji of the Year in 2011, a year "dominated" by natural disasters.

In cultural and social contexts, jiban often represents people’s connections through shared values, traditions, and identities. Many Asian cultures (especially Chinese and Japanese cultures) emphasize collectivism and the importance of interpersonal relationships, viewing bonds, as the foundation for maintaining social harmony. For instance, in traditional Japanese society, social relations were often maintained through regional and corporate communities. People generally placed great importance on their sense of identity and belonging within these communities, showing a strong sense of group consciousness. This social bond originated from the cooperative rice-farming culture: “Japan has long been part of the rice-growing cultural sphere, and the irrigation characteristics of rice farming required neighbouring people to form groups, help each other, and work together” (pp.70). Thus, people developed a strong sense of group consciousness through the collaborative rice-farming culture, which built up a solid and orderly internal structure. Over time, this cooperative mode of rice-farming evolved into regional and corporate communities, becoming the hubs of traditional Japanese society's “bond.”

However, influenced by factors such as “mono no aware” (appreciation of the fleeting nature of things), shame culture, acceptance of multiculturalism, and the pursuit of perfectionism, the emphasis on “bond” in Japanese society has been gradually weakening. Western concepts like liberalism and individualism have deeply embedded themselves in Japanese society, leading to the gradual collapse of Japan’s traditional social hubs—regional communities and corporate communities. “Today, over one million people have detached themselves from regional communities and have actively cut off ties with society, ‘disappearing’—not attending school, not working, and not engaging in social interactions, with no contact for years” (pp.71). Thus, bond can also bring limitations on personal freedom, becoming an internalized binding force on individuals that results in withdrawal from an imposing society. Especially in cultures where family or community relationships are particularly close-knit, individual decisions are often influenced by family or group expectations. This kind of bond can lead to a sense of repression, and even conflicts with the broader cultural context of society.

Social Significance

In a social context, jiban not only signifies emotional connections between individuals but also represents the bonds that unite a community or even an entire society in facing shared hardships.

Through Makoto Shinkai’s Your Name, one can profoundly understand the significance of jiban on a societal level, particularly in the role it plays in post-disaster emotional rebuilding. On March 11, 2011, a powerful earthquake struck off the northeastern coast of Japan, known as the 3/11 Earthquake. The massive tsunami it triggered caused devastating destruction in places like Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures, and led to the nuclear leak at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant. Your Name, as the prelude to Shinkai’s disaster-themed anime films, centers on the protagonists’ relationship, directly associating their fates with abstract, larger-scale issues like world crises and the apocalypse. Shinkai has mentioned multiple times that his motivation for creating Your Name is connected to the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, and Han Ning Gao also notes that the film emphasizes the symbolism of the image of “musubi” (in ancient Japanese, written in ancient characters as “産霊,” with the homonym “結び” meaning “knot” or “tie”).

Following the Great East Japan Earthquake, the word kizuna (絆; きずな) was adopted by the Japanese government as the core concept for post-disaster recovery, intended to unite society and reassure the public (Gao, 2016). This concept conveyed the deep emotional ties and bonds people formed through mutual support and resilience in the face of disaster. At the time, Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan expressed gratitude for international assistance in a letter of thanks titled "Bond." Since then, kizuna became a recurring keyword in various official documents and mainstream media reports, and it was even selected as the “Kanji of the Year” for Japan that year. Furthermore, in the aftermath of the disaster, Japan saw an increase in marriage rates, known as “quake marriages,” and more families began taking family portraits, reflecting a societal fear of impermanence due to disaster and a yearning for interpersonal bonds. The cohesiveness symbolized by bond not only emphasizes emotional connections between people but also highlights the bonds formed through hardship, which can be understood as a lasting emotional connection or sense of responsibility to one another.

"Bi-directional travel" (双向奔赴)

 The term "bi-directional travel" (双向奔赴) originally referred to parties working towards a common goal, moving closer together through their mutual efforts. It is often used in human relationships to express the beautiful aspiration of mutual affection and closeness. Over time, its application has expanded beyond interpersonal relationships to include entities such as businesses and employees, talent and rural areas, cities, and even countries, reflecting the continuous broadening of its usage.

For example, in November 2023, during the San Francisco meeting between the leaders of China and the U.S., President Xi Jinping, speaking at a welcome banquet hosted by American-friendly organizations, remarked: "It is the gathering of drops of goodwill and friendship that has made the vast Pacific Ocean no longer an insurmountable barrier. It is the mutual pursuit of our people that has repeatedly brought China-U.S. relations back on track from low points." This concept of bi-directional travel is envisioned as a driving force for the people of both nations to further devote themselves to the cause of China-U.S. relations, fostering positive energy for the healthy development of bilateral relations.

A-SOUL bonding stage (gacha)

Fans discussing costs related to A-SOUL bonding stage

As "bi-directional travel" became a trending term online, it also started to be widely used by netizens to describe the emotional interactions between idols and their fans. For instance, in the virtual idol group A-SOUL, co-launched by Yuehua Entertainment and ByteDance, the bonding process between fans and virtual idols is described as a form of "mutual pursuit." Entertainment companies carefully craft appealing images and unique personas for virtual idols, giving each character distinct personalities and "souls" to attract young people aged 19 to 30 (pp.82).

In this context, "mutual pursuit" refers to the emotional investment that fans make in virtual idols, treating them as "quasi-family" members to whom they devote themselves. In return, virtual idols, during livestreams, treat their fans with familial care, showing concern for their daily lives, empathizing with their feelings, and even sharing unique glimpses of their "private lives." Fans often refer to A-SOUL members with familial terms like "daughter," "sister," "little sister," or even "wife," creating fan-made posters, merchandise, and fan art to support and protect these idols. This heartfelt interaction creates a familial bond between fans and virtual idols and underpins the core fan values of "eating well, growing together, and mutual pursuit" (pp.83).

Virtual idols are crafted according to Generation Z's aesthetic preferences, in an animated style. Entertainment companies and video platforms tap into the loneliness experienced by many young people today, giving virtual idols an image of "companionship." Distinct from the idolization of real idols, virtual idols offer substantial feedback to fans’ engagement, with their management teams updating social media with schedules, posting in response to fan discussions, and enabling fans to track and participate in live-stream events in real-time. They feel more present, engaging, and attainable than real idols. Fan devotion to virtual idols is expressed through live-stream attendance, participation in offline events, and, in some cases, controlled and rational spending. For instance, fans may recharge credits to enter live-stream lotteries and participate in A-SOUL's exclusive anniversary events, interacting with their selected idol.

One fan noted, "Whenever I feel stressed, I listen to their songs or watch their live streams, and my mood instantly lifts." Fans see in their idols' positive and admirable traits and feel emotional pleasure through these interactions. While fans are aware of the commercial interests behind idols and capital, they are still willing to make mindful, rational purchases to sustain the bond they share with virtual idols in this mutual pursuit (pp.84). Thus, the bond represents a mutuality or reciprocity.

Equivalencies in other languages

絆 (kizuna; Japanese)

The Spring 2024 KIZUNA magazine cover

This word describes human connection. It has much the same origins of the Chinese jiban, as a descriptor of tying or binding domesticated animals. It is worth noting that Chinese-Japanese dictionaries often do not use jiban and kizuna as direct translations of one another in formal contexts, preferring to use other words instead (pp.478). However, there appears to be a significant dissimilarity in cultural interpretation of the term. Chinese traditional use of jiban carried the negative implication of being bound or imprisoned, stripped of freedom, whereas the Japanese traditional use did not: "the Japanese interpretation of rope emphasizes its ability to bind people and objects together" (pp. 478).

The Japanese government uses "KIZUNA" as the name of its e-magazine with the intention of strengthening international relations. This e-magazine is also accessible as a YouTube series on the Prime Minister's Office of Japan's official YouTube channel. According to them:

Kizuna means the enduring bonds between people—close relationships forged through mutual trust and support. The kizuna cultivated among countries of the world have the power to deepen cooperation for a better future. By reporting on a wide variety of topics concerning Japan, we hope that this publication will provide opportunities for Japan and the rest of the world to connect and build strong kizuna.

Bond (English)

The most direct translation of jiban to English. Similar to jiban, "bond" can mean a restraint or a "uniting" element. Official dictionary definitions, such as the Merriam-Webster's, describe the verb to bond as forming "a close relationship." However, in most settings, this word is used in a much more casual context, not requiring any deep connection, and can refer to any sort of shared similarity, no matter how surface-level. On the other hand, the Japanese kizuna and the contemporary understanding of jiban highlights a much more profound connection, a binding rather than bonding, between people. It cannot be severed easily, and may be associated with fate (pp.478). Other similar words such as "attachment" and "connection" also do not convey the same depth of emotion. "Bond" also could not be used to describe any sort of fan-type relationships (except, perhaps, "to bond over an idol"). Certain other terms that may convey that sense of importance are "interdependence" or "codependency," with the former having a more positive connotation and the latter having a more negative one. However, these are not exact; "interdependence" tends to describe a more scientific sort of reciprocal system or symbiosis, whereas codependency is defined by unhealthy or toxic relationships, obsession, and even psychological disorders.

Parasocial (English)

Although not a direct translation, the term "parasocial" is generally more adequate to describe popular culture use of jiban in terms of fan behaviour. It describes the relationship between an individual and someone who one cannot have a personal relationship with, such as idols and fictional characters. This term, unlike jiban, has strong negative connotations of delusion and detachment from reality. Accusations of "parasocial behaviour" are often thrown at overbearing fans online. For instance, Taylor Swift's fans, dubbed "Swifties," are frequently criticized for mob-like behaviour, infantilization of the singer, defending poor behaviour, and other actions, online or in person, that give the impression of "going too far." Also, unlike the mutuality that is implied with words like jiban, kizuna, or bond, the word parasocial tends to depict a one-sided relationship due to the fictional nature of an idol/fan relationship with celebrities or fictional characters. Jiban portrays this relationship more optimistically, with the assumption of a give-and-take relationship, while parasocial bears the implication of an imagined or fabricated relationship formed by obsessive idolatry. However, parasocial could not be applied to bonds between fans within a given fanbase, nor any given individuals. Thus, jiban and kizuna have a broader use with more conflicting meanings.

Studies related to the keyword

Queering Kinship (2024) by Han Tao

Far from being relegated to Internet slang, Jiban has begun to be used in formal academic contexts to describe societal phenomena. In a lengthy discussion and analysis on non-heterosexual relationships in Guangdong province of China, Han Tao uses the term jiban to describe a necessary mutual bond between LGBTQ+ couples despite a lack of marriage certificate (pp.54). She describes jiban as "an unbreakable relation that two are entangled in," citing cohabitation and home co-ownership as the preferred means of queer couples in forming jiban (pp.56). Tao notes the commonality of a sense of insecurity among queer couples due to a lack of legal bind (pp.57) and the desire in the Chinese queer community for "creating unbreakable jiban" (pp.23). In the practical queer context, jiban is therefore not only the intangible bond between couples, but a way to acquire legal recognition or reinforcement of that bond, even though non-heterosexual marriage is not legal in China. Jiban here is "both emotional and material" (pp. 58). Other methods listed include (pp.56-57):

• joint company ownership (a financial bond as well as a legal one);
• writing each other into notarized wills;
• buying each other insurance;
• registering each other as voluntary guardianship.

Tao also notes the importance of children of creating this sense of jiban, though Chinese social values about family and reproduction were additional factors in the decision (pp.65). She describes children as another ultimate means for Chinese LGBTQ+ couples to achieve jiban, though with some difficulty in ensuring both same-sex parents feel equally connected to the child in order to truly gain a sense of mutual security. One couple overcame this difficulty by having one woman give birth using her partner's egg (pp.65-66). Tao rejects the idea that this jiban is a substitute for legal marriage (pp.155) but acknowledges the strong heteronormative social pressures that have nonetheless affected and shaped the desires and understanding of what a queer relationship should be.

The term jiban, originally used to describe a tangible binding then evolved to describe emotional bonds appears to have come full circle in this new usage to once again depict a tangible (legal, financial, familial) bond. However, similar to the popular culture usage, this is a voluntary bond/binding that despite its constrictive properties creates a sense of security and belonging, not only to one's partner, but to a society that would otherwise not recognize their partnership.

Conclusion

Despite the term jiban (羁绊)'s original meaning of "fetters" or "restraints," the word has recently emerged in multiple aspects of Chinese popular culture, with influence from Japanese popular culture and usage. Jiban generally translates to "bond." However, "bond" can encompass a broad range of contexts and meanings. This includes thematic structures, game terminology and systems, fan culture and activities, etc. It can be roughly translated to the Japanese word kizuna (絆), with some differences due to historical and cultural factors, but there is no all-encompassing equivalent in English. It is perhaps worth further study into the lack of English terminology to describe profundity of connection without assuming some degree of negative connotation. It seems likely that this is due to the general difference in attitude toward individualism vs a collective bond in East Asian and Western societies.

References

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