Course:ASIA319/2024/"Shengmu" (圣母）

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Introduction

Since the introduction of Catholicism to China in the 7th century, the religion has enjoyed significant influence. To prevent religious fervor influencing their rule, the PRC has strictly limited the influence of the Catholic church within China, with party nominated bishops and officials running the official Catholic Church of China. To combat the jurisdiction of the PRC, catholicism within China has turned underground, with an estimated ten million devote followers between the official and underground churches, mostly within the latter[1]. This influence has led to the adoption of popular Catholic terminology within contemporary Chinese culture, with Shengmu (圣母, literal translation “holy mother”) being a textbook example of a Chinese adaptation of Catholic language. The original meaning of holy mother was a term to describe women who attracted the attention and respect of both men and women around them. These ‘mothers’ “presided over the religious births of their devotees” and “could wield a considerable amount of spiritual authority over their followers”[2]. The most famous of all Shengmu being Mary, the mother of Jesus. The term has since been synonymous with benevolent women of religious significance and as a popular character archetype within fictional stories.

By examining the term Shengmu, we can gain a deeper understanding into the development of various religions within China and the average Chinese citizen’s unique viewpoint on kindness. Shengmu as a derogatory term reflects Chinese people’s distain for futile efforts and seemingly lack of empathy. Through further examination of Shengmu, we can understand the typical Chinese mindset and how millennia of traditional Chinese teachings shape their morality.

The genesis of the keyword

The Farmer and The Snake

How Does It Emerge In Chinese Culture?

Around 2010, the term was further popularized within China, leading to kindhearted characters of any gender being classified as Shengmu. Around 2015, Chinese netizens began to use the term in a derogatory manner, describing anyone who means well but lacks the ability to change anything for the better. [3]

While Shengmu was re-popularized as internet slang, the concept of someone who is kind to the point of detriment has long existed within Chinese culture. One of the most infamous folk tales told to Chinese children across the country is the story of The Farmer and The Snake. The story involves a farmer coming across a snake that has frozen stiff in the harsh winter snow. He picks up the snake and warms it near his bosom, but once the snake resuscitates through the farmer's heat, it bites the farmer and injects him with fatal venom.[4] The farmer dies and the parents have sufficiently frightened their children out of any Shengmu type behavior.

Glossary of its explicit dictionary meanings

General and Variable Usages

The development of the character 圣

The word 圣 (sheng) has meanings such as sage-like, holy, saint, sacred. It is often used to describe someone who is at the peak of their craft or godlike in their wisdom[5]. The word 母 (mu) refers to motherly, elder woman, female. It is commonly used to describe those of a female gender or with motherly instinct[6].

Development of the 母 character

Philological and Etymological Roots

圣's original character depicts a kneeling person with large ears and the character for mouth next to it. This symbolizes one who is perceptive, wise, and can communicate this wisdom[7].

母‘s original calligraphy depicts a kneeling woman with an exposed bosom. This represents women and mothers specifically, with the bosom highlighting the nurturing aspects of the word[8].

An elaboration of its variegated meanings, actual usages, and value-loaded implications

Modern Colloquial Use of Shengmu 圣母

The usage of the term shengmu 圣母 in modern Chinese discourse has evolved from its religious origins into a derogatory term used to describe an overly nice person whose holier-than-thou attitude and virtue signaling are both hypocritical and harmful[9]. In this context, the term shengmu can refer to a real person or fictional character, and is commonly used on sites like Weibo[10]. While shengmu can refer to a man or male character, it is mostly used to refer to women[9].

A drawing of Shengmu-biao 圣母婊 "holy-mother slut" with devil horn and wings to signify the hypocritical nature of their self-righteousness[11].

A shengmu, real or fictional, is someone whose holier-than-thou qualities can lead their words or actions to be seen as preachy and self-satisfying[9]. In online settings such as Weibo, the term is often aimed at those who are involved in humanitarian issues in online discussions and in online settings[12]. They are viewed as self-centered hypocrites who only care about political correctness to fuel their own sense of self-righteousness and moral superiority[13]. In fictional characters, a shengmu’s saint-like actions can come at the expense of themselves or others, leading audiences to be frustrated with their naive attitude[14].

Shengmu and shengmu-biao 圣母婊 (meaning "holy-mother slut/bitch") have been leveled against popular Western social and political figures like Angela Merkel, J.K. Rowling, and Emma Watson, in addition to everyday people, leftist Chinese netizens, and fictional characters[12][13].

Shengmu 圣母 and Xiangyuan 鄉愿

The overall condemnation of the shengmu’s moral hypocrisy harkens back to the ancient idea of xiangyuan 鄉愿, meaning "village pleasers", from the Confucian Analects[15]. In the Analects, xiangyuan are well-liked individuals in a community who are actually hypocrites devoid of a moral core, as their moral standards are only for appearances-sake[15]. As such, the Analects call the xiangyuan “thieves of virtue”, and reprimand them for their complacency and self-righteousness[15].

The modern idea of the shengmu shares the same moral hypocrisy as the xiangyuan. As Confucianism condemns fake moral superiority, so do those who use the term shengmu as a derogatory insult today. The modern shengmu are hated for their hypocritical nature, as their virtue signaling is seen as self-serving rather than holding genuine compassion for other people or social issues[12]. Due to this perceived deceitfulness of their holier-than-thou attitude, the hatred for moral hypocrisy rooted in ancient Chinese Confucian beliefs is leveled at those labeled as shengmu.

Baizuo 白左 and Shengmu-biao 圣母婊

An example shengmu-biao 圣母婊, meaning "holy-mother slut", is shown as a woman looking sadly at a piece of meat labeled 干垃圾 "dry garbage". The thought bubbles read "very fragrant" (top right) and "rabbit is so cute" (top left). The text to the right reads: "Holy-mother slut is an internet term that refers to those who tolerate and forgive others without any principles or bottom line, have a universal love for everyone and everything, do not pay attention to objective facts, and all their principles of action revolve around the words 'love' and 'goodness"[16].

On Chinese social media, the modern derogatory use of shengmu evolved in tandem with the idea of the baizuo, meaning “the white left”[9]. Baizuo, sometimes referred to as shabaitian 傻白甜 (“stupid-white-sweet [leftists]”)[9] in Chinese social discourse are leftists who are often aligned with Western social or political ideas and who engage in social and political activism[13]. For example, baizuo might be environmentalists, advocates for racial, religious, social minorities, or animal rights, or those in favor of social welfare programs[9]. The term started gaining traction on Chinese social media in 2015, specifically in regards to discussion around the refuge crisis in Western Europe from North Islamic Countries, but has since expanded to conversations around a variety of social issues[9]. Baizuo shares many similarities with the Western idea of the “liberal snowflake”, a young person with leftist ideals who is seen as overly sensitive and entitled[17]. Both the term baizuo and snowflake are insults more conservative or right-leaning individuals throw at those with more liberal or left-leaning ideologies[9] [17]. However, baizuo has a specific racial connatation, in that these indivuals who politically align with white leftists and Western ideology are seen as race traitors[9].

The derogatory term shengmu in relation to political or social leftists originally reffered to female baizuo and was used either as baizuo-shengmu 白左圣母 or in conjugation with baizuo-nüquan 白左女权, meaning "white left feminists"[12]. The term later diverged to be used just as shengmu, or the more obscene and inflammatory shengmu-biao 圣母婊, meaning “holy-mother slut” or “holy-mother bitch”[9][14]. While the terms shengmu, shengmu-biao, and later shengmu-ai (meaning “holy-mother cancer”, referring to the societal harmfulness of the shengmu) may have originally referred solely to women activists and characters, they are no longer gender-specified and can be used towards anyone with qualities seeming to be shengmu-like[9] such as in this Chinese blog post: “First let me clarify that I am no holy-mother slut! I just want to say that cats and dogs have always been our pets and companions, they are not domestic fowls intended for consumption!”[14].

Shengmu 圣母 and Fictional Characters

When used in discussion of fictional characters, shengmu and shengmu-biao are also used to describe characters who are too nice or possess a holier-than-thou moral superiority[14]. These terms can be used for male and female characters, but are always used as an insult to the character’s moral compass or intelligence like in this Chinese blog post: “The male protagonist is honestly a holy-mother slut, that this kind of people could even survive the troubled times is a real miracle”[14]. Examples of characters called shengmu are the male and female protagonists of Fire Blade 2017[18], Oboro from Basilisk 2003 [19], Cheng Xin from the novel The Three Body Problem: Death’s End by Cixin Liu[19], and Sei from the Saint’s Power is Omnipotent[20].

Shengmu and shengmu-biao characters share some similarity with the idea of the Mary Sue character, in Chinese written as 玛丽苏, present in Chinese and Western fandom cultures[21]. A Mary Sue is a female character written to be too perfect and devoid of any flaws[21]. While both the Mary Sue and the shengmu character possess an overly kind nature and are sometimes used together, the difference is that the goodness of shengmu characters is seen as hypocritical or fake. Additionally, while the Mary Sue character has a male version called Gary Stu (though used less commonly)[22], shengmu is a gender neutral term and can be used for men or women[9].

Shengmu-biao 圣母婊 and Female Derogatory Terms

The obscene shengmu-biao retains a sexually insulting nature whether it is used to refer to men, women, or an online person with no discernable gender. It joins many other popular derogatory Chinese internet buzzwords with the -biao suffix with a feminine connotation that serve to insult women in their use no matter the gender of the intended recipient[14].

Chinese internet buzzwords with the -biao suffix[14]
Xingji-biao 心机婊 (cunning slut): A calculating woman who uses her cunning to compete against her female peers
Nüshen-biao 女神婊 (goddess slut): A beautiful woman whose charm attracts male attention
Guimi-biao 蜜糖婊 (best-friend slut): A woman who takes advantage of female friendships to steal boyfriends
Lücha-biao 绿茶婊 (green tea slut): A woman who manipulates men with her sexual purity

Socio-cultural and political issues

By the phenomenon of Shengmu, we can infer certain socio-cultural and political problems ailing modern day China and its peoples. The lack of empathy among the population is a major factor in the popularity of the term, as less empathetic individuals are more likely to express distain for Shengmu behavior. Economic downturn due to certain policies may also strain the patience of the average Chinese citizen, leading to greater overall frustration with life, translating to increased animosity toward Shengmu and what it stands for.

Socio-cultural factors

The disgust towards "fake kindness" has been a constant throughout Chinese culture and history. Terms like "伪君子“ (fake gentleman)，"人面兽心" (human face with a beast's heart), and "笑里藏刀“ (knife hidden within a smile) are all commonly used to describe fake individuals with a persona of kindness. Terms such as these and children stories such as The Farmer and The Snake have conditioned Chinese people to be cautious of all acts of kindness. The fact that Shengmu is a term that originates from a Western religion does not help, as most Chinese are fed anti-western propaganda, giving them a negative bias towards anything of Western origin or influence. This lack of confidence in human kindness and anti-western ideology stems from "The Century of Humiliation". This was a time period which China lost all its dignity and respect as a dominant world power and was forced to sign multiple uneven treaties with western powers and give up sovereignty of their land[23]. Despite the economic and political strength of current-day China, the insecurities from "The Century of Humiliation" still plague the country. There is a constant undertone of aggression towards all Western countries, with party officials reminding citizens to stay on their toes and seek peace but prepare for war[23].

Another factor contributing to the rise of Shengmu hate in Chinese netizens would be the rise of the use of internet within China as a whole. A study done on internet users from Germany and China found a strong correlation between problematic internet usage and a lack of empathy[24]. With the rise of social media such as Weibo and Tiktok, China has over 1.09 billion internet users, roughly 76.4% of the entire population[25]. With such a large user base, there is bound to a loud minority of millions of individuals engaging in problematic internet usage, correlating to a lack of overall empathy online. This lack of empathy then shows itself when topics relating to Shengmu behavior appear.

One such instance of Chinese netizens showing aggression towards Shengmu behavior would be in 2017. On world refugee day in 2017, Chinese actress 姚晨 posted a Weibo passage expressing her condolences and sympathy towards refugees in the Middle East. This was met with furious backlash from Weibo users, with a follow up post calling 姚晨 a Shengmu-biao and claiming people like her ruin the country rapidly gaining popularity and likes[26].

Policial factors

The People's Republic of China relies heavily on the performance of the Economy to keep its populace satisfied, as citizens are offered no semblance of democracy and human rights, their happiness in the government is almost solely reflected in their monetary savings. Prior to the opening up of the country in 1978, the population was easily controlled due to a lack of information, but now with the advent of the internet, the same can no longer be said. During the Zero-Covid policy, China's economy was brought to a standstill. This lead to multiple public protests across China, with some even asking for President Xi to step down from office[27]. Similarly, a study was done analyzing the impact of unemployment on the mental health of Chinese university graduates showing a positive correlation between mental strain/stress and negative emotions expressed online[28]. This study was conducted in 2024, during the aftermath of the zero-covid policy. These political factors effecting the economy have a direct impact on the mental well-being of the population. The worse the economic strain felt by the populace, the more aggression and lack of empathy they will feel, directly correlating to the dismissal of Shengmu and what it stands for.

Moral Archetypes and Digital Reputation: Examining Existing Secondary Sources

The Evolution of Shengmu 圣母 in Digital Media

To understand the varied use of shengmu 圣母 in Chinese popular culture, we need to look at its traditional religious meaning, literature standpoints, and its modern and more critical interpretation in digital spaces.

In today's digital world, social media has a huge impact on how people perceive and judge "saintly" figures, turning these online spaces into a mix of admiration and intense criticism. Studies show that on platforms like social media, people who seem especially kind, selfless, or morally upright often face constant and very public judgment [29]. This scrutiny isn’t occasional; it’s ongoing and highly visible. Unlike private settings where people might understand the context behind a person’s actions, online audiences are vast and diverse, often holding these figures to extremely high standards [29].

This constant visibility creates a tough challenge for "saintly" figures who are expected to maintain a flawless moral image. Audiences are quick to criticize even minor actions that might seem harmless. For example, an environmental activist might get criticized heavily if they’re seen using single-use plastics or flying, as people could see these actions as going against their stated values [29]. This level of scrutiny shows how fragile a saintly image can be in the digital age, where even small inconsistencies can come across as serious moral failures [29].

The global reach of digital platforms makes this pressure even greater. People from different cultures bring their own values and expectations to what they see online. In a traditional community, a "saintly" figure might be accepted and understood because everyone shares similar beliefs [29]. But online, these figures are exposed to a global audience that may not share the same beliefs, leading to misunderstandings or even criticism [29]. This diversity of perspectives often makes it harder for these figures to maintain a universally "saintly" image.

Different aspects of the saint archetype are illustrated by contrasting figures like St. Joan of Arc and St. Francis of Assisi, with one embodying the warrior spirit, the other symbolizing peace

"Saintly Yet Self-Defensive" Archetype Comparisons

In many stories from around the world, we see a "Saintly Yet Self-Defensive" archetype, where characters who are fundamentally good and kind must also defend their beliefs or values. From a cultural studies point of view, Yafei Li’s study explores the “Saintly Yet Self-Defensive” archetype in non-Western narratives, particularly in South Asian and East Asian literature. She argues that culturally specific values shape characters who embody saintly qualities but are also compelled to defend these values when challenged [30]. However, such characters can often appear contradictory and even hypocritical; they preach virtue and kindness, yet they easily resort to resistance when their ideals are threatened [30]. In many of these stories, their kindness seems less like genuine virtue and more like a mask that’s cast aside when it’s no longer convenient. For example, in postcolonial South Asian narratives, morally upright protagonists ultimately shift from peace to defensive actions when they face external threats, like colonial forces [30]. Rather than creating a truly saintly figure, Li’s research suggests that these characters reflect a blend of conflicting values, where virtue can quickly turn to resistance. This study highlights that, unlike in many Western narratives where saintly figures maintain consistent values. This archetype shows up all over global literature, illustrating how different cultures create stories that combine selflessness with self-preservation, especially in tough political or social times [30].

Double Standards in Female Archetypes

From a sociological perspective, Souto Castro's study sheds light on how society's patriarchal standards dictate which female characters are embraced and which are criticized. The "Mary Sue" trope, like the "Saintly Yet Self-Defensive" archetype, often faces backlash because it doesn’t align with traditional ideas about how women should behave [22]. Society has long idealized female characters who are passive, gentle, and supportive, defining these qualities as the essence of “feminine” virtue. Such characters are expected to be nurturing and self-sacrificing, acting as background figures who bolster others rather than asserting their own power or agency. When a female character steps outside this narrow mold, displaying assertiveness or self-defense, she disrupts expectations and risks being dismissed as "too aggressive" or "unrealistic." [22]

Souto Castro's study exposes this type of setting double standards, showing that saintly qualities in female characters are celebrated only as long as they remain “pure” and devoid of assertiveness [22]. In other words, a character’s kindness and compassion are valued only if they are accompanied by humility and compliance, not by the strength to defend her beliefs or protect others. If a female character combines kindness with inner strength or resilience, she’s often seen as “unbelievable” or “flawed” because society resists women’s roles that blend vulnerability with power [22]. This tendency reflects broader social expectations, of how women in literature and media are expected to embody perfection and humility within the confines of traditional roles [22]. When female characters deviate from this, the reaction is often one of discomfort or criticism, as audiences are not used to this type of portrayals of women.

Conclusion

The term shengmu 圣母 has shifted from its religious roots to a modern archetype that faces intense criticism, especially online. Social media has overtime turned “saintly” figures into subjects of constant judgment. Global audiences also bring different expectations into this term, making it challenging for these figures to maintain a flawless image.

While based on ancient Chinese values around the harm of hypocrisy, the modern idea of shengmu is indicative of trends on Chinese social media that demean Western and leftist ideas. Even though the term shengmu is now gender neutral, it began as an obscene insult towards women on social media. Shengmu maintains a sexually insulting nature whether it is leveled at men or women, real or fictional, and is just one symptom of a larger issue of online buzzwords that hurt women. Socio-cultural factors such as traditional Chinese education and insecurity felt from recent history may contribute to the vitriol hurled towards the term, while political factors that harm the quality of life of citizens further their distain for the concept of Shengmu as a whole.

In literature, studies have shown that "saintly" characters who defend their values can appear hypocritical, as their kindness often hides a self-protective side. Female characters face even tougher standards, as they’re often celebrated for kindness only when passive and humble, but assertiveness is often dismissed as “too aggressive” or “unrealistic.” Overall, the modern use of the term shengmu as a derogatory term for overly nice people or social justice advocates reveals how society struggles with accepting saintly characters and demonstrates a broader conservative and misogynistic root to online buzzwords.

References

[30][22]

  1. ↑ Tang, E., & Wiest, J.-P. (2013). The Catholic Church in modern china: Perspectives. Wipf and Stock Publishers. 13,15,17
  2. ↑ Ozment, S. E., Forster, M. R., & Kaplan, B. J. (2017). Piety and family in early modern europe: Essays in honour of Steven Ozment. Routledge. 178
  3. ↑ 圣母- 萌娘百科万物皆可萌的百科全书. (n.d.). https://zh.moegirl.org.cn/zh-hans/圣母
  4. ↑ Farmer and the snake. (2014). . DC Books.
  5. ↑ Hwxnet.com. (n.d.). 基本字义解释. 在线新华字典. https://zd.hwxnet.com/search/hwxE5hwx9ChwxA3.html#:~:text=%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E5%AD%97%E4%B9%89%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8A&text=%E2%97%8E%20%E6%97%A7%E6%97%B6%E7%A7%B0%E6%89%80%E8%B0%93%E4%BA%BA%E6%A0%BC,%E4%BA%8B%E7%89%A9%E7%9A%84%E5%B0%8A%E7%A7%B0%EF%BC%9A%E7%A5%9E%E5%9C%A3%E3%80%82
  6. ↑ Hwxnet.com. (n.d.-a). 基本字义解释. 在线新华字典. https://zd.hwxnet.com/search.do?keyword=%E6%AF%8D&sub_btn.x=0&sub_btn.y=0
  7. ↑ Chen, W. (2010). 古文字趣谈 [A discussion on ancient characters]. Cultural Art Press.
  8. ↑ Zheng, C. L. (2018). 精彩汉字 [Wonderful Chinese characters]. Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House. 358-359
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 Cheng, Yinghong (7 February 2019). "Racism and Its Agents in China". Discourses of Race and Rising China. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. pp. 239–294. ISBN 978-3-030-05357-4.
  10. ↑ Li, Yanbo; Su, Chris, Chao (September 26, 2024). "Examining the escalation of hostility in social media: a comparative analysis of online incivility in China and the United States regarding the Russia–Ukraine war". Online Media and Global Communication. 3.
  11. ↑ Primary School Chinese Micro Classroom (小学语文微课堂) (31 December 2017). "As a teacher, don't pay attention to those "holy-mother sluts"! (当老师，就不要去理睬那些"圣母婊"!)". Sina.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Zhang, Chenchen (May 20, 2019). "Right-wing populism with Chinese characteristics? Identity, otherness and global imaginaries in debating world politics online". European Journal of International Relations. 26.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Zhang, Chenchen (11 May 2017). "The curious rise of the 'white left' as a Chinese internet insult". openDemocracy.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Jing-Schmidt, Zhuo; Peng, Xinjia (June 12, 2018). "The sluttified sex: Verbal misogyny reflects and reinforces gender order in wireless China". Language In Society. 47.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Li, Puqun (12 January 2024). "Hypocrisy as Described in the Analects and the Mengzi". Dao. 23: 39–57 – via Springer Nature Link.
  16. ↑ "Shengmu-biao (圣母婊）". Baidu.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Talbot, Amelia; O'Reilly, Michelle; Dogra, Nisha (24 January 2023). "The "snowflakes" of modern society: a qualitative investigation of female university students' anxiety about adulting". Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. 15: 1675–1687 – via Emerald Insight.
  18. ↑ 佳佳佳佳了的宝 (20 January 2018). "Fire Blade Review". Douban Movie.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Shengmu (圣母）". Moe Girl.
  20. ↑ 阳光菌的动漫世界 (6 May 2021). "Are the saintly heroines in Japanese comics destined to be despised by the audience? No, only holy-mother sluts will! (日漫中的圣母系女主注定要被观众唾弃吗？不，只有圣母婊才会!)".
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Lin, Qingning (12 October 2021). ""Nisu" Culture in Chinese Fandom Under the Rise of Female Gaze: A Word of Honor (2021) Case Study". Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Proceedings of the 2021 6th International Conference on Modern Management and Education Technology（MMET 2021） – via Atlantis Press.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Souto Castro, Alexia (2023). "Sue the Patriarchy: Analysing the "Mary Sue" Trope and Its Many Problems".
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Kaufman, A. A. (2011). The “Century of Humiliation” and China’s National Narratives. Testimony before the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission Hearing on China’s Narratives Regarding National Security Policy. Extracted the, 28.
  24. ↑ Melchers, M., Li, M., Chen, Y., Zhang, W., & Montag, C. (2015). Low empathy is associated with problematic use of the internet: Empirical evidence from China and Germany. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 17, 56–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2015.06.019
  25. ↑ Kemp, S. (2024, February 20). Digital 2024: China - datareportal – global digital insights. DataReportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-china
  26. ↑ 难民问题引爆中国敏感词：圣母婊、大汉族主义. 文学城. (2017, June 23). https://www.wenxuecity.com/news/2017/06/23/6337776.html
  27. ↑ Reghunadhan, R. (2023). Populist Protests and the Dynamic Zero-COVID Policy: (Re)emerging Pragmatic Populism in China. International Studies, 60(3), 296-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208817231202302
  28. ↑ Tan, M., Wu, Z., Li, J., Liang, Y., & Lv, W. (2024). Analyzing the impact of unemployment on mental health among Chinese university graduates: a study of emotional and linguistic patterns on Weibo. Frontiers in public health, 12, 1337859. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1337859.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Müller, Julia; Friemel, Thomas (June 24, 2024). "Dynamics of Digital Media Use in Religious Communities—A Theoretical Model". Religions.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Li, Yafei (November 2021). "The Cross-Cultural Consciousness of Contemporary Narrative Poetics".

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