Course:ARST573/Archives and Repressive Regimes

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Repressive regime archives are the records created during the regime's reign. These become archives when they are preserved by an archival institution for future reference. Repressive regimes negatively affect these archives. In communist countries, the centralization of the archives leads to more governmental control.[1] “Sovietization” of the archives restricts who can access the archives and condemns free speech.[2] Even when governments are bound by archival laws to make their records available, the offices of repressive regimes may refuse to transfer their records to the national archives or place restrictions on them.[3] The archival institutions of regimes can try to prevent access to materials by not creating proper finding aids or descriptions of archival material.[4] Finally, repressive regimes may destroy the records they have created in order to erase any proof of their misdeeds. This often occurs shortly before being overthrown. There are many examples of this: the Pinochet regime in Chile, the Rhodesian government, and the former Greek government.[5] With technology, such as paper shredders and the delete key on computers, this destruction or “loss” of records is even easier and faster.[6] In addition to their own archives, repressive regimes have destroyed the archives of the previous administrations, removing any memory of life before them.

What are repressive regimes?

Repressive regimes come from all sides of the political spectrum.[7] They include governments led by communist, fascist, and other authoritarian and oppressive rulers. The common factor in all of these scenarios is a leader who attempts to hold power at any cost, which can include limiting freedom of expression.[8] Freedom of expression is restricted through censorship, making education inaccessible, and targeting scholars and scientists.[9][10] Repressive regimes can also result in human rights abuses as extreme as genocide.

The following are just a few examples of repressive regime archives and the regime's effect on archives. Although the method of oppression and influence on the archives may differ between each scenario, the end result remains the same: a negative impact on archives. However, these archives can be used for good. They help prove the guilt of repressive regimes, ensure these actions are not forgotten, and that we learn from the past. Archivists have a role to play in preserving these archives.

German Democratic Republic

Background

Following the close of WWII, Germany was divided into the Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany.[11] East Germany was formally established in 1949, with Wilhelm Pieck as its first leader, and governed as a communist state until 1990.[12][13] This dictatorship bred suspicion by remaining secretive and by discouraging ideas different from its own. The State Security Service (Ministerium für Staatssicherheit or Stasi), enforced the government’s ideals through invasive measures, such as unwarranted police surveillance.[14] Although it was not a genocidal regime, the GDR government instilled fear and suppressed the freedom of thought of its citizens.[15] “[T]he Stasi attacked and persecuted all internal opposition to communism, often displaying great cruelty and sadism.”[16] The Stasi was established in 1950 and active till 1990 with the fall of the Berlin wall.[17] Mirrored after the Soviet secret police, the Stasi adopted its mission of “aggression through conspiracy.”[18] Larger in number than the East German army, the Stasi was composed of 90,000 staff members and approximately 170,000 agents.[19] Unsubstantiated imprisonments and deaths have been noted.[20]

Effect on the archives

East German citizens storming the Stasi headquarters.

The Stasi kept its administrative records at the Stasi Records Office. These records provide insight into the oppressive nature of the regime.[21] The central card file contains information on individuals persecuted by the Stasi. There are also cards on Stasi informants.[22] Due to the conspiratorial nature of the Stasi, the contents of the archives became known after 1989, the year of the Peaceful Revolution.[23] This movement occurred when citizens, tired of being oppressed, stormed the Stasi headquarters.[24] Stasi records clerks, wanting to destroy any incriminating evidence, shredded and burned as many records as they could.[25] Luckily some civil rights activists were able to stop the clerks from finishing their task.[26] The rescued archives were of various media (textual, photographs, negatives, slides, and sound and video recordings) which created preservation issues.[27] That is, each type of medium has its own unique concerns when it comes to its preservation and all of these had to be addressed. Had the clerks completely succeeded, the appalling actions of the Stasi may never have been known. Due to the condition in which the clerks left the records, the archives required much time and archival education to determine the provenance and original order of the records.[28] In addition, the Stasi archives included non-Stasi records stolen by the Stasi, creating more arrangement issues for archivists.[29] That is, archivists had to determine which records were created by the Stasi and which were stolen by the Stasi in order to ensure proper arrangement of the archives.

Archives and accountability

After East and West Germany were reunited, the Stasi Records Office was established in Berlin.[30] Unlike most public archives, the Stasi archives were not given to the German Federal Archives, due to the past mismanagement of them.[31] These archives follow the Stasi Records Act of 1991 that ensures the citizens' freedom of information and protection of privacy, and were immediately accessible.[32] That is, each citizen is allowed to access their own information held in the archives and have it protected from others. These archives are also used to prove the innocence of those who were wrongly accused and persecuted, and therefore to correct these injustices by compensating these individuals.[33] Victims were able to determine who spied or informed on them and to prosecute legitimate crimes.[34] They also indicate the public employees who were associated with the Stasi, allowing employers to decide whether the accused should keep their positions within the government.[35]

Iraq

Background

Breaking away from British rule, Iraq became an independent country in 1932, ruled by a monarchy.[36] A military coup in 1958 removed the monarchy from power, creating an unstable government for the next ten years until the Baath party came out as the victors with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as its leader.[37] In 1979, Saddam Hussein replaced al-Bakr as the president of Iraq.[38] The Iraqi Baath government, which ruled from 1968 to 2003, was an ethnically and religiously repressive regime.[39] One of these repressed groups was the Kurds, who make up one-quarter of the Iraqi population.[40] The Iraqi government implemented the Anfal campaign, the genocide of northern Iraqi Kurds.[41] After years of oppression, Kurdish rebels revolted in 1991.[42] During this revolt, the rebels obtained a collection of files of the Iraqi secret police.[43] These records were taken by the Kurds to see what information the Iraqi secret police had on them.[44] However, these records offer much more than that. Now preserved in the University of Colorado at Boulder’s Human Rights Initiative archives, these records provide insight into the Anfal campaign atrocities.[45]

Effect on the archives

During the rebellion, some of the Anfal records were destroyed.[46] However, the majority of them have been preserved.[47] After the Human Rights Watch/Middle East heard about the records, they were sent to the United States for assessment.[48] These records were filled with hidden meanings of words that had to be deciphered.[49] After five years, this team, with the help of Arab translators, was able to piece together the records and determine what was involved in the Anfal campaign.[50] The Iraqi government’s response to the records was to deny any knowledge or ownership of them.[51]

Archives and accountability

These records are proof of the Anfal genocide from 1987 to 1989.[52] During this time, Kurds had claimed of similar atrocities happening, but it was not believed by the international community.[53] Even some Kurds did not know the extent of the genocide.[54] The government’s actions include relocation, torture, chemical warfare, and executions.[55] The forms of records included are ledgers, correspondence, informant lists, military orders, and administrative documents.[56] Also included are audio-cassettes, reel-to-reel film and photographs.[57] The Anfal archives show the administrative organization of the Iraqi regime and provide a sense of who made the orders and how they were followed.[58] These archives were used by an international tribunal to convict several Iraqi officials; two to life imprisonment and two to death by hanging.[59]

Khmer Rouge

Background

For ninety years, Cambodia was controlled by France.[60] Then in 1953, Cambodia was ruled by a monarchy until Lon Nol became Cambodia's president in 1972.[61] Lon Nol, however, did not have complete, stable control over the country. A civil war three years later resulted in the Khmer Rouge as the victor.[62] The Khmer Rouge ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979.[63] Led by communist dictator Pol Pot, this genocidal regime was responsible for unjustly murdering millions of Cambodians, including minority ethnic groups found in Cambodia.[64] The Khmer Rouge prohibited education and forced its citizens to live and work in labour camps.[65] Technology was seen as a threat and any contact with the international community was impossible.[66] All Cambodians, including monks, were made to wear black pajamas at all times.[67] Non-ethnic Cambodians were slaughtered first with the Khmer Rouge using race to justify their actions. Ethnic Cambodians soon followed.[68] The main prison of the Khmer Rouge was the Tuol Sleng Incarceration Centre where much of the torture and executions took place.[69] It acted as the headquarters for the Khmer Rouge secret police where Khmer Rouge activities were documented in large quantities.[70]

Effect on the archives

In efforts to eliminate Cambodian unity and identity, the Khmer Rouge destroyed the Cambodian National Archives.[71] This meant that any records documenting Cambodian history were gone and helped the Khmer Rouge establish control over the state.[72] Instead, the Khmer Rouge began a record-keeping organization that documented their actions against the Cambodian citizens.[73] This included instances of torture, murder, and slave labour.[74] The records of the Tuol Sleng Incarceration Centre, or S-21, are especially useful in showing the organization and actions of the Khmer Rouge.[75] The regimented nature of the Khmer Rouge regime is also seen through the archives. The archives' "retrieval and use became more standardized.”[76] Regularly scheduled executions are documented in the records.[77] These 200,000 records include arrest forms, arrest schedules, confessions, torture reports, execution orders, execution schedules, and employee information.[78][79] On the eve of being invaded by the Vietnamese, Pol Pot had ordered all of the records of S-21 to be destroyed. Instead, the head of Tuol Sleng used the time to carry out more executions, failing to destroy the records that would ironically lead to his eventual indictment.[80][81] The Khmer Rouge records were created to aid in the organization and productivity of the regime, but ultimately led to proving the regime's guilt.

Archives and accountability

Cambodians watching the ECCC Tribunal. Photo courtesy of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia.

The records of the Khmer Rouge regime are now preserved by the Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam). This has been made possible by a collaborative effort between the DC-Cam, the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, and the international community. These records were and are still being used in an international tribunal called the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC). The ECCC so far has found several Khmer Rouge members guilty of crimes against humanity.[82][83] One of the indicted was Duch, the Khmer Rouge member who ran S-21.[84] The records of Tuol Sleng were used to corroborate witness testimony against Duch. However, the lack of records to support some witness testimonies has been used by Duch to avoid a guilty verdict for those crimes. But this shows that even the accused has had to admit the evidentiary value of the Tuol Sleng archives.[85]

National Party of South Africa

Background

South African demographics consists of predominantly black Africans (79%), with whites as the largest ethnic minority, constituting 9.6% of the population. The other minorities are coloured (8.9%) and Indian and Asians (2.5%).[86] Even prior to WWII, the whites, or Afrikaners, had political control and segregationist tendencies over the black South Africans.[87] For instance, the South African Railways preferentially employed white South Africans.[88] Black South Africans were viewed by Afrikaners as a subordinate race.[89] It was not until 1948, however, when the National Party ruled over South Africa and apartheid was officially in effect.[90] Apartheid was the separation of races within the South African population.[91] This involved the forced relocation of blacks to the Homelands, prohibiting the intermingling of blacks and whites, and restricted opportunities for blacks.[92] It was not until 1994 when apartheid in South Africa was officially abolished and the first democratic election was held.[93]

The State Archives Service (Service) was South Africa’s national public archives.[94] From its beginnings in 1922, the Service was under various government offices, eventually being positioned as part of the National Education Department.[95] After 1962, the Service followed the Archives Act and had branches in seven cities.[96]

Effect on the archives

During apartheid, the National Party aimed to “destroy all oppositional memory”.[97] The apartheid regime did not allow the Service to fulfill what should have been its mandate: keeping the government accountable.[98]. The Service was not seen by the government as a senior office in the system.[99] Although the Service requested the transfer of government records to the national archives, the offices chose not to obey.[100] The offices also destroyed many of their records without permission from the Service.[101] Especially nearing the end of the apartheid regime, the government destroyed a significant amount of records.[102] In the span of two years during the transitional period, South Africa’s National Intelligence Service “destroyed approximately forty-four tons of paper and microfilm records, utilizing the Pretoria Iscor furnace.”[103] Records destruction was performed by the offices themselves, and other times by hired third party cardboard manufacturers.[104] The National Party also ordered the Service to restrict previously unrestricted records in its custody.[105]

Due to the international community’s view on the social injustices of South African politics during the apartheid regime, the Service was ostracized.[106] For example, the Service was not allowed to be a member of the International Council on Archives (ICA).[107] These exclusions prevented the Service from expanding professionally; private records from only those supportive of the regime were offered to the Service.[108] Incidentally, these circumstances perpetuated the regime’s view where change was not welcomed.[109]

The Service was run by white, Afrikaans-speaking South Africans.[110] Although black South Africans were legally permitted to access the archives, there were other restrictions from the apartheid regime that prevented any widespread use.[111] The Service’s branches were not conveniently located where the black South Africans had been banished to.[112] Also, the apartheid regime did not encourage the education of black South Africans, causing illiteracy to be an issue amongst this user group.[113] The National Party made Afrikaans and English to be South Africa’s official languages and did not take into account other languages, limiting archival access for black South Africans.[114] Also, there were separate reading rooms and washrooms for whites and non-whites.[115] The Service, itself, did not go out of its way to collaborate with the archival institutions in the Homelands.[116] Due to all of these factors, the archives do not reflect an accurate portrayal of black South Africans and their experience during the apartheid.[117]

Archives and accountability

Sign in English and Afrikaans denoting a white-only section.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (TRC) was created in 1995 by South Africa’s post-apartheid president, Nelson Mandela.[118][119] One of the purposes of the TRC was “to determine what articles have been destroyed by any person in order to conceal violations of human rights or acts associated with a political objective.”[120] However, not all records were destroyed. For example, a number of records of the Security Police head office for some reason were saved from this fate.[121] Other records, such as those of the Cabinet, had been protected from destruction due to previous knowledge of their existence and difficulty in blaming their “accidental” destruction on non-senior members.[122] As the TRC “had extraordinary subpoena, search, and seizure powers,” it was able to confiscate condemning records to use in the hearings.[123] It also had the authority to force witnesses to testify.[124] Found guilty of negligent record keeping during 1990 to 1994 were Cabinet, the State Security Council (a subordinate office of Cabinet), the National Intelligence Service, and the Security Police.[125]

In 1997, the TRC held trials to determine how businesses should be held responsible for their roles during apartheid South Africa.[126] The TRC addressed human rights violations of the apartheid regime.[127] These included the forced relocation of black South Africans, a segregated and unequal school system, and military enforcement of these acts.[128] The majority of the Afrikaner business owners denied their involvement or collusion with the National Party government.[129] Instead of owning up to their actions, white businesses feigned ignorance and insisted they were innocent bystanders and even victims of apartheid.[130] In reality, however, white-owned banks provided financial support to the apartheid government and denied black South Africans housing loans.[131] In addition, many businesses were successful during apartheid, as seen from their records that show their profitability.[132]

Evidence in the TRC came from testimonies of witnesses, victims, and the accused, as well as records of the National Archives, the National Intelligence Agency, the South African Police, cabinet, State Security Council, and the South African National Defense Force archives.[133] After the TRC concluded, the records used as evidence and those created during the TRC proceedings were sent to South Africa’s National Archives in Pretoria.[134] They included textual, digital, and audiovisual records.[135]

Archivist’s role

The archivist’s role is a difficult one in countries still ruled by repressive regimes. Archivists are designated by the government to be keepers of government archives. They are restricted by the government and archival laws in who they can allow to access the archives, regardless of their personal beliefs.[136] Archives of repressive regimes are often censored.[137] If they do voice their own opinions, they may be in danger of losing their jobs.[138] They may also be blamed by researchers for the destruction of archives.[139] In some situations, however, archivists can make a difference and improve access to the archives.[140] Instead of preserving an accurate record of history, repressive regimes may use archives as a means to spread their misinformation.[141] If this cannot be prevented during the regime’s reign, archivists have a duty to see that it does not continue in countries going through a democratic transition. Countries formerly under the control of repressive regimes require their archives to accurately represent the past. This information must be preserved and be accessible to maintain the historical collective memory of the people.[142] Archives must meet the needs of interested parties, such as the victims of repressive regimes and researchers.[143]

The previous regime’s bias must be removed from the archives to create a democratic one.[144] Often the first step is for archival institutions to establish their new mandate and code of ethics.[145][146] Employees linked to the former regime should be assessed in order to protect the archives.[147] In addition, the chain of custody must be unbroken for the archives to be used as proof against former regimes. Therefore, the records of former repressive regimes should be immediately transferred to the new democratic government.[148]

Archives should not be influenced by the political beliefs of ruling parties. Trained archivists are required for proper arrangement (respect des fonds and original order) so as to reflect the correct organization of the former regime. Proper arrangement can also differentiate between the records of the regime and those confiscated by the regime.[149] Detailed description that respects the privacy of individuals named in the archives, proper appraisal, and the maintenance of fonds integrity are also required.[150] The above must be performed by archival institutions in order to regain the trust and respect of its own citizens and the international community. "Archivists are active shapers of social memory" and have a duty to prevent the minimization and fading memory of past injustices.[151]

The archivist's role in action

Archivists at the Open Society Archives in Budapest, Hungary have preserved records created and accumulated by anti-Communist groups of the Cold War era. These archives help Hungarians and the international community remember the repressive nature of the Communist regime and its attempts to impede free speech.[152] At the Mayibuye Centre for History and Culture in Cape Town, South Africa, archivists have archived a substantial collection of records, including films and audio-tapes.[153] This included the creation of an index for the collection and its proper preservation.[154] These archives document the experiences of non-white South Africans living under Apartheid rule. Especially in instances where the repressive regime has destroyed many of its incriminating records, the preservation of whatever remains is necessary to remember.[155] Other examples of using archives of former repressive regimes to document past injustices:

  • Guatemala - Historical Archive of the National Police
  • Brazil - Political and Security Police[156]
  • Latvia
  • Lithuania
  • Paraguay
  • Peru - Alberto Fujimori
  • Poland
  • Portugal
  • Russia
  • Spain
  • Uruguay - Juan Bordaberry
  • Zimbabwe[157]

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Vladimir Kajlik, “Czech Archives at the Crossroads: Breaking with the Past.” American Archivist 54, no. 3 (1991): 415, http://www.metapress.com/content/l414378p21011617/.
  2. ↑ Kajlik, “Czech Archives," 415.
  3. ↑ William G. Rosenberg, “Politics in the (Russian) Archives: The ‘Objectivity Question,’ Trust, and the Limitations of Law,” American Archivist 64, no. 1 (2001): 83, http://www.metapress.com/content/9454828761277787/.
  4. ↑ Rosenberg, “Politics," 86.
  5. ↑ Antonio Gonzalez Quintana, "Archives of the Security Services of Former Repressive Regimes" UNESCO Report, accessed March 7, 2013, http://portal.unesco.org/ci/fr/files/4976/10325900610Archives_of_the_Security_Services_of_former_Repressive_Regimes.rtf/Archives%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSecurity%2BServices%2Bof%2Bformer%2BRepressive%2BRegimes.rtf.
  6. ↑ Rosenberg, “Politics," 84.
  7. ↑ Jeffrey M. Puryear, "Higher Education, Development Assistance, and Repressive Regimes," Studies in Comparative International Development 17, no. 2 (1982): 3, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02717339?LI=true.
  8. ↑ Puryear, "Higher Education," 3.
  9. ↑ Ibid.
  10. ↑ Paul Sieghart, "Censuring Repressive Regimes," Nature 270, no. 22 (1977): 657, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v270/n5639/pdf/270657b0.pdf.
  11. ↑ Library of Congress, “East Germany: Historical Setting,” last modified July 1987, Library of Congress Country Studies, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+gx0012).
  12. ↑ Library of Congress, “East Germany: German Democratic Republic-Postwar Government,” last modified July 1987, Library of Congress Country Studies, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+gx0041).
  13. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. "German Democratic Republic," accessed March 9, 2013, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/230706/German-Democratic-Republic.
  14. ↑ Karste Jedlitschka, “The Lives of Others: East German State Security Service's Archival Legacy,” American Archivist 75 no. 1 (2012): 84, http://www.metapress.com/content/c6555155715775nq/.
  15. ↑ Jedlitschka, "Lives," 85.
  16. ↑ “Stasi,” in Europe Since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction, ed. John Merriman and Jay Winter, vol. 4 (Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006), 2450-451.
  17. ↑ ”Stasi,” 2450.
  18. ↑ Ibid.
  19. ↑ Ibid.
  20. ↑ Ibid.
  21. ↑ Jedlitschka, "Lives," 81.
  22. ↑ Ibid., 84.
  23. ↑ Ibid., 85.
  24. ↑ Ibid.
  25. ↑ Ibid., 86.
  26. ↑ Ibid.
  27. ↑ Ibid., 89-90.
  28. ↑ Ibid., 91.
  29. ↑ Ibid., 94.
  30. ↑ Ibid., 87.
  31. ↑ Ibid., 88.
  32. ↑ Ibid., 87, 89.
  33. ↑ Ibid., 88.
  34. ↑ Ibid., 88, 100.
  35. ↑ Ibid., 102.
  36. ↑ Library of Congress, “Saddam Hussein Trial: Historical Context,” last modified July 3, 2007, Law Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/law/help/hussein/context.php.
  37. ↑ Library of Congress, “Historical Context.”
  38. ↑ Ibid.
  39. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. "Iraq," accessed March 9, 2013, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293631/Iraq/22930/Climate#toc22935.
  40. ↑ Ibid.
  41. ↑ Bruce Montgomery, "The Iraqi Secret Police Files: A Documentary Record of the Anfal Genocide," Archivaria 1, no. 52 (2001): 75, http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12815/14023.
  42. ↑ Montgomery, "Iraqi Files," 75
  43. ↑ Ibid.
  44. ↑ Ibid.
  45. ↑ Ibid., 69.
  46. ↑ Ibid., 75.
  47. ↑ Ibid.
  48. ↑ Ibid., 80.
  49. ↑ Ibid.
  50. ↑ Ibid., 76, 78.
  51. ↑ Ibid., 79.
  52. ↑ Ibid., 70.
  53. ↑ Ibid., 76.
  54. ↑ Ibid.
  55. ↑ Ibid.
  56. ↑ Ibid., 80.
  57. ↑ Ibid., 85.
  58. ↑ Ibid., 71, 88.
  59. ↑ Omar Sinan, "Iraq to Hang 'Chemical Ali'," Tampa Bay Times, June 25, 2007, http://www.sptimes.com/2007/06/25/Worldandnation/Iraq_to_hang__Chemica.shtml.
  60. ↑ Dawne Adam, "The Tuol Sleng Archives and the Cambodian Genocide," Archivaria 1 no. 45 (1998): 7, http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12222/14562.
  61. ↑ Adam, "Tuol Sleng," 7-8.
  62. ↑ Ibid., 8.
  63. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. "Khmer Rouge," accessed March 9, 2013, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316738/Khmer-Rouge.
  64. ↑ Adam, "Tuol Sleng," 6.
  65. ↑ Ibid., 8.
  66. ↑ Ibid., 10.
  67. ↑ Ibid., 8.
  68. ↑ Ibid.
  69. ↑ Ibid., 11.
  70. ↑ Ibid.
  71. ↑ Michelle Caswell, “Khmer Rouge Archives: Accountability, Truth, and Memory in Cambodia,” Archival Science 10 no. 1-2 (2010): 26, doi: 10.1007/s10502-010-9114-1.
  72. ↑ Adam, "Tuol Sleng," 18.
  73. ↑ Caswell, “Khmer Rouge," 26.
  74. ↑ Ibid.
  75. ↑ Adam, "Tuol Sleng," 6.
  76. ↑ Ibid., 16.
  77. ↑ Ibid., 12.
  78. ↑ Ibid., 13.
  79. ↑ Caswell, “Khmer Rouge," 30.
  80. ↑ Adam, "Tuol Sleng," 17.
  81. ↑ Caswell, "Khmer Rouge," 30-31.
  82. ↑ Ibid., 26.
  83. ↑ Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, accessed March 9, 2013, http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en.
  84. ↑ Caswell, “Khmer Rouge," 26.
  85. ↑ Ibid., 30, 33.
  86. ↑ CIA, "South Africa," World Fact Book, accessed March 30, 2013, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html.
  87. ↑ Keith Shear, "At War with the Pass Laws' Reform and the Policing of White Supremacy in 1940s South Africa," Historical Journal 56, no. 1 (2013): 207, doi:10.1017/S0018246X12000581.
  88. ↑ William Beinart, Twentieth-century South Africa, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 115, http://lib.myilibrary.com?ID=44466.
  89. ↑ Beinart, "Twentieth-century," 79.
  90. ↑ Daniel Herwitz, "Monumental, Ruin, and Redress in South African Heritage," The Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory 86, no. 4 (2011): 236, doi:10.1080/00168890.2011.615288.
  91. ↑ Herwitz, "Monumental, Ruin, and Redress," 237.
  92. ↑ Ibid.
  93. ↑ Verne Harris, "Redefining Archives in South Africa: Public Archives and Society in Transition, 1990-1996," Archivaria 1, no. 42 (1996): 7, http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/viewFile/12151/13154.
  94. ↑ Harris, "Redefining Archives," 8.
  95. ↑ Ibid.
  96. ↑ Ibid.
  97. ↑ Randall C. Jimerson, "Archives for All: Professional Responsibility and Social Justice," American Archivist 70, no. 2 (2007): 263, http://www.metapress.com/content/5n20760751v643m7/.
  98. ↑ Harris, "Redefining Archives," 9.
  99. ↑ Ibid.
  100. ↑ Ibid.
  101. ↑ Ibid.
  102. ↑ Lekoko Kenosi, “Records, the Truth Commission, and National Reconciliation: Accountability in Post-Apartheid South Africa” (PhD diss., University of Pitsburgh, 2009), retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, http://search.proquest.com/docview/304979978, 29.
  103. ↑ Kenosi, "Records, the Truth Commission," 29.
  104. ↑ Verne Harris, "'They Should Have Destroyed More': The Destruction of Public Records by the South African State in the Final Years of Apartheid, 1990-1994," in Archives and the Public Good: Accountability and Records in Modern Society, edited by Richard J. Cox and David A. Wallace (Westport, Connecticut: Quorum Books, 2002), 214.
  105. ↑ Harris, "Redefining Archives," 9.
  106. ↑ Ibid., 8.
  107. ↑ Ibid.
  108. ↑ Ibid.
  109. ↑ Ibid.
  110. ↑ Ibid., 9.
  111. ↑ Ibid., 8.
  112. ↑ Ibid.
  113. ↑ Ibid.
  114. ↑ Ibid., 9.
  115. ↑ Ibid.
  116. ↑ Ibid.
  117. ↑ Ibid., 10.
  118. ↑ Kenosi, “Records, the Truth Commission,” iv.
  119. ↑ Harris, “They Should Have Destroyed More,” 206.
  120. ↑ Ibid.
  121. ↑ Ibid., 214.
  122. ↑ Ibid., 219.
  123. ↑ Kenosi, “Records, the Truth Commission,” 11, 13.
  124. ↑ Ibid., 11.
  125. ↑ Harris, “They Should Have Destroyed More,” 211,222.
  126. ↑ Beth S. Lyons, “Getting to Accountability: Business, Apartheid and Human Rights Part A,” Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 17, no. 2 (1999): 135, http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/nethqur32&collection=journals&index=journals/nethqur&id=170.
  127. ↑ Lyons, “Getting to Accountability,” 138.
  128. ↑ Ibid.
  129. ↑ Ibid., 142.
  130. ↑ Ibid., 143.
  131. ↑ Ibid.
  132. ↑ Ibid., 150.
  133. ↑ Kenosi, "Records, the Truth Commission," 122.
  134. ↑ Ibid., iv.
  135. ↑ Ibid., 133.
  136. ↑ Kajlik, “Czech Archives," 413.
  137. ↑ Rosenberg, “Politics," 80.
  138. ↑ Kajlik, “Czech Archives," 419.
  139. ↑ Ibid., 417.
  140. ↑ Rosenberg, “Politics," 80.
  141. ↑ Kajlik, “Czech Archives,” 417.
  142. ↑ Caswell, “Khmer Rouge," 39.
  143. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 17.
  144. ↑ Joan Fairweather, "Secrets, Lies and History: Experiences of a Canadian Archivist in Hungary and South Africa," Archivaria 1, no. 50 (2006): 182, http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12782/13975.
  145. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 24.
  146. ↑ Kajlik, "Czech Archives," 419.
  147. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 10.
  148. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 15.
  149. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 17.
  150. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 19.
  151. ↑ Harris, "Redefining Archives," 7.
  152. ↑ Fairweather, "Secrets," 183.
  153. ↑ Ibid., 186.
  154. ↑ Ibid., 187.
  155. ↑ Ibid., 188.
  156. ↑ Jesse Franzblau, "Information Control and Human Rights: Transforming Government Archives into Tools for Civil Society," The Michigan Journal of Public Affairs 9, Spring (2012): 13, http://www.mjpa.umich.edu/uploads/2012/franzblau.pdf.
  157. ↑ Quintana, "Security Services," 23.

See also

Further reading

Doyle, Kate. "Exhumations: The Recovery of Repressive Archives." Columbia University Libraries Center for Human Rights Documentation and Research. Accessed March 7, 2013. http://library.columbia.edu/indiv/humanrights/news_events/2007/conference/presentations/2_1_4_doylek.html?4.

  • 2007 video of Kate Doyle of the National Security Archive in Washington, D.C. giving a presentation on the archives of former repressive regimes, how they are used as evidence of their crimes, and their preservation. Her focus is on the Guatemalan archives of the former National Police.

Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records. "History and Tasks of the Federal Commissioner for the Stasi-files." Accessed April 9, 2013. http://www.bstu.bund.de/EN/Home/home_node.html.

Harris, Verne. Archives and Justice: a South African Perspective. Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2007.

  • Collection of essays and presentations on the importance of archivists actively shaping cultural memory.

Landwehr, Regina. "The German Archival System 1945-1995" PhD diss., University of British Columbia, 1996.

  • PhD dissertation on the effect both East and West Germany had on their respective archives.

Procter, Margaret, Michael Cook, and Caroline Williams, ed. Political Pressure and the Archival Record. Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2005.

  • Collection of essays regarding various political regimes around the world and their impact on archives.

Quintana, Antonio Gonzalez. "Archival Policies in the Protection of Human Rights." Paper presented at the conference of the International Council on Archives, Paris, 2009. http://www.ica.org/download.php?id=971.

  • Report on archival policies in the defense of human rights, both collective and individual.

"Repressive Regimes." Narrated by Anne Applebaum. Four Thought, BBC, July 1, 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/bigscreen/radio/episode/b011jv8p/Four_Thought_Series_2_Anne_Applebaum_Repressive_Regimes.

  • 15 minute podcast by Anne Applebaum on reconciliation efforts of post-repressive regime governments.

The Lives of Others. Directed by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck. 2006.

  • Academy Award-winning German film, set in the 1980s, involving an East German couple under surveillance by the Stasi.

Bibliography

Adam, Dawne. "The Tuol Sleng Archives and the Cambodian Genocide." Archivaria 1 no. 45 (1998): 5-26. http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12222/14562.

Beinart, William. Twentieth-century South Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. http://lib.myilibrary.com?ID=44466.

Caswell, Michelle. “Khmer Rouge Archives: Accountability, Truth, and Memory in Cambodia.” Archival Science 10 no. 1-2 (2010): 25–44. doi: 10.1007/s10502-010-9114-1.

CIA. "South Africa." World Fact Book. Accessed March 30, 2013. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html.

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Fairweather, Joan. "Secrets, Lies and History: Experiences of a Canadian Archivist in Hungary and South Africa." Archivaria 1, no. 50 (2006): 181-92. http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12782/13975.

Franzblau, Jesse. "Information Control and Human Rights: Transforming Government Archives into Tools for Civil Society." The Michigan Journal of Public Affairs 9, Spring (2012): 4-17. http://www.mjpa.umich.edu/uploads/2012/franzblau.pdf.

Harris, Verne. "Redefining Archives in South Africa: Public Archives and Society in Transition, 1990-1996." Archivaria 1, no. 42 (1996): 6-27. http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/viewFile/12151/13154.

Harris, Verne. "'They Should Have Destroyed More': The Destruction of Public Records by the South African State in the Final Years of Apartheid, 1990-1994." In Archives and the Public Good: Accountability and Records in Modern Society, edited by Richard J. Cox and David A. Wallace, 205-28. Westport, Connecticut: Quorum Books, 2002.

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Lyons, Beth S. “Getting to Accountability: Business, Apartheid and Human Rights Part A.” Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 17, no. 2 (1999): 135-60. http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/nethqur32&collection=journals&index=journals/nethqur&id=170.

Montgomery, Bruce. "The Iraqi Secret Police Files: A Documentary Record of the Anfal Genocide." Archivaria 1, no. 52 (2001): 69-99. http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12815/14023.

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