Course:ARCL 140 Summer 2020/ Group 24: Social Evolution
CONTRIBUTORS & ROLES
Fallyn Denford did Site 1
Gabrielle Pereira did Site 2
Victoria Romano did Site 3
Matthew Ogilvie-Turner did Site 4
MAP
Site 1: Blombos Cave
https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/viewer?mid=1jsQONFejeREIZhDAeQoB6MvxZLsPk9kG&ll=-34.41228280000002%2C21.216741300000006&z=17
Site 2: Gran Dolina Bison Bone Bed
https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1TmMAr-zh3oZeLje9Zh8AWDpP1ruS8REL&ll=42.36664989053337%2C-3.5202777777777783&z=13
Site 3: Dmansis, Georgia
Site 4: Meadowcroft Rock Shelter
INTRODUCTION
This paper will be exploring the social adaptations of Hominids, in particular, their symbolic behaviour, hunting methods, compassion, and the repeated use of social spaces.
Social adaptations are studied within the wider topic of social evolution, which is defined as positive or negative behaviours that impact an individual’s fitness (Gardner, West, & Barton 2007). Having said that, positive behaviours are often associated with compassion and altruism, while negative behaviours are associated with selfishness (Gardner, West, & Barton 2007). The topic of social adaptations is important to the study of human evolution, due to the fact that it showcases how intragroup relations amongst hominids have fundamentally assisted in their survival. These social adaptations have then led to greater social cognition and communication skills between group members, all of which influences their behaviour (Freeberg, Gentry, Sieving & Lucas 2019). This then leads to strategic behavioural and social adaptations, which aids in the evolution of our social cognition (Freeberg, et al. 2019). Furthermore, the social adaptations area of study utilizes intersectionality by observing the relationship between human behaviour and environment, specifically how an individual can employ their environment for their survival.
Firstly, symbolic behaviour: the Blombos Cave is a fundamental site for anthropologists to understand that Homo sapiens were among species to have symbolic thought processes. Anthropologists discovered cave markings on the wall of the cave made with a reddish-brown ochre crayon of 1 to 3 millimeters (Douze, Katja, Sarah Wurz, and Christopher Stuart Henshilwood. 2015). The abstract design means that Homo sapiens had complex behaviour and symbolic understanding (Douze et al. 2015).
Secondly, hunting methods: The Gran Dolina site demonstrates how the hominids in the Middle Pleistocene were able to work efficiently for the goal of hunting the most bison, as this site had an abundance of bison carcasses (Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). The fossils also showed signs of systematic butchering, which would then be transported out of the cave and shared amongst group members (Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015).
Thirdly, compassion: The selected site for compassion was Dmanisi, Georgia (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). A cranium of an old make who had lived without teeth for several years was found there. The male could not have survived without the help of others in assisting him with his digestive process (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005).
Lastly, social spaces: The Meadowcroft Rock Shelter is a well known site on the east coast of the USA. It was repeatedly camped in and used for crafting tools, having fires, and possibly a site for burials (Donahue et al. 1998). The repeated use of a site like this shows the social growth in an early population.
SITE 1: Blombos Cave
AUTHOR: Fallyn Denford
LOCATION: 300 km east of Cape Town, South Africa on the southern coast. (34.4123° S, 21.2167° E)
https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/viewer?mid=1jsQONFejeREIZhDAeQoB6MvxZLsPk9kG&ll=-34.41228280000002%2C21.216741300000006&z=17
AGE: 73,000 years old
Context
Blombos Cave is located 300 kilometres east of Cape Town, South Africa on the southern coast (Christopher Henshilwood et al. 2015). The cave is famously known to be the location of the oldest known drawing (silcrete flake) made by hunter-gatherer Homo sapiens during the Middle Stone Age dating back 73,000 years. This cave was most likely a place where these said hunter-gatherers would stop to live in and quickly move on as they were constantly moving (Christopher Henshilwood, and Karen Loise van Niekerk. 2018). Blombos cave overlooks the Indian ocean and extends around 6 to 7 metres. Scientists organized the space into numbered phases from the top of the cave to the bottom. There are three phases: M1 (includes 6 layers), M2 (includes 3 layers on the top and 4 layers on the bottom), and lastly M3 (includes 12 layers) (Douze K, Wurz S, Henshilwood CS. 2015). Specifically, scientists discovered engraved bone pieces, engraved ochre, bone points, and shell beads in the upper layers of the M1 and M2 phases (#1). The M2 lower layers include lithics and basin-shaped hearths (Christopher Henshilwood et al. 2018).
History
Professor Christopher Henshilwood, a South African anthropologist, and Dr. Karen van Niekerk started excavating the cave in 1991 and they have been digging ever since. The material he had found and published about was excavated by CSH in 2010 and 2011. In order to dig, the team needed a permit that was given to them by the Heritage Western Cape in Cape Town, South Africa.
Of the twelve layers excavated, only eleven were included in the study as they contained over 3,000 artifacts while the twelfth layer contained only a silcrete blade and a piece of sandstone. (Douze K, Wurz S, Henshilwood CS. 2015. page 4). Specifically, Dr. Luca Pollarolo, an archaeologist and honorary research fellow at the University of the Witwatersrand was the first to discover the silcrete flake.
Their discovery was finally made public on September 12, 2018, in the journal, Nature. The team along with Professor Francesco d’Errico, the second author, observed the flake using an electron microscope and RAMAN spectroscopy to determine whether or not the markings were made by an external force (Staff, Science X. 2018). The team proved this to be true. They decided to test out different ways of drawing and eventually found out that the drawing on the cave wall was made with an ochre crayon that was around 1 to 3 millimetres thick. They also discovered that since the lines ended quite abruptly on the flake the drawing was larger and more intricate when first drawn (Staff, Science X. 2018).
Relevance
As mentioned above, Henshilwood and his team found bone tools, shell beads, and most importantly the earliest form of drawing with ochre by Homo sapiens. Henshilwood in fact states, "Before this discovery, Palaeolithic archaeologists have for a long time been convinced that unambiguous symbols first appeared when Homo sapiens entered Europe, about 40 000 years ago, and later replaced local Neanderthals,". This shows that behavioural modernity was common across human species (There are different views of how and why red ochre was used by Hominids. Some archaeologists believe that red ochre was mainly used as a protectant for the skin against UV rays and insects or as a tool to tan hide. However, evidence from sites like Blombos cave suggests the opposite (Henshilwood, Christopher S., Francesco D'Errico, and Ian Watts. 2009). The geometric symbols made by Hominids are unlike anything else. This suggests that these drawings contained symbolic meaning for the human species of the past just like drawing in the present. While this ochre drawing is essential to anthropologists, the shell beads also provide some insight on the behaviour of Homo sapiens. The team discovered that the shells had been pierced with a bone tool of some kind when they examined it. This means that an individual would wear these shell beads as some form of jewelry or as a decoration. This was not a random occurrence either, research shows that the shells would have been carried to the cave from a long distance, 34.5 metres above sea level to be exact. The shells were not taken for food but because a Homo sapien had wanted to create art out of it. This was tested when researchers measured the weight of meat from hundreds of shells and found it would not be sufficient enough to feed these individuals (Francesco d'Errico, Christopher Henshilwood, Marian Vanhaeren, Karen van Niekerk. 2004).
SITE 2: Gran Dolina Bison Bone Bed
AUTHOR: Gabrielle Pereira
LOCATION: in Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) (42°21'04.4"N 3°31'11.8"W)
https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1TmMAr-zh3oZeLje9Zh8AWDpP1ruS8REL&ll=42.36664989053337%2C-3.5202777777777783&z=13
AGE: 400kyr
Context
The Gran Dolina cave site is 400kyr and located in Burgos, Spain, specifically in Atapuerca (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2017). The cave site consists of stratigraphic units, which are numbered from top to bottom. These units begin at TD1, which is the lowest part and end with TD10 to TD11, which has an abundance of fossils and lithic industry (Made 2013). In addition to this, the bison bone beds were specifically found in unit 10.1 (Rodriguez-Hidalgo, Saladie, Olle, & Carbonell 2015). Having said that, now the internal and external deposits filled the cavity, thus collapsing on itself (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). Accordingly, there are now too few remains of the cave’s walls and roof to reconstruct its original geometry (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2017).
History
This cave site was first recognized when an abandoned railway trench was cut during the late 19th century, all of which led to the vertical sections in the walls of the trench to be exposed (Made 2013) . Therefore, this led to many excavations of this railway trench before the 1970s but the exact provenance is unknown, along with whom conducted these excavations (Made 2013). However, there were some materials that were preserved in the paleontological museum in Sabadell (Made 2013). Having said that, the site’s lower and upper parts were professionally excavated again 1976, which was led by Trino Torres (Made, 2012). Then again in 1978 and 1982, by Trino Torres as well (Made 2013). Afterwards, in the early 1990s archaeologists, Aguirre and then later by Arsugaga, Bermudez de Castro and Carbonell, directed the excavation of a 6 square meter test pit from the top of the cave to the bottom, then another 80 square meters were cleared from the top (Made 2013). As a result, this made the cave site accessible and safer for the archaeologists (Made 2013). Once the archeologists worked their way to the lower parts of the cave, specifically in TD10.1, they discovered the bison bone bed (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). This bone bed consisted of an abundance of remains and fossils of bison, thus indicating that the hominids hunted the bison efficiently with the use of tools, elaborative tactics, and working collectively with other group members (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). Moreover, the accumulation of the bison bones in the cave site would suggest the use of a long-term residential base, in which the hominids would bring back the resources from the bison to and then distribute the bison to other group styles (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015).
Relevance
In the specific unit TD10.1 of the Gran Dolina site, archeologists discovered the bison bone bed (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). This bison bone bed is unique due to the fact that it consisted of all class sizes of carcasses, meaning there had to be a mass predation to capture all the bison (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). Therefore, this leads to the belief that hominids during the Middle Pleistocene participated in big game hunting with the help of working together and tools (Rodriguez-Hidalgo, Rivals, Saladie & Carbonell 2016). The term big game hunting illuminates how the hominids began hunting larger animals rather than smaller ones, which they would then intensively dismember and prepare the animal (Rodriguez-Hidalgo, Rivals, Saladie & Carbonell 2016). In addition to this, the hominids would process the carcasses of the bison with great care, meaning they would utilize all the meat by sharing it with others, cooking it, and rendering the grease (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2016). Taking this into consideration, the hominids must have all resided in the same residential base in order to capture their abundance of bison (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). This demonstrates the social development and social adaptation that the hominids possessed, as they would use many tools and many tactics in order to kill the bison efficiently (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2017) . Then the hominids collectively worked together to carry the bison’s remains back to the residential base and then exploit the bison’s resources, which would then be shared across group members (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). Having said that, this social adaptation of working efficiently with others relates to the wider story of human evolution for the reason that it illuminates how hominids developed their social, cognitive, and technological skills (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2017). Therefore, their communication and technological skills demonstrates how we have evolved from Middle Pleistocene hominids, into modern humans.
SITE 3: Dmanisi, Georgia
AUTHOR: Victoria Romano
LOCATION: Dmanisi, Georgia (41.3298° N, 44.2073° E)
AGE: 1.7 million BP
Context
This site is located at Dmanisi Georgia and it is dated to be 1.7 million BP. Currently, Georgia’s climate is divided into Western Georgia, where it is warm and humid, and Eastern Georgia, where the climate is more continental (Gabunia, Vekua, and Lordkipanidze 2000). The country has very diverse settings, varying from mountains to foothills and river valleys. Dmanisi is found between the rivers Mashavera and Pinesauri. The area is surrounded by deposits of sedimentary rocks, where the fossils and stone tools were found (Gabunia et al. 2000). The fossils included a very unique cranium (this will be discussed later in the text), plants, and various animals, which help paint a picture of what Dmanisi looked like 1.7 million years ago. Amongst the animals' fossils, there were Struthio dmanisensis, Ellasmotherium, Gazella cf. borbonica, and U. etruscus vekuai (Gabunia et al. 2000; Tsegai, Martínez-Navarro, Madurell-Malapeira, Figueirido et al. 2019). The U. etruscus vekuai fossils gave a lot of insight into the climate of Dmanisi during that time. For that species to have survived, the area must have consisted of patchy forested areas, with a lot of grass and vegetation. The climate must have been quite dry and open (Tsegai et al. 2019).
History
Dmanisi began being researched in the 1930s when scientists found the remains of a medieval village there (Switek, 2013). However, it wasn’t till 2005 when an excavation of the location led by archaeologist David Lordkipanidze that the most important fossil from that location was found. David Lordkipanidze found a cranium without teeth had allowed researchers to further understand the origins of human compassion (this will be discussed in further detail in the following section). The fossil took over 8 years to be fully analyzed (Switek, 2013). There is still a debate on whether this fossil bellowed to an early form of Homo erectus, Homo georgicus, or another branch of Homo (Switek, 2013). This debate is due to a result of mosaic evolution, which allowed this cranium to have morphological features of both Homo habilis and Homo erectus. It has facial features similar to Homo habilis and a braincase similar to Homo erectus (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2016). Many other fossils have been found in this site including a huge variety of animal fossils and stone tools. Amongst the animals' fossils, there were remains of the following species: Hypolagus brachygnathus, Apodemus cf. dominans, M. Megantereon, and other species mentioned in the previous section (Gabunia et al. 2000).
Relevance
As previously mentioned, there was an array of fossils found at Dmanisi, Georgia (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). There were various fossils of animals, stone stools, and, most importantly, a cranium missing its teeth. This finding is very interesting for the field of human evolution for multiple reasons. Firstly, it was the oldest cranium from the genus Homo found that had such an extensive tooth lost whilst still alive. Secondly, it showcases one of the earliest pieces of evidence of compassion in humans, which connects with this essay’s topic of social adaptations (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). After an extensive analysis of cranium, archaeologists have concluded that this male had lived several years without teeth. 1.7 million years ago would have been quite difficult for one to live without teeth as they are a crucial part of the digestive process of humans (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). Their main dietary source was meat. Consuming meat without teeth would have been extremely difficult, therefore, this male would have had to find other types of foods to consume. His diet consisted of plants and bone marrow (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). Although he might have been able to get food on his own, archaeologists believe that he had help from others (Graham 2005). The male’s teeth loss was likely due to an illness or old age, which would have negatively impacted his ability to hunt and fend for himself (Graham 2005). Thirdly, this cranium demonstrated morphological similarities to Homo ergaster, being the first fossil found in Asia suspected of being a Homo ergaster. Before this discovery, Homo ergaster was only found in Africa, suggesting that perhaps part of this species was able to deviate from the rest and find its way into Asia (Gabunia, Vekua, Lordkipanidze, Swisher, Ferring et al. 2000).
SITE 4: Meadowcroft Rockshelter
AUTHOR: Matthew Ogilvie-Turner
LOCATION: 64km SW of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania (40.2864° N, 80.4888° W)
AGE: 16,000 yrs BP
Context
The Meadowcroft RockShelter is believed by some to be the earliest historical site, dating back to 16,000 BCE. located in Pennsylvania near Pittsburgh, it has been turned into a popular tourist attraction. It was thought to be used periodically as a campsite until it partially collapsed around 13000BCE-14000BCE years ago, trapping lots of valuable evidence of Hominins inside (Adovasio, Pedler, Donahue, Stuckenrath. et al. 1999). Many archeologists have argued over which timeline is correct, some believe that the carbon dating was affected by the samples being contaminated by dissolved coal, therefore the early dates that pre date the Clovis would be incorrect (Adovasio, Pedler, Donahue, Stuckenrath. et al. 1999). I think the older dates (16,000BCE) are correct, and that this site does infact predate the Clovis people, making it the oldest archaeological site in North America if Monte Verde’s oldest dates are incorrect (Goldberg, Paul, Arpin. et al. 1999).
History
The Meadowcroft Rockshelter was first discovered by Albert Miller when his family owned the property, and the site started being excavated extensively in 1973 (Adovasio, Pedler, Donahue, Stuckenrath. et al. 1999). Inside the Rockshelter there is evidence of fire pits, and burned areas, suggesting that people would stay for days at a time before moving on. Human remains and animal bones have also been found on sight, just adding to the fact that multiple groups of people would visit Meadowcroft more than once (Goldberg, Paul, Arpin. et al. 1999). This shows how social behavior was prevailing in these early people. Repetition is a good sign when looking at how these early people were starting to develop into communities. Having a “base” to be able to come back to would be advantageous over wandering around aimlessly looking for their next meal.
Relevance
Considering that tools and evidence of Hominid activity including fire pits were found here adds to the story of social adaptation and evolution in North America as a whole. If this site existed as early as 16,000BCE, which is what I believe, then all its findings enrich the history of North America by giving us a new lens to look through (Adovasio et al. 2010). How did they get to the east coast before the west? They would have had to cross the Atlantic ocean, possibly coming from Greenland. The Meadowcroft Rockshelter is a very key part of social adaptation. This was a site that was repeatedly camped in, tools were crafted here, people died, and animals were brought for storage and consumption (Goldberg, Paul, Arpin. et al. 1999). This shows how social behavior was prevailing in these early people. Repetition is a good sign when looking at how Hominids were starting to develop into communities. Having a “base” to be able to come back to would be advantageous over wandering around aimlessly looking for their next meal. It’s not clear if the deceased person was given a proper burial, or if they died by themselves in the cave, but whatever the reason is they went to the cave for safety (Goldberg, Paul, Arpin. et al. 1999). The location would have been ideal as there is a river nearby for easy access to water, and obviously the cave is sheltered from any harsh weather. This site explores the wider story of archeology by adding new ideas to the evolution of population in North America.
CONCLUSION
In summation, this paper has demonstrated how social adaptations in Hominids have helped them evolve into the modern humans we are today. For instance, the development between intra group relationships had led to greater social cognition and communication skills, all of which has fundamentally aided the Hominids and their survival (Freeberg, et al. 2019). The Hominids have come to the realization that working effectively together would lead them to better successes with communication, nourishments, health, and residential bases. Moreover, these successes also illuminate the relationship between human behaviour and environemnt, specifically how they would use their environments to benefit themselves.
Having said that, this paper explains how symbolic behaviour demonstrates the development of social cognition in hominins. The ochre drawing and artifacts found in Blombos Cave was a groundbreaking discovery for anthropologists in the understanding of said symbolic behaviour in Homo sapiens. It displays that the species, like Neanderthals before them, were able to use artwork such as drawing and convey meaning out of it (Douze, Katja, Sarah Wurz, and Christopher Stuart Henshilwood. 2015).
Furthermore, the bison bone bed at the Gran Dolina cave sites not only establish the cognitive developments of working with tools and elaborate tactics for mass predation of the bison, but also establish how the Hominins worked together to hunt the bison efficiently and distribute the bison’s resources as well (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2015). Therefore, this illuminates the social adaptation of working with one’s group members for the better of the group, thus helping with their survival. This is an important factor of human evolution due to the fact that it demonstrates how we have developed our social, cognitive, and technological skills (Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2017).
Taking this into consideration, the trait of compassion can be inferred from a cranium lacking its teeth found in the Dmanisi, Georgia (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). That cranium was quite unique in that it had lost its teeth years prior to their death. Given that teeth were a vital part of the digestive process, this early human struggled with maintaining a good caloric intake. He lived mainly on plants and bone marrows (Lordkipanidze et al. 2005). Archaeologists believe that he had to depend on others to survive because he was most likely ill, which would have caused his teeth to fall, and old (Graham 2005). This was one of the first times compassion is seen on early humans.
In addition to this, without having a shelter for safety and possibly a small community, life would have been much harder for Hominins. This is why the Meadowcroft rock shelter played such an important role in the development and growth of the first Hominins in North America (Goldberg, Paul, Arpin. et al. 1999). Settlement is shown by evidence such as fire pits, animal bones, and tools found in the cave (Goldberg, Paul, Arpin. et al. 1999). By bringing these four sites together we can see how Hominids adapted to social behaviour not only to survive by trapping bison and helping disadvantaged peers, but to thrive by creating art and possibly having somewhere to call home, like Meadowcroft.
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