Course:ARCL140 Summer2020/TermProject Group 3
CONTRIBUTORS & ROLES
Site 1: Francesca Berthiaume
Site 2: Gretchen MacNaughton
Site 3: Brenna Campbell
Site 4: Matthew Feng
MAP
Olduvai Gorge: -2.98957, 35.35391
Saint-Acheul: 49.877242, 2.330980
Geißenklösterle: 48.398147, 9.771401
Gypsum Cave: 36.22311, -114.9006
INTRODUCTION
Material culture is defined as “physical aspects of culture to help define its member’s behaviours and perceptions” ("Material Culture" Cliff Notes), as opposed to non-material culture such as religious beliefs and language. As Encyclopedia Britannica puts it, “if all the human beings in the world ceased to exist, non-material aspects of culture would cease to exist along with them” (“Material”), leaving only material culture behind.
Material culture is present throughout human history, providing material manifestations of our physical and cognitive evolution to complement the non-material aspects of evolved culture. As non-material culture is not permanent, in terms of physicality, material culture becomes more accessible for researching human evolution.
The connection between evolution, the development of culture, and characteristics of material culture can be seen through the “evolution” or growth of art. Some of the earliest examples of what we believe to be art can be seen in Homo erectus mollusk shell engravings. A mollusk shell engraving, found in Java, Indonesia, appears to have a zigzagged pattern of a “M” shape, “demonstrat[ing] that the grooves were deliberately engraved” (Joordens et al. 2015), and are considered to be a sign of “cognitive behaviour and neuromotor skills” that are typically characteristic of Homo sapiens (Ingham 2014). In comparison, modern humans, or Homo sapiens, have evolved in cranial capacity significantly since then, with a cranial capacity of 1300-1400 cubic cm to Homo erectus’ 1000 cubic cm (“Increasing” Britannica), and through that change, art has become significantly more complex. Ultimately "the domains of art", along with evolution in cranial capacity linked with a growth in human culture, “reflect the entire evolved structure of the human cognitive-cultural system” (Turner 2006, 20) and bears witness to our progress as a species.
This Wiki page acts as a timeline to some of the major discoveries of material culture throughout human history and shows the relevance of those discoveries to the broader picture of evolution.
The Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania revealed the first evidence of the Oldowan Industrial Complex (c. 2.6-1.4 mya). It is believed that Oldowan tools indicate complex problem solving not seen in other hominids and is linked to the cognitive evolution in the genus Homo (Toth & Schick 2018,1).
The Saint-Acheul archaeological site in France is estimated to be aged 403 ± 73 kya BP (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 43). Saint-Acheul provided key evidence supporting a shift in belief systems regarding human origins. The site also contributes to the understanding of evolving cognitive ability and formation of culture in early humans.
Geißenklösterle is a limestone cave located in southern Germany and was formed during the Jurassic period (Rhodes el al. 2018, 199; Schmidt, Spinelli Sanchez and Kind 2017, 2). Excavations in the cave have uncovered artifacts which were made by Homo neanderthalensis and early Homo sapiens during the Paleolithic time period (Richard et al. 2019, 133).
The Gypsum Cave is an excavation which contains tools and instruments from the Holocene which can expand upon Geißenklösterle’s concepts of human musical cognition and culture. The site also contains remains of the ground sloth which Harrington argues were coexisting with humans in the cave (Gilreath, 2011).
SITE 1: The Olduvai Gorge
AUTHOR: Francesca Berthiaume
LOCATION: The Olduvai Gorge is located in the Eastern Rift Valley of Tanzania, situated between the Ngorongoro Crater Highlands and Serengeti National Park. (Albert 2015, 1543).
Coordinates: -2.98957, 35.35391
AGE: 2.03 mya to c. 62,000–17,000 (Njau 2014, 1).
Context
Famous for being the first site found with evidence of stone tool culture, the Olduvai Gorge is a critical source of archaeological data and is protected as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO (Torre et al. 2012, 92). Olduvai is 49 km long and composed of seven stratigraphic levels that came about due to flood events and resulting fluvial deposit over 2 million years. These levels divide into Beds I-IV, Masek Beds, Ndutu Beds, and Naisiusiu Beds (Albert 2015, 1543; Diez-Martín et al. 2015, 2). When Homo habilis and Paranthropus boisei inhabited the land, they settled near the highly saline-alkaline Olduvai paleo-lake where the climate was semi-arid and tropical (Albert 2015, 1543; Diez-Martín et al. 2015, 2). The lake contracted and expanded through the climate cycles before it completely disappeared and was replaced by small ponds and marshlands 3.1 mya (Albert 2015, 1543). Fossilized plants indicated that patches of dense bushland, short grass, and palm trees were present in open areas, whereas the marshlands contained more mixed-species (1543). In the present day, the area continues to resemble the past. It is divided into three different habitats: volcanic grassland, bushland, and small regions of montane forest with large quantities of quartz, volcanic rock, and chert (Key et al. 2020, 1; Pettorelli et al. 2009, 142).
History
Wilhelm Kattwinkel, a German entomologist, first visited the Olduvai Gorge in 1911 and took a number of fossils to study. These fossils raised the interest of the geologist Hans Reck, and in 1913, he brought a team to excavate Olduvai for the first time (Albert 2015, 1543; Leakey 1978, 1). However, it was archaeologist Mary Leakey that made the site famous with her discovery of the Paranthropus boisei skull in 1959 (Albert 2015, 1543). Various studies on the Middle Stone Age have been conducted throughout the years; the first was done on the Ndutu Beds by Mary Leakey and her team (Maíllo-Fernández et al. 2019, 131). The second study was carried out by A. Mabulla between 1989 and 1990 and focused on fauna hotspots (131). The third, and most intense, was performed by M. Eren in 2013. It made clear that Tanzania, specifically the Olduvai Gorge, had an exceptional capability for hosting the first modern humans (131). Through these studies of stratigraphic levels and subsequent excavations, Olduvai displays one of the most thorough records of human evolution (Leakey 1978, 61).
Relevance
The Olduvai Gorge was formulated primarily during the middle and upper Paleolithic and was occupied by hominins for nearly 1.8 million years (Key et al. 2020, 1). Most discoveries were of both Homo habilis and Oldowan tools located predominantly in Beds I and II (Key et al. 2020, 3). The tools were of simple technology but indicated skilled knapping and variation in technique; many tools displayed unifacial flaking rather than bifacial flaking (Toth & Schick 2018, 14). The flaking, as well as deliberate edge modification and the long-distance transport of stone, were all indicators of behavioural trends changing through evolution (24). The earliest stone tools were made of sharp stone flakes struck from cores of other cobble or chunks, specifically lavas, chert, and quartzite. (Key et al. 2020, 1; Stout 2011, 1051). Preference for these raw materials indicated the cognitive ability to differentiate and choose higher quality materials (Toth & Schick 2018, 14). Many studies conducted in the present day monitored activated areas of the brain when making Oldowan tools so as to answer questions pertaining to human evolution. In 1989, a PET scan showed the superior parietal lobe was activated when making Oldowan tools, which indicated the need for complex spatial cognition in order to complete the task (18). Another research project was designed to look into the neuroanatomical basis of natural selection through the use of MRI and DTI testing. The tests showed that the anterior parietal regions were activated when making stone tools, which indicated the use of action planning, specifically for object manipulation. (19). Much of hominin cognitive evolution evolved alongside material culture. The neural foundation in hominin evolution increased to support object manipulation and longterm procedural memory as tools became more complex (Wynn & Coolidge 2016, 204). Between 2.5 - 1.5 mya, Oldowan artefacts became a primary indicator of human evolution and behaviour (Reti 2016, 1-2).
SITE 2: Saint-Acheul
AUTHOR: Gretchen MacNaughton
LOCATION: Saint-Acheul site is located in the city of Amiens, Northern France, west of the River Somme, approximately 150km north of Paris, with a latitude of 49.877242, and a longitude of 2.330980 (GoogleMaps 2020).
AGE: 403 ± 73 kya BP (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 43).
Context
Saint-Acheul is located in the city of Amiens, along the River Somme, in Northern France (GoogleMaps 2020). Amiens is classified as a temperate climate (“Amiens Climate” n.d.). The site is situated on the downstream left bank of the River Somme’s alluvial gravel pit, in a Garenne alluvial formation, 27 m above the present-day valley (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 43). Malacofauna found in the site’s tufa deposits are indicative of the Lyrodiscus biome, which “developed in Western Europe only during MIS 11” (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 43), suggesting a past forest environment with wetter and warmer climatic conditions than at present (Rousseau et al. 1991, 15). MIS 11, dated between 424 kya and 374 kya (Lisieki and Raymo 2005), corresponds with ESR dating conducted upon the site's fluvial deposits, estimating the site to be 403±73 kya (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 43). Fluvial data from the site support findings that the Somme valley, where Saint-Acheul is situated, is characteristic of those present during the middle and upper Pleistocene (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 50).
History
Jacques Boucher de Perthes, a French customs official with an interest in archaeology ("Jacques" Britannica), discovered the Saint-Acheul site in 1836-37. (Ashworth 2016). At the time, Boucher de Perthes was working on multiple sites on the lower River Somme, along with Saint-Acheul, (Hitchcock 2019), and found what appeared to be small hand axes, along with the remains of extinct animals (Johnston 2019). In 1846 (published 1849), Boucher de Perthes wrote a book of his findings, Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes (Translation: Celtic and antediluvian antiquities). His findings, however, were not approved of by the general scientific community as they claimed “coexistence between ancient humans and extinct animals” (de la Torre 2016), opposing the common biblical belief that humans originated with the creation of Adam in the year 4,000 BC (McGee 2012, 217).
The site was later worked on in 1855 by Marcel-Jerome Rigollot, president of the Archaeological Society Department of Somme (Pinette 2008). Rigollot found stone tools that corresponded with the findings of Boucher de Perthes, and later stated in a letter to Boucher de Perthes that “my only ambition is to prove you were right” (Bouthors 1853-1855).
Interested by the findings of Boucher de Perthes and Rigollot, Joseph Prestwich, John Evans, and Hugh Falconer (Murray 2007, 192 and de la Torre 2016) went together to Saint-Acheul in 1859 to weigh in on the controversial findings (de la Torre 2016). Together they “witnessed personally the unearthing of stone tools in indisputably ‘pre-Diluvium’ strata” (de la Torre 2016) - further suggesting that mankind’s origin was not biblical in timeline.
A new profile was opened in 1998, “as part of a conservation project, intended to make the site accessible to the public” (Antoine and Limodin-Lozouet 2004, 42). The site of Saint-Acheul is now the Archaeological Garden of Saint-Acheul, (Jardin archéologique de Saint-Acheul) a historical site (Muskett 2018, 118), in which the public can learn about Acheulean tools and evolutionary history ("Jardin" 2020). Notably, the site contains the preserved soil wall from which stone tools were removed by Rigollot in 1855 (Dowson 2020).
Relevance
The discovery of stone-tools with extinct animal remains, deemed to be “pre-Diluvium strata” (de la Torre 2016), at the Saint-Acheul site, is one of the first instances where tools were hypothesized to originate prior to the biblical timeline of human origin. These stone tools indicated the “earliest time periods of human prehistory” (McCall 2006, 4), opposing the biblical timeline, and acting as a catalyst towards a new belief system.
Acheulean tools also showed evolution of cognitive ability and culture in early Homo. Unknown to Bourcher de Portes and Rigollot, were the even older Oldowan tools, the earliest example of stone tools showing deliberate creation (Doyle 2020, 24). These tools required less skill in preparation, but showed “consistent, repeated use of deliberate patterned behaviour” (Doyle 2020, 27), whereas previous tools were expedient objects, used for convenience (Doyle 2020, 23). The transition to Acheulean tools signified a shift in the cognitive ability of early Homo, as these tools had greater variability and required greater skill in formation. Acheulean tools had a significant period of use (1.9 mya to 200 kya), indicating a “presence of shared notions of form” (Doyle 2020, 63). This stability indicates that teachings were passed through generations. As culture relies on, and is created by, “knowledge that is learned and transmitted to later generations” (Hall 2005, 49), Acheulean tools are arguably an element of culture in early Homo.
Acheulean stone tools found at Saint-Acheul contributed to our understanding of human evolution in reconciling scientific vs biblical understanding of human origins, and in recognizing evolving cognitive and cultural processes.
Fun Fact: Saint-Acheule is the type site for which the name "Acheulean" is derived ("Acheulean", Britannica).
SITE 3: Geißenklösterle
AUTHOR: Brenna Campbell.
LOCATION: Geißenklösterle is a cave located in southern Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. It is approximately 150km west of Munich and 600km south of Berlin. The latitude and longitude is 48.398147, 9.771401.
AGE: 201-145 Ma (Schmidt, Spinelli Sanchez and Kind 2017, 2).
Context
Geißenklösterle is a limestone cave located within the surrounding Swabian Jura, a biodiverse plateau, in Southern Germany (Schmidt, Spinelli Sanchez and Kind 2017, 2; Rhodes el al. 2018, 199). The Swabian Jura is an extension from the Jura mountains located in Switzerland and France which were formed during the Jurassic era about 145-200 million years ago (Schmidt, Spinelli Sanchez and Kind 2017, 2; UNESCO n.d). During the Jurassic period, there were many active volcanos in the plateau, which is now represented by "350 volcanic vents" present day (UNESCO n.d). There is also a large crater in the Swabian Jura, which is thought to be caused by a meteor 15 million years ago (UNESCO n.d). Some other ecological features of the Swabian Jura include “dolines, fossil reefs, springs and the highest density of caves in Germany” (UNESCO n.d). The Danube river also runs 15km south of Geißenklösterle (Google Maps 2020).
History
It is believed that Homo neanderthalensis occupied Geißenklösterle until 49,000-47,000 cal BP and Homo sapiens subsequently arrived and inhabited the cave around 42,000 cal BP (Richard et al. 2019, 133). Archaeologists have known about Geißenklösterle since the 1870s, when they started excavating surrounding caves in the area (Münzel et al. 2011, 225). However, work did not begin in Geißenklösterle until 1973, when Eberhard Wagner led the first excavation, which was subsequently carried on by Joachim Hahn until 1991 (Rhodes et al. 2018, 200). Since then Geißenklösterle has been the site of numerous excavations, most notably one led by Nicholas Conrad from 2000-2002 (Rhodes et al. 2018, 200). These excavations and their subsequent discoveries led to Geißenklösterle being named a UNESCO World Heritage site for its significance in human history (Rhodes et al. 2018, 199).
Relevance
Geißenklösterle has provided a rich source of knowledge on the Paleolithic time period (Richard et al. 2019, 133). Excavations in the cave have uncovered lithic objects used by Homo neanderthalensis as well as artifacts such as bone flutes, carved figurines and ornaments made by early Homo sapiens (Richard et al. 2019, 133; Münzel and Conrad 2004, 227). The latter artifacts have been the focus of significant research because they have important implications for human evolution and the development of symbolic material culture. Previous species such as Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis generally made and used objects which assisted with their survival such as stone tools (Coward 2015, 80). In contrast, it is clear that Homo sapiens put significant effort into making objects which were not necessary for their survival. This demonstrates an important transition in which objects began to be valued for their symbolic significance and not just their utility. Ultimately, the creation of objects with symbolic significance was a consequential evolutionary milestone because it signaled an emergence of abstract thinking and greater cognitive capacity which allowed early Homo sapiens to attach meaning to objects (Coward 2015, 80).
The musical instruments discovered in Geißenklösterle also have their own specific evolutionary implications. The presence of bone flutes indicates that musicality was beginning to develop among early Homo sapiens. Musicality is unique to humans because it “integrates a wide variety of domains (cognitive, emotional, perceptual, motor,…)...and may share key components with other systems like language or speech” (Fitch 2006, 174). This transition is significant in evolutionary history because it implies a greater complexity of human development. Music also has important social implications as it can strengthen group relationships by improving collaborative processes (Fitch 2006, 202). Furthermore, social cohesion can be influenced by the instruments themselves (Coward 2015, 80). Symbolic materials like bone flutes can “act as ‘prompts’ for and records of the social relationships in which those objects are entangled” (Coward 2015, 80). Ultimately, the presence of music among early Homo sapiens likely implies that they developed more sociability than previous species. This social cooperativeness is significant because it is thought to be a considerable factor in Homo sapiens’ success as it gave them a competitive edge over Homo neanderthalensis which did not have the same social capacities (Coward 2015, 85-86).
SITE 4: Gypsum Cave
AUTHOR: Matthew Feng
LOCATION: Gypsum Cave is located in the state of Nevada, USA, approximately 26.5km from the city of Las Vegas, Nevada @ 36.22311, -114.9006.
AGE: 20,000 to 33,000 BP (Gilreath 2011)
Context
The Gypsum Cave is located in Nevada at the outskirts of Las Vegas. Beginning in January of 1930 to 1931 in a 12 month long project, Mark R. Harrington and a team of Native Americans excavated a large majority of the cave system. Amy Gilreath states that Harrington was most interested in this excavation for its potential as evidence that both animals and humans lived in it at a certain period (Gilreath, 2011).
History
During the excavation, there were several artifacts found in the cave system. Parts of atlatls and darts, the remains of ancient baskets, dark lenses which Harrington interpreted as remains of hearths, and remains and dung of the ground sloth were found in (Gilreath 2011). Also found in the cave were instruments: two flutes and a hoof-rattle. Harrington writes that both flutes, while unproven to be contemporaneous because of their different resting places, were manufactured similarly from a hollowed plant. Harrington notes that the first flute has a spot of red paint, but it may be just dirt accumulation rather than intentional coloring, but the second flute was intentionally painted or colored a dark red (Harrington 1930, 149). Dr. Richard W. Payne suggests that these flutes may be considered predecessors to yuwa flutes (Payne 1989, 15).
Relevance
Between the Geißenklösterle findings from the Pleistocene to the findings in the Gypsum Cave to modern day, flutes function similarly and have not diverged from the silhouette of a rod with holes drilled into it.The tools discovered in the Oldovan and Acheulean period evolved over time, however they still functioned similarly in the Holocene, albeit with different materials and modernized shapes. Thompson recalls that in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Darwin argues that music could have evolved as part of sexual selection (Thompson, 21). In his theory, he argues that the original function of music was to attract mates which would increase fitness. Thompson recalls Darwin that while music is non-essential, it attracts others, notably because an emotional response is the strongest reaction to music. Darwin notes that animal vocalizations tend to evolve for reproductive purposes, and male animals vocalize during breeding season (Thompson, 22). It can be argued that homo sapiens use music as part of a sexual display, while it is also observed that music has evolved to be part of Homo sapien culture globally. Musical instruments and the ability to play musical instruments are considered non-essential and referring to Coward, the increase in abstraction and cognitive capacity is a cursor to human attaching meaning to objects (Coward 2015, 80). Noting the coloring of the two flutes, it can also be argued that humans also began to search for aesthetic in objects as these non-survival objects did not require any further decoration but were colored red.
CONCLUSION
Observed in Homo’s existence, material culture has evolved and is a complex and essential element of human culture.
The earliest signs of evolution in the human cognitive-cultural system can be seen in the emergence of material culture, namely, Oldowan tools (Key et al. 2020, 1; Turner 2006, 20). Appearing 2.6 million years ago, Oldowan tools were simple but were deliberately made with raw materials and contained variation in style, method, and use (Toth & Schick 2018, 14). These key points indicated that the brain and thus cognitive ability had undergone evolutionary processes (Toth & Schick). The neuroanatomy correlating to both action planning and long term procedural memory had to have evolved in complexity in order to engage in Oldowan toolmaking (Toth & Schick 2018, 14). However, the human brain and belief system continued to further develop with the Acheulean Industrial Complex, as evidenced in Saint-Acheul (McGee 2012, 217; Stout 2011, 1053).
The Saint-Acheul archaeological site contributed to the understanding and acceptance of human evolution in humanity’s belief system, providing key evidence in the form of Achuelean stone tools present alongside extinct animal remains (Johnston 2019). This evidence supported a shift in popular belief away from that of biblical origins and timeline, based on the creation of Adam in the year 4,000 BC (McGee 2012, 217), and towards a much longer evolutionary time period. The Saint-Acheul site, through the comparison of complexities in Acheulean and Oldowan stone tools, also furthered our understanding of evolving cognitive ability (Doyle 2020, 63). Additionally, the longevity of Acheulean tools, implying inter-generational teachings, broadened our understanding of the formation of culture in early humans.
Geißenklösterle tells an important story about early Homo sapiens’ interaction with material culture. Discoveries of artifacts such as bone flutes and figurines in the cave contribute to a greater understanding of the emergence of materials of symbolic significance as well as abstract thinking among early Homo sapiens (Münzel and Conrad 2004, 227; Coward 2015, 80). The musical instruments found also signal the development of greater social capabilities among Homo sapiens (Fitch 2006, 202; Coward 2015, 80). Both the evolution of abstract thinking and greater social cooperativeness, offer explanations as to why Homo sapiens have been one of the most successful species on earth (Coward 2015, 85-86).
Observed in the Holocene, thus the modern era of Homo sapiens, material culture is part of both essential and non-essential part of society. Although the instruments found in the Gypsum Cave cannot be proven to be an essential part of early Homo sapiens culture, it is arguably an important part of our current society’s culture. Attendance of musical concerts, mandatory lessons in public school systems, and Darwin’s argument of music as an evolution of sexual selection suggest its importance in society. Harrington’s argument of human-animal coexistence can also be a precursor to animal domestication as pets and farm animals which have now evolved to be a part of our essential needs. From the Pleistocene discoveries of Oldowan and Acheulean stone tools, Paleolithic era’s discovery of instruments from Geißenklösterle, to the Gypsum Cave’s excavations of instruments and tools, these sites highlight material culture’s extensibility and evolution over Homo sapiens’ ancestral history.
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