Constructions of masculinity and their effects on mental health

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In Greek mythology, Heracles is synonymous with masculinity.

Masculinity

Masculine gender norms have had impacts on the health of individuals in modern society and throughout history. Masculinity can be defined as the possession of qualities traditionally associated with men[1]. Although most commonly associated with men, woman can also possess masculine qualities [2]. Masculinity is a socially constructed concept, and the definitions of which are relative, given to a time period and particular culture [3]. Hegemonic masculinity refers to the dominant ideal of masculinity within any specific culture [4]. The specific ways in which hegemonic masculinity can intersect with mental health can vary dramatically between cultures [5]. Hegemony is often about the ‘winning and holding of power’ and having the ability to dictate the terms in which events are understood so that they appear ‘natural’ and ‘normal’ [6].

Implications for Mental Health

Men in the United States suffer more severe chronic conditions, have higher death rates for all 15 leading causes of death, and die on average seven years younger than women [7]. Courtenay (2000)[7] suggests that men in North America are more likely, compared to women to adopt beliefs and behaviours that increase their health risks, and are less likely to engage in behaviours that are linked with good health and longevity. Studies in psychiatric epidemiology consistently indicate that men experience a significantly higher incidence and prevalence of certain mental health outcomes than women[8]. To better understand men’s mental health, it has been shown to be beneficial to focus on the relationship between the social construction of ‘masculinity’ and health beliefs and behaviours [9].

Research by Courtenay (2000)[7] suggest that health related actions and beliefs, along to most other social practises conducted by men and woman, are a means to display femininities and masculinities. Further, it is suggested that health behaviours are used in daily life and interactions to in the social structuring of gender and power. In addition, it is proposed that the social practices that undermine men's health are often signifiers of masculinity and instruments that men use in the negotiation of social power and status.

It has been suggested that depressive symptoms in men are often undiagnosed and untreated and that men may express emotional distress in other ways [10]. Emsile at al. 2006[10] found that men can find is hard to seek help because culturally dominant, hegemonic forms of masculinity are characterized by emotional control and a lack of vulnerability and that depression is most often associated with powerlessness and uncontrolled expression of emotion. Warren (1983)[11] has also argued that depression is ‘incompatible’ with traits associated with hegemonic masculinity. Expressing emotion in any way, or the act of crying can be seen as acts of femininity, which opposes masculinity. Masculinity is associated with competence and achievement, and depressive symptoms can include feelings and thoughts of powerlessness and lack of control [10]. Courtenay (2000)[7] has found that the control of emotions and the direct denial of vulnerability can be important aspects of hegemonic masculinity. A way in which masculinity can be demonstrated is by denying depression, this can be thought of a way to avoid a lower-status position relative to women and other men [7].

Research indicates that men make up around 75% of suicide and 75% of substance use disorder cases [8]. Epidemiological research on suicide, substance abuse, and depression in men indicates numerous common underlying risk factors. One of the key common risk factors is employment and occupational issues. Unemployment has a greater impact on the mental health of men in comparison to women.This difference between men and women may be because work has traditionally been the domain from which a man derives his self-identity, self-esteem, and self-worth. Work also provides status, income, and resources that can be used to support men and their families. As such, rupture and discontinuity in the work domain can lead to significant psychosocial stress as well as financial strain.

Case Study

Affleck et al. (2018)[8] studied the way in which masculine identities and roles affect the mental health experience of refugee men in Canada. Jaji (2009)[12] has found that men subject to the threats and oppression of war often hold the belief that they are responsible for defending not only themselves, but also their family. An inability to protect family from hard caused by war can cause men to disconnect from the the hegemonic masculine role of being a protector [13]. As a result of war and moving to a new country as a refugee, it is not uncommon for individuals to face unemployment. Unemployment as discussed previously can be a major stressor for masculine identities, as a man is not longer able to provide for a family, resulting in dependency on others which is inconsistent with many common masculine ideals [14].

Solutions

Kilmartin (2005)[15] suggests that health professionals should teach men that face depression about the importance of gender, and the importance it has in aiding them in resisting cultural pressures that masculine norms that can inflict on individuals. Building positive masculine qualities such as courage, by emphasizing how the act of expressing feelings and challenging hegemonic masculinity is brave. Also, qualities like leadership, by expressing how other men or people with masculine qualities deal with emotions in their lives. It is also suggested that reframing a more fluid masculinity to integrate depression could aid in individuals to seek help for mental health [16].

References

  1. ↑ Masculinity. Retrieved 11 27, 2018, from Merriam-Webster: https://www.merriam-webster.com
  2. ↑ Halberstam, J. (2004). Female masculinity. In M. S. Kimmel, & A. Aronson, Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia(Vol. 1, pp. pp. 294–5). Santa Barbara, California.
  3. ↑ Kilmartin, C. (2010). The Masculine Self (4 ed.). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.
  4. ↑ Connell, R. (1987). Gender and Power.Cambridge: Polity.
  5. ↑ Connell, R. (2005). Globalization, Imperialism, and Masculinities. In M. Kimmel, J. Hearn, & R. W. Connell, Handbook on Studies of Men and Masculinities.London: Sage.
  6. ↑ Donaldson, M. (1993). What is hegemonic masculinity? Theory and Society, 22(5), pp 643–657.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Courtenay, W. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 5(10), pp 1385-1401.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Affleck, W., Thamotharampillai, U., Jeyakumar, J., & Whitley, R. (2018). “If One Does Not Fulfil His Duties, He Must Not Be a Man”: Masculinity, Mental Health and Resilience Amongst Sri Lankan Tamil Refugee Men in Canada. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, pp 1–22.
  9. ↑ Chapple, A., & Ziebland, S. (2002). Prostate cancer: embodied experience and perceptions of masculinity. Sociology of Health and Illness, 24(6), pp 820-841.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Emslie, C., Ridge, D., Ziebland, S., & Hunt, K. (2006). Men's accounts of depression: Reconstructing or resisting hegemonic masculinity? Social Science & Medicine, 62(9), pp 2246-2257.
  11. ↑ Warren, L. (1983). Male intolerance of depression: A review with implications for psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology Review, pp 147-156.
  12. ↑ Jaji, R. (2009). Masculinity on Unstable Ground: Young Refugee Men in Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Refugee Studies, 22(2), pp 177-194.
  13. ↑ Vitlae, A., & Ryde, J. (2016). Promoting Male Refugees’ Mental Health After They Have Been Granted Leave to Remain (Refugee Status). International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 18(2), pp 106-125.
  14. ↑ Este, D., & Tachble, A. (2009). Fatherhood in the Canadian Context: Perceptions and Experiences of Sudanese Refugee Men. Sex Roles, pp 456-466.
  15. ↑ Kilmartin, C. (2005). Depression in men: communication, diagnosis and therapy. The Journal of Men's Health and Gender, 2(1).
  16. ↑ Seidler, Z. E., Dawes, A. J., Rice, S. M., Oliffe, J. L., & Dhillon, H. M. (2016). The role of Masculinity in men's help-seeking for depression: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 49, pp 106-118.
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