Course:ASIA319/2024/Plug-in or Add-on (外挂)

Introduction

Waigua is the utilisation of third-party programs for the purpose of gaining a competitive advantage over other players (He,2024:122). It emerged as the expansion of the game industry, the era of a rapidly developing economy and a perfection of infrastructure has contributed to the booming of the gaming industry. The international games market reached 99.6 billion in 2016 and was expected to reach 118.6 billion in 2019 (Wu, 2018:1). The gaming industry has experienced an increase in both customers and markets, resulting in the popularity of online game cheating technology (He,2024:121). One example is the use of game bots that can continuously complete complicated work without any operation by players, leading to the imbalance of the gaming environment (Sun,2001:84). The motivations behind the adoption of plug-in technology vary among players, but He suggests three main reasons for utilization of plug-in technology, each to achieve a different objective. The first factor is high self-esteem that drives individuals to seek ways of surpassing others to gain satisfaction from triumphing (He,2024:121). The second reason is to reduce the challenges associated with certain games, thereby enhancing the gaming experience (He,2024:121). The final reason is that some players view the adaptation of plug-in technology as a means of enhancing their popularity and “traffic”on the platform (He,2024:121).

It is evident that such players' demands are in opposition to gaming company's objective of providing a fair competition within the gaming industry, which is partly achieved with the prohibition of plug-in technology. Nevertheless, the fact that emergence of new plug-in technology seems to be interminable and cannot be effectively censored represents a significant challenge at a world wide range. He has analyzed three major reasons that are the leading causes of the repeated emergence of new forms of plug-in technology. They encompass the industrialisation of developing plug-in technology, which serves to reduce development barriers; the continuous perfection of the distribution system, which makes the sale more straightforward; and the lack of regulation on the advertisement of plug-in technology, which facilitates consumption between the buyer and seller (The Paper, 2020).People who have the capacity to purchase add-ons extensions can gain a better gaming experience whereas those in less privileged circumstances are not able to use money in exchange for enhanced experience. Exploring the progression of plug-ins technology application in different kinds of areas can offer insight to the psychology mechanisms and knowledge for the fundamental reason for the fame of waigua.

The genesis of 外挂

The term "waigua" (外挂) in the context of gaming industry, refers to online game cheating through installation of external programs to gain an unfair competitive advantage over normal players (He,2024:122). The increase in accessibility to a variety of online gaming platforms and the growth of players in first-person shooters, strategy games and multiplayer online role playing games has fostered an expansion in the third service industry that offers plug-in technologies to efficiently collect virtual items and level up avatars (Lehdonvirta & Castronova, 2014:141). The popularity of World of Warcraft raises people’s attention on plug-ins technology which sparks criticism of waigua as the auto farming mechanism reduces the available goods that other players can collect (Liboriuseen, 2016:317).

The popularity of the term "waigua" began in March 2017, reaching 80.5 million related search results on the Chinese search engine Baidu (Sun,2017: 65). The unforeseen continuous trend of the term waigua in Chinese daily life illustrates a high acceptance and convenience of using this term in a variety of conditions (Sun,2017:65). Sun has also pointed out the fame of this term is due to its simplicity and world's compatibility with other Chinese words (Sun,2017:66).

The term has come to encompass broader application within the society. In the year of 2018, a series of WeChat games were popularized in China because of their difficulties in operating the avatar. By achieving a high score in games such as "Take a Leap" and "Doodle Jump," individuals can fulfill their social needs and satisfy their vanity, as WeChat forms a rank list and displays player’s names automatically based on their scores (Lu,2018:1). In recent years, waigua has also been applied into the  e-commerce industry, where bots are used with the intention to illegally take possession of the purchasing quota given by the small business (Zhang,2024:1). Business owners and various dealers on e-commerce platforms strive to pursue traffic and sales, which fosters the introduction of more preferential activities and deals for the customers. However, the limited number of products available on e-commerce platforms consequently lead to some individuals to adopt the practice of waigua, which enables them to make large purchases of goods in a short time and then make profits from reselling the goods at a higher price(Zhang,2024:1). These examples indicate how the term "waigua" represents an adaptation of  external tools that give rise to crucial impact to the principles of fairness, equity, and the ethical implications in competition.

Glossary of 外挂's explicit dictionary meanings

In the context of video games, a game plug-in can be defined as a modification that is “programmed with specific functions provided by a third party.” Through modifying the original settings and rules of the game, it may lead to changes that exceed the conventional abilities of the game character, which could be considered a “waigua”(He,2024:122). Furthermore, the utilisation of third-party programs for the purpose of gaining a competitive advantage over other players is also the definition of waigua(He,2024:122).

An elaboration of 外挂's variegated meanings, actual usages, and value-loaded implications

Words Associated with 外挂(Wai Gua)

1. Basic meaning

The term "外" (wai) means something external. In this case, it describes the software except the main program.  "Plug-in" or "add-on" are terms that have emerged with the rise of the internet. They did not exist in traditional Chinese history. The term "开" (kai) is a verb, which in this context means to open or enable a computer program. The term "挂" (gua)refers to an attachment or accessory, specifically software used to cheat in games. Therefore, "外挂" (wai gua) is often shortened to "挂" (gua). The act of using cheats is called "开挂" (kai gua)."开挂" (kai gua) collectively means using cheats in a game.

2.外挂(wai gua) in Chinese Popular Culture: Multiple Meanings and Implications

外挂(wai gua) in Chinese Popular Culture: Multiple Meanings and Implications

  – Game Becomes Reality    

（Guide for Players of Earth Online.）

       – In China, the tradition of comparing life to a drama has a long history. This concept has been further expanded, with drama being replaced by video games, which offer a more realistic simulation of reality.

       – In reality, especially for the new generation of young people in China, school is seen as a game world, and they perceive themselves as players. They engage in online competition with other players (students), accept tasks (assignments) from NPCs (teachers), and participate in game-like activities (studies) to level up (improve their grades). 

Is it not cheating if there’s no actual cheating?

– 外挂(wai gua) in Everyday Conversations, Discussion Forums, Popular Press, and Television

   

The protagonist’s aura of cheating

  – By understanding the concept of games becoming reality, essentially, it is about perceiving reality as a game called "Earth Online." In this game, some players (certain individuals) can achieve higher accomplishments through their own efforts or talents.

    – When there is no actual game cheating involved, and a player wins or achieves impressive moments through their own skills, others may still acknowledge their accomplishments by jokingly admiring that the player is "开挂" (Kai Gua). （使用外挂, the act of using cheating）

     – In certain contexts, "开挂" (Kai Gua)/using cheats(外挂/wai gua) also refers to issues of inequality within this game-like society, such as when some individuals are born into wealth and power. People often use the term "Kai Gua" to mock these individuals, expressing their own sense of helplessness. This refers to a form of using cheats(外挂/wai gua), representing inequalities in life.

The young master is quite pitiful. He just started playing a single-player game and was forced to use cheats, unable to enjoy the fun of playing solo. Playing online games is also frustrating; when matched up, his rank is so high that all his opponents are using cheats.

In China, "young master" refers to the children of wealthy families. In the "game of life," they are born with inherent "外挂," giving them strong advantages over ordinary people. Yet, on the other hand, they still encounter others who are even wealthier, meaning they, too, face "外挂."

3. Comparison of Words and Uses in Popular Culture Other Languages

In Japanese, "外挂" (wai gua), meaning cheating, is represented by チート. Influenced by Chinese cultural traditions, Japanese culture also has the concept of "人生如戏" (life is like a play), which has evolved in modern times to "life is like a game." Within this context, cheating, or チート, similarly exists, just like "外挂" (wai gua).

However, in Japanese culture, it tends to be viewed as a shortcut in life, a way to minimize mistakes.

In the context of “waigua” as being born with unfair advantages, the English phrase “born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth,” or just “silver spoon” means something similar, usually referring to being born into wealth (Merriam Webster). The notion of silver spoons originates from a European historical context around the 14th to 16th centuries, where silver had status as a luxury metal, signifying the owner’s wealth (Jervis, 2018: 29-30). In addition to that, spoons were also growing symbols of one’s self as they were an intimate item (Jervis, 2018: 31). As such, a silver spoon could be understood to embody a wealthy, affluent owner (Jervis, 2018: 31). This more historical context contrasts with “waigua,” which is based on a more modern concept of video games.

The English notion of “life hacks” suggests a spread of digitization into one’s daily life, considering reality through a computational lens as something that can be “hacked” (Thomas 7).  These “hacks” are to be applied by oneself in a pursuit of productivity (Thomas 15). The notion of “hacking” life bears similarity to the previously brought up notion of “waigua” indicating the act of viewing life as a game. Something to note however, is that the notion of hacking is not a negative idea in the West, but rather it draws upon an image of a counter-cultural rebel rather than a criminal to be scorned (Thomas 8). Life hacking takes a similar direction, and is regarded as more of something in line with social conventions (Thomas 8).

4. Exhibits multiple meanings across different contexts.

– In social change, the meanings of words shift through the intensification or weakening of their original emotional connotations.

   – People often use the term "Kai Gua" to mock these individuals who are rich and powerful, expressing their own sense of helplessness. This refers to a form of using cheats (外挂/wai gua), representing inequalities in life. This extends from the notion of "cheating plugins" (外挂) in games, which inherently convey unfairness, to a broader reference within society.

   –Faced with this situation in which people are lucky or gifted or work hard to change destiny, most people greatly admire these "cheating players," but sometimes, they resort to calling it "开挂" (Kai Gua) that using cheats “外挂”(wai gua)/“挂”(gua) as a form of self-consolation.

5. Semantic shift

In the evolution of the term "外挂" (wai gua), the original meaning is not entirely abandoned. Instead, it continues to convey its original sense across different contexts. However, the same meaning is understood differently in various texts and cultural settings.

– In gaming, using cheats or plugins (外挂) is unfair. In the context of Chinese cultural tradition, where life is compared to a drama, the new generation easily adapts to the times and views life as a game. As a result, the unequal connotation of "cheating" (外挂) is reintroduced into social reality.

– However, on the other hand, "cheating" (外挂) is also redefined and assigned a positive connotation. When a "player" changes their fate through personal effort and is considered to be cheating, it doesn't carry a negative connotation. On the contrary, it is seen as a recognition of their effort, with praise expressed under the label of a legitimate "cheater."

Social, cultural, and political problems suggested by 外挂

Social Inequality and Helplessness:

The metaphorical use of "外挂" to describe individuals born into wealth and privilege speaks to perceived social injustices. This notion resonates with younger generations who feel that they face an inherently "rigged game" in life. The term allows them to express a mix of resentment and resignation about the societal structure, where some appear to have a natural advantage that others cannot access without "cheating" or unfairly gaining leverage.The meaning of the term "外挂" has been intensified and extended into real life.

Cultural Shifts in Success Perception:

Traditionally, success in Chinese culture is highly valued when achieved through diligence and hard work. However, by likening life to a game in which some are thought to be "using cheats," the younger generation articulates an adaptation to a new cultural reality. Many view life as a competitive game, where "外挂" represents shortcuts or unfair advantages, undermining the traditional ethic. Yet, admiration for "cheaters" who change their destiny by means that are unconventional or audacious reflects a cultural shift: success by any means necessary is gaining legitimacy.

Subcultural Rebellion and Mainstream Consumerism:

In subcultural circles, "外挂" has a dual function: it critiques societal norms but also functions as a compliment in some cases. The inherent meaning of "外挂," which implies unfairness, has evolved into an acceptance of a kind of "legal" cheating.This attitude points to an emerging subcultural "politics" where the legitimacy of traditional achievements is questioned, creating a subtle challenge to dominant ideologies, including consumerism and traditional morality.

Political Implications Beyond Government Censorship:

While the term does not directly relate to government censorship, it indirectly challenges the state's ideological emphasis on merit-based success and social harmony. The popularization of "外挂" exposes dissatisfaction with the existing social order and expresses a more cynical outlook on meritocracy. This sentiment may conflict with state-promoted values, which stress the ideal of an equal, harmonious society. By embedding these ideas in an ostensibly apolitical gaming context, users navigate around direct criticism of government policy while still addressing systemic inequality. At the same time, it avoids being targeted by state censorship or regulation of speech.

In essence, the popularity of "外挂" in contemporary Chinese society can be seen as symptomatic of these tensions. It is a flexible term, conveying both disapproval of unfair advantages and, in certain contexts, admiration for those who defy structural limits. This dual usage suggests that "外挂" is more than gaming slang; it is a culturally loaded term reflecting deep social, cultural, and political undercurrents.

The detriment of installing add-ons extensions

The existence of waigua has a significantly detrimental impact on game operators, players, and the social order as a whole (Xu,2024:107). Waigua is associated with a decrease in revenue capacity since its capability of reducing the operating difficulties within the game,  consequently leading to mitigation in players incentive to compete with others. Players may also quit the game as an alternative which results in the overall competitiveness of the game to decline along with the total revenue generated (Xu,2024:107). Additionally, to detect the waigua extensions and make adjustments accordingly to stop players’ utilization of Waigua requires the gaming company to invest more money in server maintenance while demanding more technology expertise in dealing with the interventions of waigua (Xu,2024: 107). The intervention of online game add-ons can result in a change of original setting into unforeseen leveling up speed and easy acquisition of uncommon equipment, which allows the avatar to effectively pass missions in a short time. This results in the reduction of player’s engagement in games and shortening the life cycle of the game. (Xu,2024:107).

Despite the benefits waigua affords to the player, the player continues to experience the darkside of utilization of waigua in relation to the disclosure of personal data which lead to a loss of real life property. Add-on creators may name a virus software as a gaming assistant or gaming script, so they can attempt to get the personal information of the player once the download of the  virus software is completed (Xu,2024:107). Although the computer may display a notification alerting the user to potential risks during the download process, the user might normalize the alert by perceiving this notification as a necessary part of the installation of the waigua add-on extension. Even if the user acknowledges the trap, the add-on creator may take advantage of asymmetrical information theory to deceive the user by asserting the legitimacy of their product, ultimately leading to financial scam of the player (Xu,2024:107). Since the add-on extension is sold within the underground market, it means that the promise made to the player is not guaranteed. For instance, add-on creators will purposely sell unfunctional add-on extensions to make profits.

Waigua can also erode the values and orders of society, considering add-ons' capacity of affecting the fairness of online games and destroying the original settings of the game. Users who adopt add-ons extensions can quickly exceed in achievements in comparison to the normal player. The latter can only make such accomplishments via a long time of accumulation in the game, causing infringement to the rights and interests of regular players, hence further contributing to the mitigation of players’ motivation for playing as well as the fairness of online games. Meanwhile, In order to promote the sales of online game add-ons, some employees use live streaming on a variety of platforms to make demonstrations of their add-ons products which promotes bad values within society (Xu,2024:107).

Studies related to 外挂

Psychology Behind the Proliferation of Video Games

Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Psychological needs stand in the middle.

As per its basic meaning, “waigua” is intimately connected with video games, and an exploration of how video games are popular may provide context for the spread of “waigua”. Video games may be understood as a manifestation of the ever pervasive digitalization of today’s world through which its participants gain meaning, as per Muriel and Crawford’s paper (Muriel and Crawford, 2018: 18-19). A factor of this digitalization was the launch of popular home video game consoles, which opened up video games to the general public at a newfound scale (Muriel and Crawford, 2018: 28). In 2017, it was estimated that 67% of American households had a video game playing device (Muriel and Crawford, 2018: 28).  Now, people seek out and play these readily available video games as they excel in fulfilling certain psychological needs (Acaster, 2022). They meet the need for belonging through communities that form around the shared experience, and also the need for accomplishment through success achieved in a game (Acaster, 2022).

Beyond fulfilling these psychological needs, Iacovides and Mekler find in their study that video games also gain players through serving a role as a coping mechanism for intense emotions or stress (Iacovides and Mekler, 2019: 2). In a survey targeted towards gaming communities, they found that games serve as a break from daily life, providing escapism through distracting the player with familiar, achievable tasks (Iacovides and Mekler, 2019: 5). Additionally, in terms of fulfilling a need for connection, they found gaming communities to be extra satisfying due to shared interests that were separate from their “real” lives to the members (Iacovides and Mekler, 2019: 6). Finally, there is also the enjoyment in the act itself, which may include the flow state provided by a game’s challenge, or acting out an avatar and socializing (Acaster, 2022). It is through these reasons that video games are quickly becoming a universal experience across the world and its people, with the young, elderly, and those in-between all participating (Muriel and Crawford, 2018: 28).

Gaming in China: A Brief Socio-Economic History

A pie chart showing the market shares of the different types of games in China during 2015. Notably, PC/MMO games make up over half of the income.

Gaming in China is no exception from the above reasons, and is a massively popular hobby with over 20 million online gamers and the largest online game market in 2007 (Cao and Downing, 2008: 515). From its conception to its current state, Zhang finds in their paper how gaming has been perceived in China and what can be learned from that (Zhang, 2013: 2392). It began with imported arcade machines, which soon grew to be quite popular. An example is the city of Xi’an, which in 1993 had an estimated 100 000 arcade machines (Zhang, 2013: 2395). These dens of gaming soon became the target of public outcry over concerns of wastefulness, and became subject to government regulations (Cao and Downing, 2008: 516). Post-arcade regulations, home consoles became popular as tools for education (Zhang, 2013: 2396). What was once demonized as enslaving children became tools to train cognitive ability and practice interactions with new technologies (Zhang, 2013: 2395-2396). Following this, the capitalistic surge post 1992 led to many young individuals having the means to afford a home PC and a belief in adopting new technology (Zhang, 2013: 2397). Finally, with video games as a concept being familiar, PCs a more common sight, and an established internet infrastructure, MMO (massively multiplayer online) games began to get popular in the 2000s (Cao and Downing, 2008: 518). This is the stage in which “waigua” becomes most prominent (MacInnes and Hu, 2005). The presence and popularity of video games is reflective of recent Chinese history and thought, providing a view of social, technological, and economic developments.

Gaming in China: Online Communities and New Meanings

Moving on from the short history, further reasons for the popularity of MMOs in China and their effects on players may be explored. Two works regarding this are Fung and Liao’s, which  explores the culture surrounding games, and Cao and Downing’s which discusses the game industry. To begin, some early examples of MMORPGs are the Legend of Mir (MacInnes and Hu, 2005) and Ultima Online (Fung and Liao, 2015: 124). These games were massively popular, such as Legend of Mir 2 having 60 million registered accounts (MacInnes and Hu, 2005), which paved the way for more MMORPGs by creating dedicated communities of players (Fung and Liao, 2015: 124). These types of games enticed players for a multitude of reasons, some of which include creating an ongoing relationship with consumers through a subscription based model, but more importantly, also providing social interaction to Chinese youths with their peers (Cao and Downing, 2008: 518). To facilitate this, Chinese produced games tend to be more focused on player-player interactions compared to Western ones (Cao and Downing, 2008: 520). Likewise, similar games for mobile phones also gain popularity due to their social networking features (Fung and Liao, 2015: 120). Using these capabilities, players of these games naturally form and seek out communities, to both socialise with existing friends and meet new ones (MacInnes and Hu, 2005), creating a digital self that they identify with to do so (Fung and Liao, 2015: 119).

A screenshot of popular Chinese MMORPG "Fantasy Westward Journey," in which many players socialise in a town.

Within their communities, online games have become potential sites of learning civic behaviour, propagating social movements, and creating and disseminating knowledge (MacInnes and Hu, 2005). They are not just virtual spaces for play, but instead places with their own developing cultures that have opinions on the world around them (Zhang, 2013: 2403). In particular, Fung and Liao note how the relative freedom of online games allows users to more freely express themselves (Fung and Liao, 2015: 132). In light of this, the Chinese government has made efforts to regulate what players learn from games (Fung and Liao, 2015: 127). One aspect of that is in the ethical and moral content of games, as fears of players learning violent or other improper behaviour from games led to certain regulations on those contents (Fung and Liao, 2015: 127-128). Another aspect is how online games are a “site of political and ideological struggle” (Cao and Downing, 2008: 525) in which the Chinese government takes steps to  explicity Chinese games (Cao and Downing, 2008: 524). Many early MMORPGs were Korean creations, as were many popular games that came after them (Cao and Downing, 2008: 518). As such, the Chinese government sponsors games to replace foreign ones and foster ideals that fit the state’s ideology (Cao and Downing, 2008: 525). Likewise, the imports of Western games are heavily regulated and changed to fit the state’s standards (Fung and Liao, 2015: 120-121). However, these attempts by the state are ultimately not conclusive, and are subject to interpretation from the actual players of games (Cao and Downing, 2008: 525).

In conclusion, from humble beginnings as arcade machines and imported educational games, games in China have grown into a massive industry that is a platform of player communities and expression but also government control and regulation. It can be seen how a changing economy and technology enabled video games to capture large user communities through appealing to psychological needs. They play a special role in society and their players’ lives, creating new meanings and experiences that reflect and affect the wider world. One meaning in particular, though by no means new or unique to gaming, is the notion of an unfair advantage, that of “waigua.”

Conclusion

“Waigua” is a term that originally described an external way to cheat online games, which have become massively popular amongst Chinese youths. This popularity of games has helped spread the notion of “waigua” through the presence of waigua in games and game communities which form and disseminate meaning. In its base form, waigua directly references methods such as automated controls or artificial increases in power for a game character. These may be desired by players for numerous reasons, most of which reflect an ongoing need among youths for success, reduction of difficulty, and status amongst peers. These needs are fulfilled by the growing waigua industry, which itself is an ongoing problem due to the illegal actions involved and the issues it creates for users who do not use waigua and the game companies who try to regulate those who do. Ironically, waigua, while providing feelings of ease or accomplishment to their users, creates feelings of unfairness and discontent within those who do not use waigua.

Beyond the scope of online games however, waigua also provides a similar meaning of unfair, external aid for someone’s accomplishments. The growing digitalization of daily life may lead to the perception of life as a game, and those who succeed at life may be users of waigua. These advantages may be monetary, talent, or other ones and may or may not actually exist for the target. This showcases the rising feelings of inequality in China, where some young people believe that they may not get ahead unless they possess waigua, and those who do succeed must have it. That said, waigua is not a totally negative term, and may assist in highlighting social imbalances, disrupting the hegemonic idea of “everyone who is successful has worked fairly for it,” and encouraging youths to find their own “waigua” for life. However, it does not disrupt the notion of prioritizing success, and those who succeed may instead be praised for using waigua, though this more applies to waigua that the individual was not born with, as instead they have found a method for success in an unfair society. Ultimately, it is a variable term due to its wide proliferation online. It may be used by those who know it in a variety of ways, some even opposite of each other, and further studies regarding it and the problems it suggests should be careful to not characterize it as a monolith and consider the context of its uses.

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