MET:GIS: Geographic Information Systems in K-12

From UBC Wiki

Created and authored by Jerry Mah - March 2012

Introduction

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a method for people to interact with geography, technology, and data. The most common way that people interact with geomatics is through the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS). From hand held mobile GPS devices, to devices imbedded within vehicles, to GPS enabled smart phones, GPS technology has risen at an exceedingly fast pace. However, as pervasive as this technology is, it is most commonly used as navigation between two different points. However, GIS also creates an opportunity for people to dig deeper into geographic technology. Instead of looking at maps and GPS as a way to get past obstacles between two points; consider the wild life, vegetation, or other environmental variables as you examine travel through regions.

Virtual Globes

File:Google earth GIS.JPG
Google Earth. Screen shot of Google's Google Earth.

A good stepping stone for K-12 classes to interact with geography and technology is to utilize popular map software; such as Google’s free version of Google Earth. Google Earth and similar software have been termed as Virtual Globe Software by Schultz, Kerski, and Patterson (2008).[1] Virtual Globe software is popular because of their ease of use and are quite powerful, featuring many of the affordances possessed by GIS software.

GIS software differs primarily from Virtual Globe software because of its ability to import metadata (information about data). Other features such as the ability to analyze areas or the accuracy within maps are other features missing from Virtual Globes. The following are some additional links to external websites which further explain these differences:

Other popular Virtual Globe software include: Bing Maps http://www.bing.com/maps/, Nasa’s World Wind http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/features.html and Google Maps http://maps.google.ca/. Although Virtual Globe software do not have the same functions as GIS, they are still useful in teaching the concepts of spatial thinking and geography.

Google Earth Pro is different than Google Earth, which does allow users to import GIS data. See Google's comparison table for more information: http://www.google.com/enterprise/earthmaps/earthpro-compare.html

Many of the software applications listed above are easy to use, obtain and find. In addition, supporting resources for K-12 classroom lessons are readily available. For additional information for how Google Earth connects with our classrooms, select this link from within the UBC ETEC 510 wiki: Google_Earth_in_Science_and_Math_Classrooms.

In addition, because Virtual Globe software offers a subset of features when compared to GIS, many of the activities for Virtual Globes can be adapted for use with GIS.

Using GIS

GIS software offers users the ability to analyze map data in many different ways. On the surface level, users are able to identify and understand different coordinates (latitude & longitude), measure distances, and display different map types (eg. topographical, road map, etc.).

File:Measure-ArcGIS Desktop.JPG
Measure-ArcGIS. Screen shot of measuring different points in ArcGIS Desktop

In addition to these basic functions, GIS also enables students to create boundaries on maps, compare different map layers, and create a geographic timeline.

Boundaries are created by establishing markers on maps and then by connecting them. By creating these boundaries, students can identify specific areas on a map for further examination. This feature can be useful for connecting with science and social studies curricula, examples of this might be:

  • Looking at population within a specific area.
  • Examining protected areas for spring or fall migration.
  • Looking at the growth or decay of plant life.
File:Esri-ios-area.jpg
Area ESRI-IOS. Screen shot of measuring area using ESRI app on IOS


Another feature of this software is in its ability to manipulate different data layers. These data layers are presented graphically, typically using contrasting colours and lines. By providing distinct data on each layer, users are able to see the relationships between them (Broda & Baxter, 2003). [2] GIS software allows students to manipulate real data; which Broda and Baxter (2003) indicate is an opportunity for authentic learning experiences. When designing instructional activities with GIS, teachers can present activities where students research and create solutions to real-life problems. For example, if data sets have been obtained for a region over a period of time, users can create chronological comparisons.

File:Esri-ios-basemap.jpg
Listing of some basemaps ESRI-IOS. Screen shot of basemaps using ESRI app on IOS
File:Esri-ios-weather warning.jpg
Weather Warning ESRI-IOS. Screen shot of weather warning basemap using ESRI app on IOS

Integrating GIS into lessons also promotes research and questioning skills. Students have the ability to access data that may not be obvious. Within data sets, information is stored within the data layer; GIS software is able to access this database and analyze information based on the right questions. For example if a class is studying a population map, students can ask the software to list cities with populations of 10 million or more. However, the GIS may not turn up very many answers if the data set is a topographical map.

Pedagogical Considerations for Including GIS

Students are commonly asked to engage in activities that involve reading and understanding maps. Although we have technologies such as GPS, which help us with navigation; understanding different terrain, obstacles, elevation, and other topographical features are still important skills to acquire. GIS allows teachers with their classes to interact with maps in a different way. Common maps present information in the manner that they have been created. They offer features that are specific to their creation, however, may lack additional information that users would find helpful.

In addition to creating awareness with data and extending the ability to understand geographic information, GIS promotes spatial literacy. Spatial literacy is defined as the ability for people to, "use the properties of space to communicate, reason, and solve problems" (Fu, 2011, ¶2).[3]

In Learning to Think Spatially: GIS as a Support System in the K-12 Curriculum (Committee on the Support for the Thinking Spatially, 2006), [4] the authors present a case for spatial literacy in K-12 education. Some of their arguments are related to how spatial thinking is; i) integral within science and engineering related jobs, and ii) is involved in complex problem solving tasks.

Involving GIS into the classroom also provides another means for teachers to integrate outcomes from parallel technology curriculum (eg. Alberta Education’s (2012) ICT program of studies.[5]) GIS software then becomes another technology tool that students can use for problem-solving. Technology has made significant changes within our classroom environments. Students and teachers now have access to more information and tools (software) than ever before. However, access to this technology in classrooms does not necessarily mean that educational goals are being fulfilled (Demirci, 2009).[6] In order to fuse technology with curriculum, educators need to develop strategies for creating these connections. Incorporating GIS in classroom tasks is one of the ways to accomplish this goal. In addition, Demirci (2009) suggests that higher-order thinking skills are promoted when students conduct research using GIS technologies.



Constructivism

Constructivist learning goals involve the skills of critical thinking and problem solving (Driscoll, 2005).[7] According to Driscoll, these skills are exhibited when teachers design for ill-structured problems. By leveraging GIS software, activities can be constructed to present students with multiple learning pathways. It is this through this unclear path that students are asked to articulate and construct their learning.

Part of this articulation can occur through discourse involving peers. In these situations, collaborative environments are formed; which is another goal of constructivism and a strength of GIS (Keiper, 1999).[8] Activities that involve students pairing up together to examine spatial problems provides an opportunity for peer-learning with geographic information. With teachers as the facilitators of this learning process, students are able to work together in their co-construction in these unclear paths. Using the skills of reasoning, logic, and problem-solving; students must form arguments based on their investigation.

Additional information on learning with constructivism can be obtained through this link in the ETEC 510 wiki: Constructivism,_Learning,_and_Educational_Technology

The following is a youtube video illustrating Papert’s 8 Big Ideas by Kerski (ERSI Ed). {{#ev:youtube|7rvAEwzNGuc }}

Thematic Learning

Using GIS in a thematic way is a strategy to incorporate different pieces of curriculum together. In Doering and Veletsianos’ (2008) study of an inquiry activity performed in conjunction with a traveling group of scientists and educators, examined how GIS could be incorporated through thematic learning.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; invalid names, e.g. too many Using Adventure Learning Content as their theme, there was a focus on learning with technology rather than learning about the technology. Using this philosophy, students were able to; i) analyze snow layers and temperature data, ii) track the migration patterns of caribou, and iii) plot a path by using route data for the exploring group to use. By using this process, students were able to interact with concepts from math and science, using authentic data. Through this thematic lesson, students had an opportunity to work collaboratively with both the explorers and with peers.

The results from Doering and Veletsianos’ (2008) study presented five significant findings; i) GIS helped students develop an understanding of a geographic location with preexisting information, ii) newly acquired data allowed students to understand its relevancy through GIS, iii) GIS provided opportunities for the co-construction of knowledge, iv) through the use of GIS, students were engaged in their learning of geographic locations, and v) GIS helped students to understand geographic locations through new information.

Other thematic units could involve the use of travel, with activities connected to different geographic regions.

Inquiry

Skills that are required for 21st century learning include self-directed problem solving. Through research that utilized an inquiry lesson, Shin (2006) [9] uncovered evidence in which the application of GIS technology in the classroom demonstrated improvements to students’ geographic knowledge and mapping skills. This inquiry lesson challenged students to see the relationship between population growth and transportation. Using a rubric and sketch maps, Shin was able to see improvements to student learning by comparing maps prior to the GIS lesson with those after.

A type of activity associated with inquiry is project based learning. Project Based Learning (PBL) involves authentic activities that revolve around a driving question (Barron et al., 1998; Buck Institute for Education, 2012).[10][11] According to Wilder, Brinkerhoff, and Higgins (2003), GIS has been demonstrated to be an effective technology tool when used in project based learning situations.[12]

Baker and White (2003) claim that project based learning, creates a technology platform for students to self-advocate. Because of the range of information that can be gathered and the ability to search for meaning from within this data, students are able to respond to their discoveries.[13] Baker and White in their research with middle school students, employed a control group of students with paper maps and a treatment group that utilized GIS. Their findings indicated that the PBL-GIS treatment group demonstrated higher levels of self-efficacy.

Critical Inquiry

Critical inquiry creates opportunities for students to realize that simply examining and solving a big idea is not enough, that there are other important factors involved in solving problems. Students are challenged to question the ways in which one can develop a sense of character and citizenship while studying regular K-12 curriculum (The New London Group, 1996).[14] It is by creating this awareness within students that leads to what the authors call "social participation".

GIS offers us a technological medium that provides affordances for allowing users to access geographical and historical data. Through this lens, issues related to the environment, global politics, population growth, etc. can be illustrated in both a visual and spatial manner. By incorporating this critical lens, students become better decision makers through their ability to access and research multiple sources of information.

Google Outreach is a page comprised of what Google (2010) calls "non-profit and public benefit organisations,"[15]who have used Google Earth and Maps to create awareness about their cause. Although Google Outreach is meant for Google Earth, the following link demonstrates how geographic information can influence our understanding of one another and the world: http://earth.google.com/outreach/showcase.html. Many of these ideas can be adapted for use with GIS and could create a launch point for lesson creation.

Classroom Activities

Many of the following activities can be implemented in a cross-curricular manner. These overlapping activities allow teachers to create authentic connections between different classes.

File:Boundaries-ArcGIS Desktop.JPG
Boundaries-ArcGIS. Screen shot of creating boundaries in ArcGIS Desktop
File:Basemap-ArcGIS Desktop.jpg
Basemaps-ArcGIS. Screen shot of changing base maps (layers) in ArcGIS Desktop


The following are a list of example activities arranged by subject areas. This list has been generated to create a starting point for teachers interested in integrating GIS into their lessons. For additional lesson ideas and activities, refer to the External GIS Websites connected with K-12 Education of this wiki page.

Environmental Education

  • Map reading
  • Route finding
  • Geocaching (with GPS technology)
  • Wildlife and conservation awareness
  • Environmental hazard assessments (eg. avalanche and rock slide formations)

Math

  • Examining trend data
  • Scale
  • Measurement
  • Geometry (triangulation, angles)
  • Spatial Sense (WNCP, 2006)[16]

Social Studies

  • Perspectives
  • Historical approaches
  • Demographics

Science

  • Use of GIS to create a historical comparison of growth or depopulation of plants, animals and other forms of life.
  • Migratory patterns of birds, ocean life, etc.
  • Plate tectonics (eg. earthquakes)
  • Weather patterns and their effects

Language Arts

  • Writing through perspectives
  • Understanding thematic conditions
  • Examining literary connections, for example:
    • Looking at political, agricultural, and economic data during the great depression and connecting this information with The Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck, 1939).[17]
    • Understanding an author’s background and connecting that with their life’s work. For example, examining Mark Twain’s travels from his life (Duke, n.d.) [18]


Not all GIS activities need to be in front of a computer. Teachers can involve students outside the classroom with the use of GPS units. By having students cultivate data external to the classroom and then uploading the information into GIS, students have an opportunity to interact with the data. Another activity that teachers can incorporate is geocaching. Geocaching is an outdoor sport, where participants use GPS devices to find objects in hidden places (treasure hunt). For more information on geocaching, select the following link: http://www.geocaching.com/.

GIS can also be used as a map production tool. Students can learn about cartography through the pdf lesson attached to this link: http://www.esri.com/industries/k-12/PDFs/intrcart.pdf.

Barriers

GIS has been available and has been incorporated in K-12 classrooms since the early 1990s (Demirci, 2009).[6] Over this period of time, a wealth of instructional material, such as; lessons, data, and videos have been developed to support learning. Despite these resources, the growth of GIS use in K-12 educational settings has not been significant, nor has it been widespread.

Milsom and Earle (2008) suggest that some of the barriers to K-12 GIS adoption include;[19]

  1. lack of professional development and teacher understanding with GIS
  2. costs to acquiring and using GIS in the classroom
  3. the complexity and sophistication of learning GIS software and implementing instructional design
  4. access to technology

Kerski (2008) also suggests that lesson creation is difficult in two ways; i) lack of GIS lesson creation experience by educators and ii) understanding how to simplify and balance available data.[20]

At the root of many of these barriers is the difficulty for teachers to pursue professional development opportunities with GIS (McClurg & Buss, 2007).[21] In many cases, school districts have limited awareness of GIS and GIS related technologies.

Overcoming GIS Barriers

Inexpensive technology with more computing power and accessibility is gradually changing the availability for classrooms to use GIS technology. In the past, computers were expensive and internet connections could be problematic. Today, many students are coming to class with internet enabled smartphones and tablets. Many of these inexpensive devices have built in GPS units and are able to run small software applications called apps. Using the ArcGis for Smartphones and Tablets app from ESRI and other freely available apps, students have the ability to download this free software and incorporate it in their work. Using these tools also allows for GIS enabled activities, such as geocaching.

Another way to become familiar with incorporating geographic activities is to use Virtual Globe software. Software such as Google Earth is a good starting place for teachers to begin with GIS. By using this software and becoming comfortable with it, teachers are more likely to adopt similar software.

Creating professional development opportunities for educators from industry partners is another way to spread GIS understanding (Committee on the Support for the Thinking Spatially, 2006).[4] GIS professionals would be able to help teachers identify and integrate different types of data complementary to traditional curriculum.

GIS Software

ESRI

File:Arcgisexploreronline.JPG
ArcGIS Explorer Online. Screen shot of ArcGIS. Sources for Mapdata Created by [ESRI]

ESRI is one of the primary vendors of GIS software and have made significant strides to support the education market. ESRI offers the following products:

Many of ESRI's software products are available to school districts through volume licensing agreements. See External GIS Websites connected with K-12 Education for links to lessons and articles that support educators with integrating ESRI products in their classrooms.

Other GIS software

Sources for Map Data

GIS - Introductory Videos

Youtube introduction to GIS presented by placingculture.blogspot.com {{#ev:youtube|7g3GUYlYfZM}}

Youtube from ESRI introducing GIS in schools. {{#ev:youtube|lhVIpAGcNP0}}


External GIS Websites connected with K-12 Education

K-12 Specific Resources

ESRI Resources

Google and other Resources

Virtual Globe Resources

Other Useful GIS Articles

  • Audet, R. H., & Paris, J. (1997). GIS implementation model for schools: Assessing the critical concerns. Journal of Geography, 96(6), 293–300. doi:10.1080/00221349708978810
  • Baker, T. R. (2005). Internet-based GIS mapping in support of K-12 education. The Professional Geographer, 57(1), 44–50. doi:10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00458.x
  • Bednarz, S. W., & Audet, R. H. (1999). The status of GIS technology in teacher preparation programs. Journal of Geography, 98(2), 60–67. doi:10.1080/00221349908978861
  • Chalmers, L. (2006). GIS in New Zealand schools: Issues and prospects. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15(3), 268–270. doi:10.2167/irgee196j.0
  • ESRI. (n.d.). Literature - GIS for Schools. Esri: Understanding our world. Retrieved February 12, 2012, from http://www.esri.com/industries/k-12/education/literature.html
  • Gatrell, J. D. (2001). Structural, Technical, and Definitional Issues: The Case of Geography,“ GIS,” and K-12 Classrooms in the United States. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 29(3), 237–250.
  • Kolvoord, R. A., Charles, M., & Purcell, S. (2010). What Happens After the Professional Development: Case Studies on Implementing GIS in the Classroom. Teaching Science and Investigating Environmental Issues with Geospatial Technology. New York: Springer Publishing. Retrieved from http://silccenter.org/publications_pdfs/kolvoord_GISbook.pdf
  • Meyer, J. W., Butterick, J., Olkin, M., & Zack, G. (1999). GIS in the K-12 curriculum: A cautionary note. The Professional Geographer, 51(4), 571–578. doi:10.1111/0033-0124.00194
  • Wiegand, P. (2001). Geographical information systems (GIS) in education. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 10(1), 68–71. doi:10.1080/10382040108667424

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Schultz, R. B., Kerski, J. J., & Patterson, T. C. (2008). The use of virtual globes as a spatial teaching tool with suggestions for metadata standards. Journal of Geography, 107(1), 27–34. doi:10.1080/00221340802049844
  2. ↑ Broda, H. W., & Baxter, R. E. (2003). Using GIS and GPS technology as an instructional tool. The Social Studies, 94(4), 158–160. doi:10.1080/00377990309600199
  3. ↑ Fu, W. (2011, March). Carleton College: Spatial Analysis: Why Spatial Literacy? Carleton College. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://apps.carleton.edu/collab/spatial_analysis/SpatialLiteracy/
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Committee on the Support for the Thinking Spatially: The Incorporation of Geographic Information Science Across the K-12 Curriculum, Committee on Geography, National Research Council. (2006). Learning to Think Spatially: GIS as a Support System in the K-12 Curriculum. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11019
  5. ↑ Alberta Education. (2012). ICT Program of Studies. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://ednet.edc.gov.ab.ca/ict/pofs.asp
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Demirci, A. (2009). How do teachers approach new technologies: Geography teachers’ attitudes towards Geographic Information Systems (GIS). European Journal of Educational Studies, 1(1), 57-67. Retrieved from http://ozelacademy.com/EJES_v1n1_8.pdf
  7. ↑ Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Constructivism. Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 384–407). Toronto, ON: Pearson.
  8. ↑ Keiper, T. A. (1999). GIS for elementary students: An inquiry into a new approach to learning geography. Journal of Geography, 98(2), 47–59. doi:10.1080/00221349908978860
  9. ↑ Shin, E. K. (2006). Using geographic information system (GIS) to improve fourth graders’ geographic content knowledge and map skills. Journal of Geography, 105(3), 109–120. doi:10.1080/00221340608978672
  10. ↑ Barron, B. J. S., Schwartz, D. L., Vye, N. J., Allison Moore, Petrosino, A., Zech, L., Bransford, J. D., et al. (1998). Doing with Understanding: Lessons from Research on Problem- and Project-Based Learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7(3/4), 271–311. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1466789
  11. ↑ Buck Institute for Education. (2012). What is PBL? | Project Based Learning | BIE. BIE: Project based learning for the 21st century. Retrieved January 5, 2012, from http://www.bie.org/about/what_is_pbl/
  12. ↑ Wilder, A., Brinkerhoff, J. D., & Higgins, T. M. (2003). Geographic information technologies+ project-based science: A contextualized professional development approach. Journal of Geography, 102(6), 255–266. doi:10.1080/00221340308978557
  13. ↑ Baker, T. R., & White, S. H. (2003). The effects of GIS on students’ attitudes, self-efficacy, and achievement in middle school science classrooms. Journal of Geography, 102(6), 243–254. doi:10.1080/00221340308978556
  14. ↑ The New London Group. (1996). A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 60–93. Retrieved from http://hepg.metapress.com/content/17370N67V22J160U
  15. ↑ Google. (2010). Google Earth Outreach. Retrieved March 4, 2012, from http://earth.google.com/outreach/showcase.html
  16. ↑ WNCP. (2006). The common curriculum framework for k-9 mathematics. WNCP. Retrieved from http://www.wncp.ca/media/38765/ccfkto9.pdf
  17. ↑ Steinbeck, J. (1939). The grapes of wrath. New York: Penguin Classics.
  18. ↑ Duke, B. A. (n.d.). Teaching English Language Arts with GIS. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://calmap.gisc.berkeley.edu/esri/educ/papers/pap_1095.pdf
  19. ↑ Milson, A. J., & Earle, B. D. (2008). Internet-based GIS in an inductive learning environment: A case study of ninth-grade geography students. Journal of Geography, 106(6), 227–237. ). doi:10.1080/00221340701851274
  20. ↑ Kerski, J. J. (2008). The role of GIS in Digital Earth education. International Journal of Digital Earth, 1(4), 326–346. doi:10.1080/17538940802420879
  21. ↑ McClurg, P. A., & Buss, A. (2007). Professional development: Teachers use of GIS to enhance student learning. Journal of Geography, 106(2), 79–87. doi:10.1080/00221340701477831

References

Alberta Education. (2012). ICT Program of Studies. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://ednet.edc.gov.ab.ca/ict/pofs.asp

Baker, T. R., & White, S. H. (2003). The effects of GIS on students’ attitudes, self-efficacy, and achievement in middle school science classrooms. Journal of Geography, 102(6), 243–254. doi:10.1080/00221340308978556

Barron, B. J. S., Schwartz, D. L., Vye, N. J., Allison Moore, Petrosino, A., Zech, L., Bransford, J. D., et al. (1998). Doing with Understanding: Lessons from Research on Problem- and Project-Based Learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7(3/4), 271–311. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1466789

Broda, H. W., & Baxter, R. E. (2003). Using GIS and GPS technology as an instructional tool. The Social Studies, 94(4), 158–160. doi:10.1080/00377990309600199

Buck Institute for Education. (2012). What is PBL? | Project Based Learning | BIE. BIE: Project based learning for the 21st century. Retrieved January 5, 2012, from http://www.bie.org/about/what_is_pbl/

Committee on the Support for the Thinking Spatially: The Incorporation of Geographic Information Science Across the K-12 Curriculum, Committee on Geography, National Research Council. (2006). Learning to Think Spatially: GIS as a Support System in the K-12 Curriculum. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11019

Demirci, A. (2009). How do teachers approach new technologies: Geography teachers’ attitudes towards Geographic Information Systems (GIS). European Journal of Educational Studies, 1(1), 57–67. Retrieved from http://ozelacademy.com/EJES_v1n1_8.pdf

Doering, A., & Veletsianos, G. (2008). An investigation of the use of real-time, authentic geospatial data in the K–12 classroom. Journal of Geography, 106(6), 217–225. doi:10.1080/00221340701845219

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Constructivism. Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 384–407). Toronto, ON: Pearson.

Duke, B. A. (n.d.). Teaching English Language Arts with GIS. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://calmap.gisc.berkeley.edu/esri/educ/papers/pap_1095.pdf

Fu, W. (2011, March). Carleton College: Spatial Analysis: Why Spatial Literacy? Carleton College. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://apps.carleton.edu/collab/spatial_analysis/SpatialLiteracy/

Google. (2010). Google Earth Outreach. Retrieved March 4, 2012, from http://earth.google.com/outreach/showcase.htm

Keiper, T. A. (1999). GIS for elementary students: An inquiry into a new approach to learning geography. Journal of Geography, 98(2), 47–59. doi:10.1080/00221349908978860

Kerski, J. J. (2008). The role of GIS in Digital Earth education. International Journal of Digital Earth, 1(4), 326–346. doi:10.1080/17538940802420879

McClurg, P. A., & Buss, A. (2007). Professional development: Teachers use of GIS to enhance student learning. Journal of Geography, 106(2), 79–87. doi:10.1080/00221340701477831

Milson, A. J., & Earle, B. D. (2008). Internet-based GIS in an inductive learning environment: A case study of ninth-grade geography students. Journal of Geography, 106(6), 227–237. doi:10.1080/00221340701851274

Schultz, R. B., Kerski, J. J., & Patterson, T. C. (2008). The use of virtual globes as a spatial teaching tool with suggestions for metadata standards. Journal of Geography, 107(1), 27–34. doi:10.1080/00221340802049844

Shin, E. K. (2006). Using geographic information system (GIS) to improve fourth graders’ geographic content knowledge and map skills. Journal of Geography, 105(3), 109–120. doi:10.1080/00221340608978672

Steinbeck, J. (1939). The grapes of wrath. New York: Penguin Classics.

The New London Group. (1996). A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 60–93. Retrieved from http://hepg.metapress.com/content/17370N67V22J160U

Wilder, A., Brinkerhoff, J. D., & Higgins, T. M. (2003). Geographic information technologies+ project-based science: A contextualized professional development approach. Journal of Geography, 102(6), 255–266. doi:10.1080/00221340308978557

WNCP. (2006). The common curriculum framework for k-9 mathematics. WNCP. Retrieved from http://www.wncp.ca/media/38765/ccfkto9.pdf

Acknowledgements

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