GRSJ224/indigeneity
Contemporary Female Leadership in First Nations Communities
1. BACKGROUND'
1.1 History Prior to European colonization of Canada, First Nations communities placed women as central to the well being of the whole community (Guimond, p.18, 2009). Men and women in these communities, traditionally had a common religious heritage based on their relationship with nature and were linked to the same ancestors without discrimination (Esquimaux p.37 2009). They shared the same social benefits and responsibilities, at least in principle (2009). Women were highly respected and had high-status within their communities (Voyageur, 2011).
First Nations communities emphasize the importance of a balance in gender relations, and “believe the eagle flies with a female wing and a male wing” which shows the value of balance between feminine and masculine (p28, 2009).
1.2 Colonialism & Eurocentric Ideologies First Nations’ tradition belief systems were challenged, and the people struggled with cultural and social fragmentation, we Europeans came to colonize North America (Esquimaux, p.32, 2009). Colonized indigenous people in Canada, were of underlying importance to the creation of the Canadian state (2011). A big influence in early Colonial Canadian society was Eurocentric ideologies, which include “notions of liberalism, private land ownership, human control over nature, individualism, and western-European superiority over colonized indigenous people” (67, 2011). These ideologies conflicted with First Nations’ beliefs of “collectivism, communal ownership of land, living in harmony with nature and equality”(2011).
An old European social hierarchy was brought to Canada, where women were considered to be under the authority of their husbands. Eurocentric influence consisted of “patriarchal institutions of male dominance and female submission” (2009). Women became devalued, religiously and socially after there was a forced rearrangement of gender roles by the settler nation (2009).
The change in First Nations’ societies social structures had psychological effects on people over time, including “social fatalism” (distrust in the world) and impaired communication (2009). Assimilistic strategies, forced First Nations people to believe they were inferior outsiders, whose culture was barbaric, and these ideas became internalized for some. The separation of families by the implementation of compulsory residential schools, resulted in a disconnect between children and their families because children weren’t brought up in the culture their communities had been.
1.3 Hegemony & Acculturation The trauma experienced by First Nations communities, dues to processes of assimilation, has resulted in what Esquimaux terms “hegemony” (p15, 2009). Horrific experiences of death and abuse, as well as so many other forms of mistreatment were due to European dominance over Canada’s indigenous population. Hegemony “occurs when oppressed groups take on dominant group thinking and ideas uncritically and as ‘common-sense’, even though those ideas may in fact be contributing to forming their own oppression” (2009). European settlers believed they were superior and that First Nations people were inferior, which is evident in the extent of effort they put into trying to get rid of Indigenous culture.
Esquimaux explains how hegemony leads to the process of acculturation, which is shown in the colonialist attempts to assimilate First Nations people into mainstream society (2009). Residential schools are one of the avenues the Canadian government went about trying to engrain European ways of living (clothing, religion, culture etc.) into First Nations children.
1.4 Politics –Women under the Indian Act Assimilation policies were put in place, and imposed laws completely disrupted First Nations’ social structures as well as gender relations. It wasn’t far after contact that First Nations people were governed and legislated under a colonial regime, that resulted in their rights (social, political, religious, economic etc.) being taken away (2011). The patriarchal Indian Act had particularly severe repercussions for Fist Nations women, who as Voyageur says were “double subordinated”, as First Nations people in general and as women who under this new social order were considered inferior to men in their own communities (2011). Under the Indian Act, women were excluded from the political process; until 1951, women were banned from positions in elected leadership in Canadian reserve politics (Voyageur, 2011).
Under the Act, Indian status had an emphasis for males, and the rules involved status passing only through male lineage (p.75, 2011). So if a woman married somebody who wasn’t Indian (which has been common throughout contact), she had to give up her status to do so (2011).
2. OUTCOMES
2.1 Changes in Political & Social Structure Women have been gaining back the power, authority and prestige they had prior to contact, by moving into elected positions, giving them the power to make decisions (2011). According to INAC, by 2008 there were 120 women chiefs and over 800 women councilors (2011). What is allowing this to happen? Voyageur provides a few explanations; women are gaining education credentials faster (about 3 times) then First Nations men and there are many female single-parent households where women must find a way to support their families (2011). Perhaps this is why women in mainstream society are also becoming more prominent in Canadian politics. Women’s graduation rates are higher then men’s.
What needs to be discussed is when we are going to see this difference in educational attainment between genders, in the actual occupation distribution. There is an unequal distribution in certain fields of study, but it still doesn’t provide an explanation for the distribution of gender in certain professions (as well as the unequal pay many still experience).
2.2 Elected Leadership In 1951, amendments to the Indian Act allowed women to be included, as voters and candidates, in reserve politics (p.68 2011). In 1952, Elsie Marie Knott was elected as the first female Indian Act chief, and 21 women had been elected to the office of chief or councilor (2011). Since then, more and more First Nations women have been elected as chiefs across Canada, but not much research had been done about these women (2011).
In Voyageurs’ study on Elected Female Leadership in Canada, she finds that there is a “prototypical” female first Nation leader who is generally a married parent, middle-aged, well-educated and part of a family who is politically involved (2011). This isn’t surprising since traditionally, women played a very important role in raising their children, so once their children have grown, they would be able to use their time for something else.
2.3 Role of Gender In Women’s Experiences in Politics
In Voyageur’s study she also finds that gender plays an important role in peoples’ interactions with women leaders (2011). Many women in her study experienced negativity, such as men refusing to work for them or intimidating/bullying them (2011). Women’s’ experiences also involved sexism, as Voyageur explains “because some community members, mostly older men, cling to the idea that women are breaking with First Nations tradition by becoming elected leaders” (p 75, 2011). These traditions the men are referring to are those of the colonizers, European hegemony as well as the influence of the Indian Act (2011). These ideologies clearly still influence peoples’ thinking to this day, shown in these women’s’ experiences with men’s expectations for them to be submissive even if the women are elected officials.
This colonizer influence is also engrained in women; Voyageur says that female leaders’ opponents hoped women would remain in domestic roles, despite the opponents’ sex (2011). People continue to believe that politics aren’t meant to involve women who are stereotypically emotional. This mirrors mainstream Canadian society’s beliefs because there is still a gender gap in certain professions. Women leaders in this study were also “expected to take care of the “soft” issues, including education, social services, children and elderly care, health and heating” (p. 78, 2011). The importance of community still remains, and there are high expectations for women in leadership to also keep active in community events (2011). This makes it more difficult for women in leadership roles because they are expected to juggle a larger variety of responsibilities then men who are elected. One of the many expectations for women leaders is that they have continuous and frequent interactions with others, face-to-face, which can be a distraction when people drop by their office (2011). Another expectation is that some women are seen as having potential for leadership by community members, and these women are expected to run for leadership positions (2011). Women’s interactions were people/groups outside of their community were also troubling (2011). Interactions with constituencies, such as government representatives, media, industry, etc., women say lead to different purposes and outcomes (2011). This is likely true for women in mainstream society as well, because as Wharton asserts, gender acts as a basis for unequal treatment in interactions (2011). Women in most areas of the world haven’t reached true equality, and the effects of historical state-legislated exclusion still loom in today’s society. However, it is clear that the imposition of Eurocentric ideologies has made it specifically difficult for First Nations women to navigate in their communities.
2.4 Significance of Female Leadership
The reasons for community members electing women, had to do with wanting change in their community (2011). Due to the historical trauma endured by these communities, there is a significant need for healing and revival that women are viewed as able in providing. Since women, prior to contact were viewed as central to the well-being of the whole community,
“Women are guardians of indigenous traditions, practices, and beliefs –and agents of change for their families and nations”(p.20, 2009).
3. MOVING FORWARD 3.1 “Restoring the Balance” Guidmond explains resilience as “getting through, and getting out of a difficult situation”; “capacitiy to be bent without breaking and the capacity, once bent, to spring back” (p21. 2009). Despite a history filled with marginalization and oppression, First Nations communities in Canada have demonstrated an outstanding amount of resilience, which is especially seen in the culture that stands strong today. Women, who Voyageur explains were “double subordinated”, show their resilience in their actions to help heal their communities by getting involved in elected leadership (2011). Esquimaux says First Nations people are making effort to “reclaim their culture and free themselves from that which they could not control” (p.39 2009). There have been leadership development workshops developed by First Nations women for First Nations women that have had positive outcomes (Maranzan, 2013). A study done to find the outcomes of these have shown that they result in women having an “increased perception of women as leader, increased personal capacity and encouragement to seek opportunities for formal and informal leadership positions” (2013). Programs like these are important for First Nations women because they are culturally relevant and aim to empower these women who have had their identities influenced by Canada’s history.
4. REFERENCES
VOYAGEUR, C. (2011). Out in the open: Elected female leadership in canada's first nations community: Out in the open. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne De Sociologie, 48(1), 67-85. doi:10.1111/j.1755-618X.2011.01250.x
Valaskakis, G. G., Stout, M. D., Guimond, E., & Archibald, Jo-ann, Q'um Q'um Xiiem. (2009;2000;). Restoring the balance: First nations women, community, and culture. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.
Maranzan, K. A., Sabourin, A., & Simard-Chicago, C. (2013). A community-based leadership development program for first nations women: Revaluing and honoring Women’s strengths.International Indigenous Policy Journal, 4(2), 5.