Course:LIBR548F/2012WT1/Watermarks

WATERMARKS

Watermarks are designs or patterns put directly into paper during the papermaking process by making paper’s the layer of pulp thinner or thicker while it is wet. Line or wire watermarks come from making the pulp thinner, while shadow watermarks come from making the pulp thicker. (Watermarks.info) Watermarks are often best visualized by holding paper up to light (for example, someone holding up a five dollar bill to the sun or to a lamp). They vary drastically in appearance; some show animals, flowers and elaborate designs, while others show the initials of a papermaker or simple geometric designs. The purpose of a watermark is usually to identify the papermaker (manufacturer) or to act as a security guard against forgery (watermarks in the five dollar bill, for example).

The Importance of Watermarks

Their uniqueness makes watermarks an important part of the history of the book. They can provide information necessary for historians. Watermarks are unique to time and place. Paper is one of the most important elements of the book, so to understand the history of the book, it is necessary to understand how the paper in various books was created. Watermarks are essential to the history of because they provide the background information scholars need to determine important information about the paper in any given book.

Why Study Watermarks

Watermarks are essential to the study of paper. They have attracted the attention of historians, artists and bookbinders for their beauty and uniqueness. A watermark’s uniqueness can tell a researcher much about historic trends in papermaking, including the location a book was printed, when it was printed, and who printed it. This information is vital to book historians looking to trace the origins of a particular item. Books printed in the sixteenth, seventeenth and even eighteenth centuries often did not include dates on their title pages, or anywhere else in the book.

There are two main types of watermarks, the dandy roll process and the cylinder mould process. The dandy roll process, which is generally found on books older than the 1850’s, is made when a water-coated ‘dandy roll’ (essentially, a wire mesh stamp) is pressed onto the paper during manufacturing. By impressing the dandy roll into the paper, the pulp is shifted into thinner parts, allowing light to show through to illuminate the design of the watermark. Dandy rolls can be placed so that the watermark is made continuously on the roll of paper. They differ from older wire watermarks that could only be used once on a roll.

Cylinder mould watermarks are much newer than the dandy roll process, (post-1850) and are typically easier to see than watermarks made in the dandy roll process. The cylinder mould process creates a shaded watermark through thicker areas on the paper. The sheet of paper will have an even thickness, but will be denser or thinner to illuminate the watermark. These watermarks are similar to an older type of watermark, called light and shade watermarks. Light and shade watermarks used relief sculptures cast in matching plates to create watermarks. Wire fabric is placed between the heated plates, which are pressed together, leaving behind paper that his thinner in recessed areas and thicker in others, hence the name light and shade. (Robert C. Williams Paper Museum)

Watermarks are unique to the print shop that created them, and often serve as the printer’s signature. When examining a book for watermarks, it is common to see half, or even a quarter of the watermark on one page. This occurs because the paper is folded and cut multiple times, depending on the size of the book. The way a watermark is set in the paper determines how much or which parts of it can be viewed after the sheet of paper is folded and cut for a specific book. Some pages may not have a watermark, or part of a watermark at all based on where the watermark was located on the original sheet of paper prior to cutting for printing. Scholars can piece together a complete watermark based on the portions of the watermark they find and where they find it on different pages.

Watermark Conservation

Paper degradation is an issue among conservationists and the visualization of watermarks is an important problem facing archives. There are various techniques for to digitizing watermarks that can be used without damaging paper. Once a watermark is digitized, it can be classified and entered in a database to be used by other scholars. Back-lighting scanning techniques are most common, combined with image processing. Radioactive techniques are generally avoided due to potential harm they can cause paper. (Hiary and Ng)

Watermark Databases

There are several databases researchers can look to when trying to discern where a watermark comes from. These databases have been compiled by researchers and historians, often in Europe. The Watermark Database of the Dutch University Institute for Art History, the Bernstein Project, the Piccard Watermark Collection, and Watermarks.info are all online collections useful to watermark research. Each database includes pictures or drawings of each type of watermark in the collection, some information about the watermark (where it originated, etc.) and are often searchable in multiple languages. The databases are an excellent starting point for a scholar researching a specific watermark. If a watermark is not found in any of the databases, it can be added and scholars who discover any information on the watermark can add to the database. Their collaborative nature helps scholars discover the most comprehensive information on a given watermark, in turn helping to determine the most information about a particular book.

Bibliography

Articles

Badke, David. “Watermarks.” University of Victoria Ludgate http://spcoll.library.uvic.ca/Digit/lydgate/lydgatems/pages/manuscript/watermarks/watermarks.htm

Useful information on the creation of watermarks with various examples of different types.

Hiary, Haxem and Kia Ng. “A system for segmenting and extracting paper-based watermark designs.” International Journal on Digital Libraries 6 (2007) 251-261.

Great article on how to visualize watermarks in various types of paper.

Meinlschmidt, Peter and Volker Margner,.“Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Techniques for the Visualization of Watermarks.” Restaurator (2009) 222-243.

This article provides similar information to the Hiary and Ng article.

Pavelka, Karen. “Puzzles in Paper: Concepts in Historical Watermarks Review.” Libraries & Culture 38 no. 4 (2003) 421-422.

This review of Puzzles in Paper: Concepts in Historical Watermarks gives a good overview for those who do not have access to the book itself. I

Books

Balloffet, Nelly and Jenny Hille. Preservation and Conservation for Libraries and Archives. (USA: American Library Association Editions) 2004.

Good overview of conservation techniques, including preserving watermarks and handmade paper.

Puzzles in Paper: Concepts in Historical Watermarks. Edited by Daniel W. Mosser, Michael Saffle, and Ernest W. Sullivan II. Essays from the International Conference on the History, Function and Study of Watermarks, Roanoke, Virginia. New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Press; London: British Library, 2000.

This book is a series of essays from a conference on watermarks in 1996. The essays provide varied information on watermarks, some more useful than others.

Databases

Bernstein: The Memory of Paper http://www.memoryofpaper.eu:8080/BernsteinPortal/appl_start.disp

This comprehensive database provides a searchable catalogue, a bibliographic database on the history of paper, and software tools for studying paper.

Dutch University Institute for Art History Watermark Database http://www.wm-portal.net/niki/index.php

This database allows guests to search by keyword or advanced search to find watermarks by time period, creator/artist, etc.

Paper Watermarks Collection http://www.watermarks.info/catalogi.htm

This is a slightly less reputable source, but it still maintains clear images of certain types of watermarks, especially those of Spanish origin.

Piccard Online (English version) http://www.piccard-online.de/struktur.php?anzeigeKlassi=&klassi=&sprache=en

This database allows searches by type of watermark (fruit, lily, key, etc.) and provides comprehensive information on each type.

Robert C. Williams Paper Museum http://www.ipst.gatech.edu/amp/collection/museum_watermark.htm

Georgia Tech has a good watermark collection, which is searchable online. The website also provides useful background information on watermarks.