Course:EOSC311/2022/How to prevent yourself from becoming a land mark on Mount Everest

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Introduction

Mount Everest is one of the most challenging ascents a climber can make worldwide. It is the tallest mountain above sea level with a frigid climate rife with hazards. As a result, many climbers have lost their lives trying to ascend the mountain, with corpses that litter the surroundings. Furthermore, due to the cold temperatures, these corpses have been frozen and perfectly preserved for many years and now serve as both a warning and landmarks for aspiring climbers that wish to conquer Mount Everest. This guide is written to help climbers increase their chances of surviving their conquest of Everest with a brief history of the geology of how the tallest mountain in the Himalayas came to be. 

Statement of connection and why you chose it

I chose this topic for my assignment because it connects Kinesiology with EOSC 311. After all, climbers must have high levels of fitness and knowledge of physiological systems to avoid the hazards posed by the geological features of Mount Everest. For example, hiking up a steep slope, a common situation encountered on the mountain, requires using multiple metabolic pathways to generate energy to sustain muscle contractions that move the body. These metabolic pathways need the support of the respiratory system to draw in oxygen and offload carbon dioxide and the cardiovascular system to transport resources and waste around the body.

Although almost everyone can use these metabolic pathways to generate energy to sustain muscle contractions, climbing Mount Everest requires a high degree of fitness and strength. Climbers can increase their chances of not becoming a landmark by improving cardiorespiratory fitness, increasing muscular strength and endurance, and avoiding geological hazards imposed by the dangerous terrain found on Mount Everest.

Introduction to Mount Everest

Mount Everest is a part of the Himalayas in the south of Asia along the border of Nepal and Tibet[1]. It is the tallest mountain above sea level in the world at 8,849 metres tall. It is the result of a convergent boundary between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates millions of years ago[2].

The tectonic plates that make up the earth

What are tectonic plates?

Tectonic plates make up the Earth’s crust and float above the mantle[3]. The primary driver behind the movement of these plates, as speculated by Arthur Holmes, is that mantle currents, formed when hotter materials rise, and cooler materials fall in the mantle, move the plates similar to how a conveyor belt would move items[3]. These tectonic plates can move away, towards and along each other forming different types of boundaries [3]. As mentioned above, the Himalayan mountain range was formed as a result of a convergent boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates.

A climber scaling the Yellowband

Geological features of Mount Everest

Mount Everest consists of nappes, which are rocks are shifted more than five kilometres above a thrust fault [4][1]. A thrust fault is when compressional forces, such as at a convergent boundary, result in a layer of rocks being pushed above another layer of rocks [1]. As a result of this folding, an ancient sedimentary rock that used to be a part of the sea floor can end up at the top of mountains. For instance, one of the most notable features of the geology of Mount Everest is that the summit of the mountain is composed of ancient sedimentary rock that used to be a part of the sea bed of the Tethys Sea, which existed from the Paleozoic Era to the Cenozoic Era [1]. The most prominent feature of the sedimentary rock is a limestone formation called the Yellow Band, which is visible near the peak of Everest [1]. At lower elevations of the mountain, igneous granites are found on top of rocks of metamorphic origin, such as gneiss and schists [4].



A free body diagram of a landslide including gravitational and friction forces

Hazards of Mount Everest

Since Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world above sea level, it attracts hundreds of climbers each year. However, despite its immense popularity, Everest boasts a 14.1% fatality rate among climbers[5]. Factors influencing the high fatality rate include geographical hazards and extreme weather.

Geographical hazards

Landslides

Landslides occur when a mass of sediments becomes loose and falls down a slope[6]. These slides can occur whenever gravity, in combination with other types of shear stress, overcomes the ability of the sediments to remain bonded[6]. For example, landslides on Everest can occur whenever the weight of snow above older snow exceeds the bonding capabilities of the older snow to the ground[7]. This results in an avalanche which can be dangerous to climbers. Another instance where landslides on Everest may occur is due to seismic activity. Since the Himalayas are located near a convergent boundary, strong earthquakes that may arise that can cause massive landslides as sediments are shaken loose and start tumbling down the slopes.

An example of what an uncovered crevasse may look like

Crevasse

A crevasse is a crack in a glacier that is produced as a result of glacial motion[8]. These fissures are extremely dangerous to climbers since they may be extremely deep and be bridged by snow [8]. Furthermore, crevasses are also very unpredictable because they may open or close up depending on how fast the glacier flows[8]. One factor that affects the speed of glacial motion is the gradient of the slope it is flowing on [8]. As a result, crevasses are extremely dangerous to climbers due to their unpredictability, resulting in dangerous falls.

Elevation

Although one of the main attractions of Mount Everest is that it is exceptionally tall, the high elevation of the mountain can be extremely dangerous to climbers. For instance, around the altitude of 8,000 meters is the death zone, where the atmospheric pressure has decreased to the point that body is unable to take in enough oxygen to sustain life[9][10]. As a result, when climbers enter the death zone, their brains and lungs become depleted of oxygen, decreasing their judgement capabilities. Furthermore, climbers can also experience altitude sickness, which can progress to high altitude pulmonary edema and high altitude cerebral edema. High altitude pulmonary edema is the collection of fluid in the lungs[10], while high altitude cerebral edema is the swelling of the brain due to fluid accumulation[11].

The physiology behind the elevation hazards

Lung function
Diagram of how the lungs function. As the diaphragm contracts and the ribs expand upwards, lung pressure < atmospheric pressure. This causes air to flow from areas of high concentration to low concentration. In comparison, as the diaphragm relaxes and the ribs relax, lung pressure > atmospheric pressure. This causes air to be expelled outwards.

Dalton's and Henry's laws are two critically important laws to understand how lungs function.  According to Dalton’s law, the partial pressure of a gas is the concentration of a gas multiplied by the total pressure[12]. Henry’s law describes how the rate of gas movement in air and fluids is determined by the pressure differentials of that gas above the liquid, dissolved in the liquid and solubility of the gas in the liquid[12]. Consequently, humans can draw in oxygen by manipulating lung volume so that atmospheric pressure is greater than lung pressure causing the diffusion of oxygen into arterial blood[12]. Under normal conditions, around sea level, oxygen concentration in the atmospheric air is 20.93 %, while the total atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg. According to Dalton’s law, the partial pressure of oxygen at sea level would be 159 mmHg. When climbers reach the death zone, although oxygen concentration in atmospheric air remains the same, atmospheric pressure drops to 228 mmHg resulting in the partial pressure of oxygen falling to 48 mmHg[10]. This decrease in atmospheric pressure not only reduces the partial pressure of oxygen which lowers the rate of diffusion into blood, but it also increases the amount of work the muscles must do to take in the air since lung pressure must be lower than atmospheric pressure.

The cascading effect of low levels of oxygen in the blood

As the partial pressure of arterial oxygen decreases, chemoreceptors send signals to the brain to increase ventilation rate[12]. A decreased partial pressure of arterial oxygen also results in increased blood pressure since the body increases heart rate to maintain appropriate oxygen delivery to cells[13]. A few examples of the dangers of consistently high heart rate is that it can cause an elevated risk of heart attacks and strokes, in addition to retina hemorrhaging, which can lead to temporary blindness[9][14].

High altitude sickness

High altitude sickness (HAS) occurs when a climber rapidly ascends to a high altitude[15]. It results in various symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, disturbed sleep, fatigue, loss of appetite and dizziness[15]. This disorder occurs because high altitudes result in increased ventilation due to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen[12]. However, the primary driver of breath is the stimulation of the chemoreceptors in the medulla by increases in partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood[12]. When hyperventilation occurs due to decreased partial pressure of oxygen, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is reduced since as ventilation increases, exhalation increases at the same rate[15]. This increased exaltation decreases the partial pressure of carbon dioxide because there is increased offloading of carbon dioxide at the lungs during hyperventilation. Consequently, this effect down-regulates the primary driver of breathing. It makes breathing contingent on the ventilatory response to the partial pressure of arterial oxygen, which can vary for different individuals and cause the symptoms of HAS.

High altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high altitude cerebral edema (HACE)  

High altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is another effect associated with travel to high altitudes. HAPE occurs when the pulmonary artery pressures increase, causing fluid to flow from blood vessels into lung tissues, impairing oxygen diffusion [16]. Pulmonary artery pressure increases can be caused by sympathetic nervous system activation, resulting in systemic vasoconstriction and increases blood pressure due to HAS[16]. High altitude cerebral edema (HACE)  is often the fatal conclusion to HAS[11]. HACE can rapidly progress to coma and death due to brain herniation[11]. Although the exact mechanisms behind HACE have not been studied, elevated capillary pressure in the skull as a result of high blood pressure has been thought to be a contributing factor[11].

Extreme weather

The weather on Mount Everest is harsh and unforgiving. Temperatures on the mountain can range from -16°C during the warmer summer months to -36°C in the cold winter months[17]. Due to these cold temperatures, frostbite and hypothermia can occur if climbers are ill-equipped or underdressed for the ascent. Furthermore, not only are temperatures frigid, wind speeds found at the top of the summit are around 121 kilometres per hour three out of four days in the winter months[17]. These extreme winds can make it difficult for climbers to stand and may result in slips and falls.

What does it take to successfully ascend Mount Everest?

Strength

Why is strength important for climbers?

Climbers need to have a strong body so that they can endure the conditions presented by the harsh conditions on Mount Everest. The benefits of strength training for climbers include increasing movement economy, increasing tendon stiffness and improving neural function[18]—these aspects benefit climbers since they can increase endurance performance. However, climbers must avoid training too heavily for hypertrophy since extra fat-free mass means more calories needed to sustain the tissue[19]. Furthermore, legs and core muscles should be prioritized since they will contribute the most to hiking up hills and maintaining the climber’s balance on icy surfaces. Consequently, an Everest climber’s strength regime will likely consist of strengthening the entire body with compound movements with extra accessory exercises for the legs and the core.

Example of a side split squat, which is a unilateral compound movement
Example of a squat, which is a bilateral compound movement

What types of exercises should climbers use to train for strength?

Compound movements will likely be sufficient for climbers to develop their strength. Compound movements are exercises that involve multiple muscle groups at once[20]. A few compound exercises include the bench press, pull-up, and squat. Although compound movements may be able to develop sufficient strength, climbers should also look to train unilaterally to supplement compound movements to prevent muscular imbalances. Unilateral exercises can also improve core stabilization since they often require the individual to remain balanced, decrease injury risk, and aid in developing motor skills[21]. Some unilateral exercises include the side split squat, unilateral lat pull downs, and single-legged Romanian deadlifts.


The physiology behind muscular adaptations in resistance training

Resistance training can improve strength because of numerous physiological factors; one of these ways is increased motor unit recruitments[22]. Motor units consist of an alpha motor neuron and all the muscles it innervates and is important because climbers can better utilize their strength[22]. Increased motor unit recruitment can result from increased motor unit firing rate, which is important because motor unit firing rate may not be maximal in an untrained individual[22]. Another way resistance training increases strength is through hypertrophy[22]. Increasing the amount of type IIa fibres, which are muscular fibres with high contractile abilities, will make climbers stronger[22]. Although hypertrophy is not the climber’s goal, building enough mass to affect performance negatively requires a program dedicated to hypertrophy with high volume amounts. Strength training involves heavier weights with lower repetitions.

Aerobic capacity

Why is aerobic capacity important to climbers?

Aerobic capacity is defined as the ability of the body to use oxygen[12]. This is important for climbers because oxygen is required in the metabolic pathway that produces the most energy efficiently. Aerobic capacity is important to increase, especially on Mount Everest, because the body must be able to use the limited oxygen available to sustain life[23]. Climbers can train for aerobic capacity by performing submaximal exercise for long periods.

The physiology behind aerobic adaptations

Many adaptions to different physiological systems increase aerobic capacity after aerobic exercise. Some adaptations include an improved lactate threshold, decreased heart rate, reduced carbohydrate oxidation and increased fat oxidation[12]

  • The increase in lactate threshold means that the body can metabolize lactate more quickly. Lactate is a high-energy molecule that is a by-product of the anaerobic metabolic pathway. Metabolizing lactate is important because it contributes to physical exhaustion by lowering blood pH, which impacts muscular contractions[12][24].
  • A decreased heart rate results from increased heart size due to hypertrophy and increased heart contractility[25]. The improved heart contractility comes from an increase in blood volume from changes in blood plasma and red blood cells, which impacts contractility due to a mechanism called the Frank-Starling mechanism[25]. Essentially, the Frank-Starling mechanism states that the heart will contract with greater force when it is stretched, similar to rubber bands.
  • Decreased carbohydrate oxidation and increased fat oxidation are important because fat provides the most energy per molecule. As a result, the carbohydrate stores in the body can be preserved for high-intensity activities because they can be burned faster for energy generation[12].

Avoiding hazards associated with Mount Everest

Avoiding landslides

A landslide near basecamp of Mount Everest. Observe the loose sediment that makes up the ground with larger rocks layered on top.

Climbers should look to avoid areas near slopes with large boulders and loose sediments like clay and sand[26]. This specific combination of rocks can lead to devastating landslides because the sediments are not well bonded together and the large boulders are very heavy. A subtype landslides of ice and snow called avalanches are also common and very difficult to avoid on Everest since most are triggered by weather[27]. For instance, an avalanche can form when wind or precipitation stresses the bonds between the top layer of snow and ice and the compressed bottom layer. Consequently, climbers should look to avoid progressing up the mountain in weather conditions with heavy snow and wind.

Avoiding crevasses

If the glacier is only covered partly by snow, climbers can look to spot crevasses if the ice has shadows[28]. Crevasses will also sometimes have misshapen snow compared to areas without crevasses because when snow is driven by wind, it will land differently on the edges of a hole[28]. Finally, climbers can also look to poke areas in front of them with an ice axe since crevasses are often only covered by a thin layer of ice and snow[28].

Snow covered crevasse that extends from the left middle of the image to the right near the rocks. Notice the slight depression in the snow.

Avoiding elevation sickness

Climbers should look to ascend no higher than 300-500 meters a day to allow their bodies to adjust to the decreased atmospheric pressure[29]. By following this acclimatization technique, the body undergoes numerous physiological adaptations, such as increasing the number of red blood cells to alleviate the effects of the low partial pressure of oxygen [30]. This increase in red blood cells allows the body to improve oxygen delivery to tissue. Acclimatization is essential because ascending the mountain too fast can lead to HAS, HAPE and HACE. As soon as symptoms of HAS begin to show, climbers should go down at least 500 meters as quickly as possible and consult a doctor[29].

Trip planning to avoid weather hazards

Weather on Everest at its extremes can be dangerous for climbers attempting to summit. Firstly, summit winds are essential to consider because they can blow climbers off their feet. These winds typically peak in February and die down in March and April, with the calmest winds during May[17]. Precipitation can also affect the climber’s footing, but luckily the summit receives very little precipitation, most falling during the summer months, around June to September[17]. Finally, temperatures are coldest from December to February and warmest in July and August[17]. Consequently, the best time to plan a summit attempt is May because of favourable wind conditions, precipitation levels and acceptable temperatures.

Gear climbers should look to bring

  • Climbers should look to bring...[31]
    • Oversized Italian OneSport climbing shoes to prevent frostbite
    • Clothing
      • Climbers should look to layer up on lightweight clothing so they can take it off or add more layers
      • Lightweight down jacket should always be carried to protect from the elements. A cap or the hood of the down jacket should also be worn to protect the head from the sun
      • Waterproof gloves, mittens and thick socks should be worn to prevent frostbites on the digits
      • A heavy down suit is needed when summiting due to the winds found at the summit
      • A face mask is needed to prevent Khumbu cough, which is caused by low humidity and temperature
      • Harness to attach ropes to prevent falls when climbing
    • General first aid kit
    • Emergency aids
      • An EpiPen can be an emergency source of energy for climbers stuck in dire straits. However, it is important to note that they can also cause heart attacks
      • Diamox is a drug that can be used to speed up acclimatization
      • Decadron can alleviate symptoms of HAS but will not cure it. As a result, it is vital for climbers to descend after taking the drug
      • Nifedipine can alleviate symptoms of pulmonary edema by lowering pulmonary artery pressure. Like Decadron, climbers need to descend after taking the drug
      • A Gamow bag can help climbers who suffer from HAS, HAPE and HACE. It does this by increasing pressure inside the bag and can be the difference between life and death.
      • Oxygen can be used for severe symptoms of HAS, but climbers must be careful since high oxygen concentrations can be dangerous for their bodies.

Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections

One may find it difficult to see connections between kinesiology and geology, but sports such as rock climbing can act as a link between the two fields of study. By utilizing a mixture of kinesiology and geology knowledge, climbers can better prepare for their ascent of Mount Everest. For instance, with the knowledge of hazards that exist due to the geology of Everest, climbers can look to avoid these to increase their chances of success. Additionally, by knowing the physical attributes needed to climb Everest successfully, prospective climbers can train for these attributes to be well-prepared for their ascent. Finally, by understanding the effect of elevation on the physiology of the body, climbers can look to follow the proper methods to acclimatize their bodies to prevent HAS. By combining the fields of kinesiology and geology, climbers can increase their chances of summiting Mount Everest and decrease their chances of becoming a landmark for future climbers to use.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Mount Everest. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/place/Mount-Everest
  2. ↑ Wei-Haas, M. (2020, December 8). Maya Wei-Haas. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/why-mount-everest-can-grow-and-shrink-plate-tectonics
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Panchuk, K. (n.d.). Chapter 4. Plate tectonics. Pressbooks. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/part/chapter-4-plate-tectonics-3rd-ed/
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Contributors to Wikimedia projects. (2021, July 25). Nappe. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nappe
  5. ↑ Armstrong, M. (2021, December 17). What are the world’s most dangerous mountains to climb? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/12/mountains-danerous-deadly-expedition-hiking/
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 landslide. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/science/landslide
  7. ↑ What causes Avalanche? (n.d.). Retrieved June 22, 2022, from http://www.sfu.ca/~yla312/IAT%20235/P04_week%2013/what-causes-avalanche.html
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 crevasse. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/science/crevasse
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Woodward, A. (n.d.). This is what happens to your body in Mount Everest’s overcrowded “death zone.” ScienceAlert. https://www.sciencealert.com/this-is-what-happens-to-your-body-in-mount-everest-s-death-zone
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Mathew, T. M., & Sharma, S. (2022, April 14). High altitude oxygenation. NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539701/
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Jensen, J. D., & Vincent, A. L. (2022, May 1). High altitude cerebral edema. NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430916/
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 McArdle, W. D., Katch, F. I., & Katch, V. L. (2015). Exercise physiology: nutrition, energy, and human performance. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  13. ↑ Bärtsch, P., & Gibbs, J. S. R. (2007). Effect of altitude on the heart and the lungs. Circulation, 116(19), 2191–2202. https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.106.650796
  14. ↑ McSmith, A. (2010, June 1). Everest team forced to leave sick British climber to die. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/everest-team-forced-to-leave-sick-british-climber-to-die-1988979.html
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Taylor, A. T. (2011). High-Altitude illnesses: Physiology, risk factors, prevention, and treatment. Rambam Maimonides Medical Journal, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.5041/RMMJ.10022
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Pennardt, A. (2013, April). High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema: Diagnosis, Prevention, and... : Current Sports Medicine Reports. LWW. https://journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/fulltext/2013/03000/high_altitude_pulmonary_edema__diagnosis,.16.aspx
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Extreme weather: The weather of the summit of Mt. Everest. (n.d.). Weather Underground. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from https://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/extreme-weather-the-weather-of-the-summit-of-mt-everest.html
  18. ↑ Aagaard, P., & Andersen, J. L. (2010). Effects of strength training on endurance capacity in top-level endurance athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01197.x
  19. ↑ Johnson, K. O., Holliday, A., Mistry, N., Cunniffe, A., Howard, K., Stanger, N., O’Mahoney, L. L., Matu, J., & Ispoglou, T. (2021). An Increase in Fat-Free Mass is Associated with Higher Appetite and Energy Intake in Older Adults: A Randomised Control Trial. Nutrients, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010141
  20. ↑ Chertoff, J. (2018, June 7). How to add compound exercises to your workout routine. Healthline Media. https://www.healthline.com/health/fitness-exercise/compound-exercises
  21. ↑ Dewar, M. (2021, November 1). The seven biggest benefits of unilateral training. BarBend. https://barbend.com/benefits-of-unilateral-training/
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Mitchell, C. (2021). Resistance training adaptations [PowerPoint slides]. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia.
  23. ↑ Mitchell, C. (2021). Aerobic training adaptations [PowerPoint slides]. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia
  24. ↑ Mitchell, C. (2021). Muscle fatigue [PowerPoint slides]. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Starling Law - An overview. (n.d.). ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/starling-law
  26. ↑ Dangerous landslide areas on the Everest Trail. (2016, May 20). Ian Taylor Trekking. https://iantaylortrekking.com/blog/dangerous-landslide-areas-on-the-everest-trail
  27. ↑ Avalanche.org » trigger. (2017, July 2). Avalanche.Org. https://avalanche.org/avalanche-encyclopedia/trigger/
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 3 ways to spot and reveal a crevasse (and avoid it). (2020, March 31). Mountain Homies. https://mountainhomies.com/ways-to-spot-and-reveal-a-crevasse/
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Medical problems. (n.d.). Climbers Guide to Everest. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from http://www.mounteverest.net/expguide/altdangers.htm
  30. ↑ Windsor, J. S., & Rodway, G. W. (2007). Heights and haematology: The story of haemoglobin at altitude. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 83(977). https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2006.049734
  31. ↑ Climbing gear. (n.d.). Climbers Guide to Everest. http://www.mounteverest.net/expguide/gear.htm
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