https://wiki.ubc.ca/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=SeulgiKim&feedformat=atomUBC Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T23:47:07ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.6https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610693Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T07:16:48Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
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== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref>As Maggie Hodgson notes: <br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref> <br />
[[File:Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma.png|thumb|Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma]]<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary to find out stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the potential cumulative nature of the residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding of the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means for the Indigenous health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of their unique history of trauma and view patients’ health status as not only limited to the immediately observable factors, but rather, as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations.<ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of the intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may eventually come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=File:Vicious_Cycle_of_Transmission_of_Residential_School_Trauma.png&diff=610692File:Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma.png2020-08-01T07:12:37Z<p>SeulgiKim: SeulgiKim uploaded a new version of File:Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma.png</p>
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[[Category:Research]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610690Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T07:10:21Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
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== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref>As Maggie Hodgson suggests: <br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref> <br />
[[File:Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma.png|thumb|Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma]]<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary to find out stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the potential cumulative nature of the residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding of the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means for the Indigenous health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of their unique history of trauma and view patients’ health status as not only limited to the immediately observable factors, but rather, as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations.<ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of the intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may eventually come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=File:Vicious_Cycle_of_Transmission_of_Residential_School_Trauma.png&diff=610688File:Vicious Cycle of Transmission of Residential School Trauma.png2020-08-01T07:08:37Z<p>SeulgiKim: User created page with UploadWizard</p>
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[[Category:Research]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610653Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:29:43Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
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== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref>As Maggie Hodgson suggests: <br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary to find out stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the potential cumulative nature of the residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding of the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means for the Indigenous health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of their unique history of trauma and view patients’ health status as not only limited to the immediately observable factors, but rather, as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations.<ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of the intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may eventually come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610649Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:28:15Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref>As Maggie Hodgson suggests: <br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary to find out stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the potential cumulative nature of the residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding of the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means for the Indigenous health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of their unique history of trauma and view patients’ health status as not only limited to the immediately observable factors, but rather, as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations.<ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of the intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610641Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:22:12Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref>As Maggie Hodgson suggests: <br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary to find out stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the potential cumulative nature of the residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610638Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:21:09Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref>As Maggie Hodgson suggests: <br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary to find out stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the potential cumulative nature of the residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610630Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:13:29Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and be exposed to higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610628Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:10:20Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a one of the commonly experienced childhood maltreatments among the children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perception or experience of ''discrimination'' is one of the major stressors commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, one reason for this phenomenon is that adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610617Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:02:30Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />Moreover, as the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610613Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T06:01:05Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the mechanism of the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of an appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns modeled after the abusive and neglectful care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610608Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:56:02Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the federal government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children underwent the process of cultural eradication, in which they were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. Moreover, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which led to various negative health outcomes among attendees. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively affect the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous populations through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610603Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:50:33Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Implication */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
The intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610594Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:41:36Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generations, and the vicious cycle of trauma renews, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.”<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610579Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:30:29Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Negative Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610578GRSJ2242020-08-01T05:29:24Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
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{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
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<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
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|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
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'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
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* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
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[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
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[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
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[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
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[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
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[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
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[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
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* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
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*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
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<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
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* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
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[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
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[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
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[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
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[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
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[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
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[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
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===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance_on_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610574Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:28:33Z<p>SeulgiKim: SeulgiKim moved page Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada to [[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional W...</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610573Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:28:33Z<p>SeulgiKim: SeulgiKim moved page Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada to [[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional W...</p>
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<div>__TOC__<br />
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== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
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== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<ref name=":1" /><br />
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=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
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=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
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=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
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== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
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== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610572GRSJ2242020-08-01T05:28:16Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
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<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
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=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
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To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
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* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
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|-<br />
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* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
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* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
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'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
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=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
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[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
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[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada|Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
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[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
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[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
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[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
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[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
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[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
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[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
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[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
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[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
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[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
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Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
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[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
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[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
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[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
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[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
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[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
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[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
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[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
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[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
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===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610565Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T05:22:23Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
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== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
[[File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png|thumb|First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School located at Saskatchewan, Canada, in January 1954. Accessed from the Grace Reed Fonds.]]The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
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<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=File:First_Nations_Students_at_Gordon%E2%80%99s_Indian_Residential_School.png&diff=610564File:First Nations Students at Gordon’s Indian Residential School.png2020-08-01T05:19:36Z<p>SeulgiKim: User created page with UploadWizard</p>
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|date=2020-07-31<br />
|source=Grace Reed Fonds<br />
|author=Grace Reed Fonds<br />
|permission=<br />
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[[Category:Aboriginal Initiatives]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610548Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T04:44:29Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
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<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches.<ref>Wilk, Piotr, et al. “Residential Schools and the Effects on Indigenous Health and Well-Being in Canada—A Scoping Review.” ''Public Health Reviews,'' vol. 38, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-23.</ref> Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610545Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T04:37:21Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610544Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T04:36:55Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting */</p>
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<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<ref name=":0">Lafrance, Jean, and Don Collins. “Residential Schools and Aboriginal Parenting: Voices of Parents.” ''Native Social Work Journal,'' vol. 4, 2003, pp. 104-125.</ref> The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors.<ref>McKenzie, Brad, and Pete Hudson. "Native Children, Child Welfare, and the Colonization of Native People." ''The Challenge of Child Welfare,'' edited by K.L. Levitt and B. Wharf, University of British Columbia Press, 1985, pp. 125-141. </ref> In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. <ref name=":0" />As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<ref name=":1">Haig Brown, Celia. ''Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.'' Arsenal Pulp Press, 1988.</ref><br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors.<ref name=":2">Bombay, Amy, et al. "The Impact of Stressors on Second Generation Indian Residential School Survivors." ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 48, no. 4, 2011, pp. 367-391.</ref> Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<ref>Horejsi, Charles, et al. “Reactions by Native American Parents to Child Protection Agencies: Cultural and Community Factors.” ''Child Welfare,'' vol. 4, 1992, pp. 329-342.</ref> The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. <ref>Horwitz, Allan V., et al. “The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study.” ''Journal of Health and Social Behavior,'' vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 184-201.</ref>Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent.<ref>Williams, David R., et al. “Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.” ''American Journal of Public Health,'' vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 200-208.</ref> Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment.<ref name=":2" /> As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others.<ref>Bratkiewicz, A., and M. Lis-Turlejska. “Depression After Trauma: Comparison of the Course of Depression Between Patients with Different Exposure to Traumatic Events.” ''Psychological Studies,'' vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 23-35. </ref> Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors.<ref name=":3">Hackett, Christina, et al. “Canada’s Residential School System: Measuring the Intergenerational Impact of Familial Attendance on Health and Mental Health Outcomes.” ''J Epidemiol Community Health'', vol. 70, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1096-1105.</ref> For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<ref name=":4">Bombay, Amy, et al. “The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma.” ''Transcultural Psychiatry,'' vol. 51, no. 3, 2014, pp. 320-338.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' <ref name=":4" />In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance.<ref>McQuaid, Robyn Jane, et al. “Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools.” ''The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,'' vol. 62, no. 6, 2017, pp. 422-430.</ref> Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. <ref name=":3" />In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. <ref name=":4" />By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<ref>Hodgson, Maggie. ''Impact of Residential Schools and Other Root Causes of Poor Mental Health (Suicide, Family Violence, Alcohol & Drug Abuse)''. Nechi Institute on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1991.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610406Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T01:18:39Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on the intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors. The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is found to be largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with the process of “passing down” the appropriate parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment had been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children. Due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting, it has been suggested that many survivors returned home with inappropriate behavior patterns including abusive or neglectful parenting behaviors modeled after the care-giving behaviors witnessed at residential schools.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610401Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T01:11:19Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Residential School System in Canada */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend boarding schools administered by the government and churches. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to the cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant maltreatments including physical, psychological and sexual abuse, undernutrition, and poor living conditions, which lead to various negative health outcomes among children. Today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continues to negatively impact the well-being of the contemporary Indigenous communities through its intergenerational effect.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610392GRSJ2242020-08-01T00:56:23Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Urban Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Maltreatments_of_Canadian_government_towards_the_Indigenous_community_in_COVID-19_pandemic Maltreatments of the Canadian government towards the Indigenous community in COVID-19 pandemic]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
[[Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities against African-Amrican patients by healthcare providers]]<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
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* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
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*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofchildbirth#Medicalization of Childbirth|Medicalization of Childbirth]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
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* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
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|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
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* <br />
* <br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
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* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance_on_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada:_Sociocultural_Perspective&diff=610391Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada: Sociocultural Perspective2020-08-01T00:55:20Z<p>SeulgiKim: SeulgiKim moved page Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada: Sociocultural Perspective to [[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental an...</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610390Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T00:55:20Z<p>SeulgiKim: SeulgiKim moved page Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada: Sociocultural Perspective to [[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental an...</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610389GRSJ2242020-08-01T00:55:01Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
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{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
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|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
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* <br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Urban Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada: Sociocultural Perspective|Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]] <br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]] <br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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|-<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Maltreatments_of_Canadian_government_towards_the_Indigenous_community_in_COVID-19_pandemic Maltreatments of the Canadian government towards the Indigenous community in COVID-19 pandemic]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
[[Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities against African-Amrican patients by healthcare providers]]<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofchildbirth#Medicalization of Childbirth|Medicalization of Childbirth]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
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|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
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===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610387Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T00:50:36Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Replication of Childhood Adversity */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era. The negative parenting behaviors of survivors are then replicated by the next generation, as “children learn parenting skills by the way they are parented.” Then, the cycle of trauma renews.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610386Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-08-01T00:50:13Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
In fact, the intergenerational exposure to residential school attendance continues to undermine the well-being of today’s Indigenous population, signaling the need for a widespread recognition and understanding the impacts of past collective trauma on the current health status of Indigenous communities, as well as the present-day health disparities. In order to develop a culturally sensitive means of health service delivery, it is important for practitioners to be aware of the unique history and view patients’ health status as a result of stressors that have been accumulated over generations, and not only of immediately observable factors. By developing a holistic, person-centered and culturally appropriate understanding of mental health issues among Indigenous peoples, the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of residential school trauma may come to an end.<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610359Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T23:41:34Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Mental Health Outcomes */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In general, Indigenous adults with familial history of residential school attendance were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610357Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T23:31:38Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
Exposure to childhood adversity may in turn serve as “stress proliferators” in adulthood, increasing the likelihood of perceiving or experiencing more stressful events as adults, as they become highly reactive to stressors. Perceptions or experiences of discrimination is one major stressor commonly encountered by Indigenous adults today, which are likely to produce adverse psychological outcomes when persistent. Although Indigenous peoples in general are found to experience greater accounts of discrimination compared to non-Indigenous population, the stressor appears to have greater impact among children of residential school survivors who have been exposed to childhood maltreatment. As researchers suggest, adults who experienced childhood adversity are more likely to develop elevated levels of neuroticism, hostility, suspiciousness and mistrust, which in turn, elicit more negative and unsupportive social reactions from others. Such negative reactions may then be perceived as “discriminatory,” generating more stress among children of survivors, which then results in greater psychological disturbances.<br />
<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610327Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T22:05:40Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Replication of Childhood Adversity */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
In fact, children of residential school survivors were more likely to experience history of abuse in their own childhoods, due the neglectful care provided from their parents. In particular, exposure to severe physical punishment has been reported as a commonly experienced childhood maltreatment among children of survivors. Such dysfunctional parenting behavior is assumed to be introduced as a result of the residential school trauma, considering the fact that physical discipline was not common among Indigenous tribes before the residential school era.<br />
<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610098Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T11:27:56Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
In addition to the transgenerational effect of residential school trauma, recent research suggests that familial residential school attendance across several generations appears to have ''cumulative effects.'' In one study, differences in levels of psychological distress were measured among three different groups: First Nations adults whose parents ''and'' grandparents attended residential school, those whose parents ''or'' grandparents attended, and finally, those whose parents ''nor'' grandparents attended. The results revealed that, the more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation. Specifically, First Nations adults with two previous generations who attended residential school displayed significantly higher risk for suicide ideation and attempts compared to those who only had one generation of attendance, both of which exceeded the risk among those with no familial history of residential school attendance. Although more research would be necessary for stronger evidence, these findings provide preliminary support for the cumulative nature of residential school trauma across generations.<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610026Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T05:13:45Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors in Adulthood ===<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610024Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T05:12:46Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors ===<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610023Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T05:09:52Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors ===<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610021Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T05:09:11Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
== Intergenerational Consequences ==<br />
=== Replication of Childhood Adversity ===<br />
=== Increased Reactivity to Stressors ===<br />
=== Mental Health Outcomes ===<br />
In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=610006Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-31T04:39:53Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.<br />
<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
=== Intergenerational Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
In a national survey, First Nations adults reported that their parents’ attendance at IRS negatively affected the quality of parenting they received as children. In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609808Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T09:45:21Z<p>SeulgiKim: /* Lack of Appropriate Parenting Role Model */</p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Role Model for Parenting ===<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
=== Intergenerational Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
In a national survey, First Nations adults reported that their parents’ attendance at IRS negatively affected the quality of parenting they received as children. In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609807Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T09:44:36Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Parenting Role Model ===<br />
The practice of separating children from their parents under the assimilation policy is largely responsible for the development of inappropriate parenting behaviors among residential school survivors. In fact, three generations of ripping apart Indigenous families have severely undermined the role of kinship networks, interrupting with intergenerational transmission of parenting knowledge and behavior. As the sociocultural model suggests, children learn from their immediate environment and from the people who directly contribute to their development. Residential school survivors, whose immediate childhood environment has been shaped by abuse and neglect instead of warm parental care, often fail to deliver adequate parenting to their own children, due to the lack of appropriate role model for good parenting.<br />
<br />
=== Intergenerational Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
In a national survey, First Nations adults reported that their parents’ attendance at IRS negatively affected the quality of parenting they received as children. In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609796Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T08:04:45Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Lack of Appropriate Parenting Role Model ===<br />
=== Intergenerational Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
In a national survey, First Nations adults reported that their parents’ attendance at IRS negatively affected the quality of parenting they received as children. In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609795Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T07:26:58Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Contributing Factors to Development of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
=== Intergenerational Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
In a national survey, First Nations adults reported that their parents’ attendance at IRS negatively affected the quality of parenting they received as children. In fact, those children who received neglectful care from their parents who attended residential school were more likely to report lower self-perceived mental health and a higher risk of depression and suicidal behaviors. For instance, data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed that 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compared to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609794Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T07:02:13Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Contributing Factors to Development of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
=== Intergenerational Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
Familial residential school attendance has been associated with lower self- perceived mental health and a higher risk of distress and suicidal behaviors.<br />
<br />
Data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed the 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compare to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609793Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T06:59:39Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Contributing Factors to Development of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
=== Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
Familial residential school attendance has been associated with lower self- perceived mental health and a higher risk of distress and suicidal behaviors.<br />
<br />
Data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed the 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compare to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
=== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ===<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609792Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T06:58:43Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
=== Contributing Factors to Development of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
=== Consequences of Negative Parenting Behaviors ===<br />
Familial residential school attendance has been associated with lower self- perceived mental health and a higher risk of distress and suicidal behaviors.<br />
<br />
Data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed the 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compare to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ==<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKimhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Intergenerational_Impact_of_Residential_School_Attendance:_Implication_for_Mental_and_Emotional_Well-Being_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Canada&diff=609791Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada2020-07-30T06:53:56Z<p>SeulgiKim: </p>
<hr />
<div>__TOC__<br />
<br />
<br />
== The Residential School System in Canada ==<br />
The residential school system in Canada, which ran from 1863 to 1996, was established for the purpose of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant Canadian culture. <ref>Corntassel, Jeff, and Cindy Holder. “Who’s Sorry Now? Government Apologies, Truth Commissions, and Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, Canada, Guatemala, and Peru.” ''Human Rights Review,'' vol. 9, no. 4, 2008, pp. 465-489.</ref>Under this policy, more than 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were removed from their homeland and forced to attend church-run boarding schools. Upon attendance, children were forced to unlearn their native languages, cultural traditions and spiritual beliefs, and replace them with English language and Christian values. In addition to such cultural eradication, children were exposed to significant physical, psychological and sexual abuse. Moreover, as many residential schools were severely underfunded, malnutrition and poor living conditions led to various negative health outcomes and disease-related deaths among children. Even today, the lasting impacts of residential school policy continue to negatively affect the physical and mental well-beings of the survivors, as well as their offspring.<br />
<br />
== Sociocultural Perspective: Transmission of Trauma Through Negative Parenting Behaviors ==<br />
While many theories exist on intergenerational effect of residential school trauma, the sociocultural perspective views ''negative parenting behaviors'' as a major factor that contributes to the transmission of psychological disturbances among the children of residential school survivors.{{Quotation |“If you subject one generation to that kind of parenting and they become adults and have children; those children become subjected to that treatment and then you subject a third generation to a residential school system the same as the first two generations. You have a whole society affected by isolation, loneliness, sadness, anger, hopelessness and pain.”}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Familial residential school attendance has been associated with lower self- perceived mental health and a higher risk of distress and suicidal behaviors.<br />
<br />
Data from First Nations Regional Health Survey (2002-2003) revealed the 37.2% of adults who had at least one parent who attended residential school thought about committing suicide in their lifetime, compared to 25.7% of those whose parents did not attend. Moreover, 20.4% of adults who had at least one grandparent who attended residential school had attempted suicide, compare to 13.1% of those whose grandparents did not attend.<br />
<br />
== Accumulation of Risk Across Generations ==<br />
== Implication ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>SeulgiKim