https://wiki.ubc.ca/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=ASHALIKATARIA&feedformat=atomUBC Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T15:27:25ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.6https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610619GRSJ2242020-08-01T06:03:18Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
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*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples| Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610615GRSJ2242020-08-01T06:01:45Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples| Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610611GRSJ2242020-08-01T05:59:29Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples| Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US]<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610610GRSJ2242020-08-01T05:56:48Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples| Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610607GRSJ2242020-08-01T05:55:31Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance: Implication for Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples| Disparate Postcolonial Access to Healthcare among Canada’s Indigenous Peoples]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_The_United_States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US&diff=610604GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US2020-08-01T05:52:41Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref>. Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” <ref name=":0" />. Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref>.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref>. Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics.<ref name=":1" /> Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Van Ryn|first=Michelle|date=2002|title=Research on the Provider Contribution to Race/Ethnicity Disparities in Medical Care|url=http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3767871|journal=Medical Care|volume=40|issue=1|pages=I140–I151|via=JSTOR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients<ref name=":1" />, that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race)<ref name=":0" />. The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom<ref name=":1" />. Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Finucane|first=Thomas E|last2=Carrese|first2=Joseph A|date=1990|title=Racial Bias in Presentation of Cases|url=|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|volume=5|issue=2|pages=120-121|doi=10.1007/bf02600511|via=}}</ref> Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others"<ref name=":1" />.Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Moskowitz|first=Gordon B|date=2012|title=Implicit Stereotyping and Medical Decisions: Unconscious Stereotype Activation in Practitioners' Thoughts About African Americans|url=|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=996–1001|doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300591|via=}}</ref> However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dovidio|first=John F|date=2001|title=On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave|url=|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=57|issue=4|pages=829–849|doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00244|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes.<ref name=":0" /> In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use.<ref name=":3" /> Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work."<ref name=":2" />These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy.<ref name=":2" /> Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial&diff=610592GRSJ224/Racial2020-08-01T05:41:15Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page GRSJ224/Racial to GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US&diff=610591GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US2020-08-01T05:41:15Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page GRSJ224/Racial to GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref>. Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” <ref name=":0" />. Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref>.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref>. Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=UBC_Wiki:GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610590UBC Wiki:GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T05:39:29Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page UBC Wiki:GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States to GRSJ224/Racial over redirect</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[GRSJ224/Racial]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US&diff=610589GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US2020-08-01T05:39:28Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page UBC Wiki:GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States to GRSJ224/Racial over redirect</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref>. Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” <ref name=":0" />. Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref>.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref>. Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US&diff=610586GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US2020-08-01T05:36:58Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page GRSJ224/Racial to UBC Wiki:GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref>. Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” <ref name=":0" />. Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref>.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref>. Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US&diff=610584GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US2020-08-01T05:35:34Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: Removed redirect to GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref>. Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” <ref name=":0" />. Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref>.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref>. Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Discrimination_and_Racial_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_US&diff=610583GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in US2020-08-01T05:34:43Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page GRSJ224/Racial to GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610582GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T05:34:42Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: ASHALIKATARIA moved page GRSJ224/Racial to GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States</p>
<hr />
<div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States}}<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious.<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref> Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref><br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making”. <ref name=":0" /> Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref><br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref> Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics.<ref name=":1" /> Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Van Ryn|first=Michelle|date=2002|title=Research on the Provider Contribution to Race/Ethnicity Disparities in Medical Care|url=http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3767871|journal=Medical Care|volume=40|issue=1|pages=I140–I151|via=JSTOR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients<ref name=":0" />, that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race).<ref name=":0" /> The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom.<ref name=":1" /> Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Finucane|first=Thomas E|last2=Carrese|first2=Joseph|date=1990|title=Racial Bias in Presentation of Cases|url=|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|volume=5|issue=2|pages=120–121|doi=10.1007/bf02600511|via=}}</ref> Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others".<ref name=":1" />Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement).<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Moskowitz|first=Gordon B|date=2012|title=Implicit Stereotyping and Medical Decisions: Unconscious Stereotype Activation in Practitioners' Thoughts About African Americans|url=|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=996–1001|doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300591|via=}}</ref> However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dovidio|first=John F|date=2001|title=On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave|url=|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=57|issue=4|pages=829–849|doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00244|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes.<ref name=":0" /> In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use.<ref name=":3" />Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work".<ref name=":0" /> These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy.<ref name=":2" /> Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610580GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T05:32:49Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: title of article</p>
<hr />
<div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States}}<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious.<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref> Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref><br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making”. <ref name=":0" /> Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref><br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref> Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics.<ref name=":1" /> Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Van Ryn|first=Michelle|date=2002|title=Research on the Provider Contribution to Race/Ethnicity Disparities in Medical Care|url=http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3767871|journal=Medical Care|volume=40|issue=1|pages=I140–I151|via=JSTOR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients<ref name=":0" />, that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race).<ref name=":0" /> The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom.<ref name=":1" /> Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Finucane|first=Thomas E|last2=Carrese|first2=Joseph|date=1990|title=Racial Bias in Presentation of Cases|url=|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|volume=5|issue=2|pages=120–121|doi=10.1007/bf02600511|via=}}</ref> Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others".<ref name=":1" />Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement).<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Moskowitz|first=Gordon B|date=2012|title=Implicit Stereotyping and Medical Decisions: Unconscious Stereotype Activation in Practitioners' Thoughts About African Americans|url=|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=996–1001|doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300591|via=}}</ref> However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dovidio|first=John F|date=2001|title=On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave|url=|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=57|issue=4|pages=829–849|doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00244|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes.<ref name=":0" /> In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use.<ref name=":3" />Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work".<ref name=":0" /> These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy.<ref name=":2" /> Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610557GRSJ2242020-08-01T05:10:35Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
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| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
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*<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
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|}<br />
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===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610556GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T05:07:03Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious.<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref> Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref><br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making”. <ref name=":0" /> Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref><br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref> Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics.<ref name=":1" /> Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Van Ryn|first=Michelle|date=2002|title=Research on the Provider Contribution to Race/Ethnicity Disparities in Medical Care|url=http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3767871|journal=Medical Care|volume=40|issue=1|pages=I140–I151|via=JSTOR}}</ref><br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients<ref name=":0" />, that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race).<ref name=":0" /> The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom.<ref name=":1" /> Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Finucane|first=Thomas E|last2=Carrese|first2=Joseph|date=1990|title=Racial Bias in Presentation of Cases|url=|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine|volume=5|issue=2|pages=120–121|doi=10.1007/bf02600511|via=}}</ref> Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others".<ref name=":1" />Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement).<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Moskowitz|first=Gordon B|date=2012|title=Implicit Stereotyping and Medical Decisions: Unconscious Stereotype Activation in Practitioners' Thoughts About African Americans|url=|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=996–1001|doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300591|via=}}</ref> However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dovidio|first=John F|date=2001|title=On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave|url=|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=57|issue=4|pages=829–849|doi=10.1111/0022-4537.00244|via=}}</ref><br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes.<ref name=":0" /> In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use.<ref name=":3" />Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work".<ref name=":0" /> These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy.<ref name=":2" /> Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610550GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:47:53Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Racial Health Disparities in the United States */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref name=":0">Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, Institute of Medicine. 2003. ''Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care''. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10260/chapter/5#129 doi: 10.17226/10260].</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes. U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hall, William J|first=|date=2015|title=Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302903|journal=American journal of public health|volume=105,12|pages=60-76|via=}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=August 3, 2011|title=National Healthcare Disparities Report|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr05/fullreport/Index.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality}}</ref>. Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shavers, Vickie L|first=|date=2012|title=The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care.|url=https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|journal=American journal of public health|volume=102|issue=5|pages=953-66|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300773|via=Alphapublications}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” <ref name=":0" />. Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Balsa|first=A|last2=Mcguire|first2=TG|date=2001a|title=Prejudice, Uncerrtainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities|url=http://rwj.harvard.edu/papers/mcguire.pdf|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=22|pages=89–116|via=Boston University}}</ref>.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour. <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayotte|first=Brian J|last2=Kressin|first2=Nancy R|date=2010|title=Race differences in cardiac catheterization: the role of social contextual variables|url=|journal=Journal of general internal medicine|volume=25|issue=8|pages=814-8|doi=10.1007/s11606-010-1324-y|via=}}</ref>. Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610536GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:27:37Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Racial Health Disparities in the United States */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref>{{|title=Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care|last=Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR|first=|publisher=Institute of Medicine|year=2003|isbn=|location=Washington, DC|pages=4}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care.<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610531GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:23:42Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref>{{Cite book|title=Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care|last=Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR|first=|publisher=Institute of Medicine|year=2003|isbn=|location=Washington, DC|pages=4}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /></div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610530GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:23:00Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref>{{Cite book|title=Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care|last=Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR|first=|publisher=Institute of Medicine|year=2003|isbn=|location=Washington, DC|pages=4}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.<br />
<br />
== References ==</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610527GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:22:28Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious<ref>{{Cite book|title=Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care|last=Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR|first=|publisher=Institute of Medicine|year=2003|isbn=|location=Washington, DC|pages=4}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610524GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:17:18Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious.<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610522GRSJ2242020-08-01T04:15:47Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610520GRSJ2242020-08-01T04:13:53Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Discrimination and Racial Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
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* <br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/The Rescue Home and the Bawdy House]] <br />
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<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610518GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:11:23Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* 'Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare' */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
=== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ===<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610517GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:09:36Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
== ''''''Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare'''''' ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610516GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:08:14Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610515GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:06:46Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Healthcare Provider Mechanisms */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
* Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
* Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane. Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. <br />
<br />
According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B). Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610512GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:05:34Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Clinical Uncertainty */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
<br />
<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610510GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:05:15Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/PrejudiceBold text */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610509GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:04:55Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Clinical Uncertainty ====<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice'''Bold text''' ====<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610508GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:03:31Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Racial Health Disparities in the United States */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
<nowiki>===</nowiki> '''Clinical Uncertainty''' ===<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice'''<nowiki> ==</nowiki><br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610506GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:02:02Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
== '''Healthcare Provider Mechanisms''' ==<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
<nowiki>===</nowiki> '''Clinical Uncertainty''' ===<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ==='''Bold text'''<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610505GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:01:20Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Healthcare Provider Mechanisms ==='''Bold text'''<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
<nowiki>===</nowiki> '''Clinical Uncertainty''' ===<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ==='''Bold text'''<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610504GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T04:00:11Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001). Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
<nowiki>===</nowiki> '''Clinical Uncertainty''' ===<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ==='''Bold text'''<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610501GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T03:58:25Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Provider Contribution to Race Disparities in Healthcare ==<br />
<br />
The IOM report Unequal Treatment written by Smedley et al. reviews the disparities literature and determines that an important contributor to racial disparities in health status is healthcare provider attitudes and behaviour (Smedley) <br />
<br />
Research suggests that healthcare providers' diagnostics, and decision-making on treatment, as well as their feelings about the patients, are influenced by a patient's race. In one such study, results showed that doctors referred white male, female and African American male patients for cardiac catheterization 91% of the time, but only 79%; significantly less likely to recommend catheterization procedures for who exhibited the same symptoms(Ayotte, Brian J,) Differences remained significant even after controlling for symptoms, physicians' estimates of the probability of the coronary disease and patient's clinical characteristics ( Balsa and Mcgurie 2001)<br />
<br />
Further evidence for a provider contribution to race inequities include disparities in access to kidney transplant, access to cardiac procedures, psychiatric care, and pain control (van Ryn)<br />
<br />
Clinical encounters can explain one view of the origin of healthcare disparities with healthcare providers; physicians' attitudes, expectations and behaviours towards minority patients during physician-patient interaction. When such encounters systematically produce racial disparities, it can lead to discrimination. Here, the focus is on disparities that originate from physician's behaviour, including and demand-side reaction from them. (Balsa and Mcguir, 2001).<br />
<br />
<br />
The 2 mechanisms that operate in healthcare disparities from the healthcare provider's side are:<br />
<br />
Clinical Uncertainty during provider-patient interaction<br />
Stereotypes and Bias/Prejudice held by the provider about behaviour of health minorities<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Clinical Uncertainty ==='''Bold text'''<br />
A source of healthcare disparities is the presence of greater uncertainty in interpreting symptoms of the disease for minority patients (Balsa and Mcguire, 2001), that is, the doctor's decision-making process is rooted in uncertainty. Any degree of uncertainty a physician may have about a patient can contribute to disparities in treatment. <br />
<br />
Upon meeting the patient and learning about their condition, doctors decide on what is likely to cause the problem and what actions to take to improve the patients' health based on signals or symptoms observe. They do so by depending on inferences about the severity based on what they can observe about the condition and on what else they can see about the patient (e.g., race) (Smedley). The physician is therefore perceived as operating with prior beliefs about the likelihood of the patient's condition, "priors" that will be different according to socioeconomic status, ages, and race or ethnicity. When these priors are considered alongside the data gained in a clinical encounter, both influence medical decisions.<br />
<br />
If a physician has difficulty interpreting the symptoms of the patient's illness, there is greater uncertainty. The higher the uncertainty, the more weight is placed on the prior and less weight on the signal or symptom (Balsa and Mcguire, prejudice). Consequently, information gained influences medical decisions and thus recommended treatment.<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Nature of Stereotypes (Beliefs) and Healthcare Provider Biases/Prejudice ==='''Bold text'''<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence suggests that physicians hold stereotypes based on patient characteristics (e.g. race), which may influence their interpretation of patient behaviours and symptoms, and consequently their clinical decisions(Finucane)<br />
<br />
Multiple studies in psychology have explored how stereotypes evolve, persist and affect interpersonal interactions between the physicians and patients. According to psychologists, stereotyping refers to "the process by which people use social categories (e.g. race, gender) in acquiring, processing, and recalling information about others" (Balsa A, Mcguire TG. (2001a).<br />
<br />
Generally, in healthcare, the beliefs (stereotypes) and attitudes that physicians hold aid them in processing information and simplifying complex health-relevant situations to facilitate accurate judgement. ( Moskowitz, Gordon B)) However, although stereotypes are functional, stereotypes and attitudes tend to be systematically biased. These biases may exist in overt, explicit forms but due to social categorization, subtle and unintentional biases may also exist, often unconsciously, among people with egalitarian attitudes and who genuinely believe that they are not prejudiced( Dovido Gaertner)<br />
<br />
<br />
Empirical evidence shows that in the US, because of shared socialization influences, even well-meaning White people who are not overtly biased typically display unconscious, implicit negative racial attitudes ( Smedley BD). In the Moskowitz et al. (2012) study, results showed that when primed with an African American face, doctors reacted more quickly for stereotypical diseases, indicating an implicit association of certain diseases with African Americans. These included diseases that African Americans are generally predisposed to such as hypertension and sickle cell anaemia as well as conditions and social behaviours with no biological association including obesity and drug use(Moskowitz, Gordon B)<br />
<br />
Similarly, there are situations when physicians "may be especially vulnerable to the use of stereotypes in forming impressions of patients since time pressure, brief encounters, and the need to manage very complex tasks are common characteristics of their work." These conditions of time pressure and resource constraints are likely to produce negative results due to lack of information, to stereotypes and, to biases. <br />
<br />
A study conducted by van Ryn and Burje (2000) based on clinical encounters, found that physicians believe blacks are more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol, less likely to comply with medical advice/treatment, and less likely to participate in rehabilitation therapy (van Ryn). Holding such beliefs can result in doctors to be less likely to recommend treatments to blacks, or less likely to put effort into discerning the nature of the black patient's problems if the patients is not taking care of herself/himself.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610498GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T03:54:59Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* Racial Health Disparities in the United States */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610497GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T03:54:07Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers)<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224/Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_Faced_By_African_American_Patients_By_Healthcare_Providers_in_the_United_States&diff=610496GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States2020-08-01T03:52:29Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: Created page with "== Overview == In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are contr..."</p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers).<br />
<br />
According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610495GRSJ2242020-08-01T03:50:43Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610493GRSJ2242020-08-01T03:50:04Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States|Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610492GRSJ2242020-08-01T03:49:00Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States|Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610490GRSJ2242020-08-01T03:47:53Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada: Mohawk/Kanien’kehá:ka Nation]] <br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]]<br />
<br />
[[Cultural Appropriation of Indigenous Arts in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration of Asian North Americans and Settler Colonialism]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[[Health disparities between the Natives and non-Natives in Canada and the COVID-19]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[[ https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States]]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=User:ASHALIKATARIA&diff=610489User:ASHALIKATARIA2020-08-01T03:43:41Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: title</p>
<hr />
<div>Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities Faced By African American Patients By Healthcare Providers in the United States</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Racial_Discrimination_and_Health_Disparities_against_African-Amrican_patients_by_healthcare_providers&diff=610485Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities against African-Amrican patients by healthcare providers2020-08-01T03:40:22Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: Created page with " == Overview == In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are con..."</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
In the United States, African Americans tend to receive lower quality of healthcare than non-minorities even when factors such as income and insurance are controlled. These disparities are linked to the historic segregation and discrimination this minority subgroup has faced and continues to face. Research suggests that racial differences in access to care, receipt of medical care and access to treatments may be the result of healthcare providers bias- conscious or unconscious (Smedely)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Racial Health Disparities in the United States ==<br />
Racial minorities, especially African-Americans, face disparities in access to health care, the quality of care received and health outcomes (Hall, William J et al.) U.S. racial disparities against African Americans are a consequence of multiple factors including the disproportionate prevalence of low socioeconomic status, less healthy lifestyles, resource-poor neighbourhood environments, and more inadequate access to care (Shavers) According to the National Healthcare Disparities Report, White patients receive better quality of care than African Americans who also face more barriers to accessing care including preventive services, acute treatment and chronic disease management (Agency). Compared to all other U.S. major racial groups, African Americans also have the highest rates of morbidity and mortality for almost all diseases and decreased life expectancy (Sahvers).<br />
<br />
<br />
Differences in healthcare occur in the context of greater historic and contemporary social inequality and persistent racial discrimination in the U.S. (smedley). According to Smedley et al. (2002), discrimination is defined as “biases, prejudices, stereotyping, and uncertainty in clinical communication and decision-making” (smedley). Although covert discrimination towards African Americans has diminished, subtle forms of discrimination and bias have been linked to racial disparities in health outcomes. Racial disparities occur when healthcare providers produce discriminatory patterns of behaviour towards minority (African American) patients during a clinical encounter. These include clinical uncertainty when interacting with the patient and stereotypes and bias/prejudice held about the health of the patients. Consequently, these mechanisms lead to racial health disparities, via processes of clinical decision-making.</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=610424GRSJ2242020-08-01T02:10:32Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Electoral_Participation_of_the_Canadian_Indigenous_Population?veaction=edit Electoral Participation of the Canadian Indigenous Population] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Urban Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Mental and Emotional Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada]] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Historical Treatmet of Aboriginal Women]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Space for Aborignal Women in the DTES]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>[[The Globalization of Diasporic Asian Youth Culture: A Study of Music]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada|Employment Discrimination Against Skilled Immigrants in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Immigration pattern in COVID 19 pandemic in the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity|Intersectionality of Immigration and Gender Identity in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Maltreatments_of_Canadian_government_towards_the_Indigenous_community_in_COVID-19_pandemic Maltreatments of the Canadian government towards the Indigenous community in COVID-19 pandemic]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Racism Under the COVID-19 Pandemic|Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Police Unions: Shielding Police Misconduct, Brutality & Discrimination Against Minorities]]<br />
<br />
[[ Racial Health Disparities faced by African-Amrican patients by healthcare providers in the United States]]<br />
<br />
Exploring the intersection of disability and queerness [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disability?venotify=created]<br />
<br />
[[How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting Behaviours|How Discrimination towards Asian Skilled Immigrants under Canadian Workplace Affect Parenting behaviours]]<br />
<br />
[[Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Imperial Japanese Army Rule|Mistreatment of Comfort Women Under Japanese Imperial Army Rule]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Disproportionately_High_Rates_of_Maternal_Complications_and_Mortality_Among_Black_Women_in_the_United_States Disproportionately High Rates of Maternal Complications and Mortality Among Black Women in the United States]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Femicide_in_Latin_America Femicide in Latin America]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Gross_Over-Representation_of_First_Nations_%26_Black_Canadian_Men_in_Canadian_Prisons|Gross Over-Representation of First Nations Black Canadian Men in Canadian Prisons]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racialization_of_Fox_Eye_Trend Racialization of Fox Eye Trend]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Indigenous Student’s Right to Education#1.2. Appears of Residential Schools in the 1800s to 1900s|Indigenous Student's Right to Education]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Hyper-masculinityInAdvertisement?veswitched=1&veaction=edit&oldid=0 Hyper-Masculinity in Advertisement: Effects on Mental Health]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/hazingandmasculinity Hazing and Masculinity]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Masculinities in One-Armed Swordsman (1967)]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Masculinity_Representation_of_Asian_Men_in_Hollywood_Comedy_Since_2000s Masculinity Representation of Asian Men in Hollywood Comedy Since 2000s]<br />
<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofchildbirth#Medicalization of Childbirth|Medicalization of Childbirth]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada|Legalization of Medical Marijuana in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/ADHD ADHD]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ 224: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine|Racial and Ethnic Differences in Modern Medicine]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">[[GRSJ224/Family formation and environments in LGBT communities|LGBT Families]]</span></h2>[http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_Acceptance_and_Definitions_of_Family_in_LGBT_Communities Family Acceptance and Definitions of Family in LGBT Communities] <br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/transparents|Transgender Parents]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/pro-natalist_policies_in_South_Korea Pro-natalist policies in South Korea]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#Overview The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities among HIV Positive Women in sub- Saharan Africa]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/shoutyourabortion #ShoutYourAbortion: An End to Abortion Stigma]<br />
<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Graphic_Medicine_and_Autopathography|Graphic Medicine and Autopathography]]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/WISH WISH Learning Centre]<br />
<br />
[[The Gender Wage Gap in Engineering in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[The Effect of Stereotypes on Female Exit Rates in Computer Science Within the United States]]<br />
<br />
[[The Influence of French Feminism on Contemporary Feminist Literary Criticism]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=609312GRSJ2242020-07-28T01:42:01Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Lifetime Impact of Residential School Attendance on Indigenous Health Status|Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Indigenous Health Status in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>The Transnational Asian-Immigrant Youth Culture<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Maltreatments_of_Canadian_government_towards_the_Indigenous_community_in_COVID-19_pandemic Maltreatments of the Canadian government towards the Indigenous community in COVID-19 pandemic]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
[[Racial Discrimination and Health Disparities against African-Amrican patients by healthcare providers]]<br />
<br />
Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racism_Under_the_COVID-19_Pandemic Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[[Representation of Masculinity in Hong Kong Cinema]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofchildbirth#Medicalization of Childbirth|Medicalization of Chidlbirth]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">LGBT Families</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_formation_and_environments_in_LGBT_communities Family formation and environments in LGBT communities]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[Pro-natalist Policies in South Korea]]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Page+Intro&title=The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_Developing_Countries&create=Create+page The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities Among HIV Positive Women in Developing Countries]<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Feminist_nonfiction_graphic_novels#Overview Feminist Nonfiction Graphic Novels]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=609310GRSJ2242020-07-28T01:20:13Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: </p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Lifetime Impact of Residential School Attendance on Indigenous Health Status|Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Indigenous Health Status in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>The Transnational Asian-Immigrant Youth Culture<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Maltreatments_of_Canadian_government_towards_the_Indigenous_community_in_COVID-19_pandemic Maltreatments of the Canadian government towards the Indigenous community in COVID-19 pandemic]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racism_Under_the_COVID-19_Pandemic Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[[Representation of Masculinity in Hong Kong Cinema]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofchildbirth#Medicalization of Childbirth|Medicalization of Chidlbirth]]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">LGBT Families</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_formation_and_environments_in_LGBT_communities Family formation and environments in LGBT communities]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[Pro-natalist Policies in South Korea]]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Page+Intro&title=The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_Developing_Countries&create=Create+page The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities Among HIV Positive Women in Developing Countries]<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Feminist_nonfiction_graphic_novels#Overview Feminist Nonfiction Graphic Novels]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIAhttps://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=GRSJ224&diff=609309GRSJ2242020-07-28T01:14:46Z<p>ASHALIKATARIA: /* TABLE OF CONTENTS */</p>
<hr />
<div>This '''Wikispace''' is a peer-produced shared resource that will evolve as students post content relating to GRSJ224. You are responsible for creating dynamic and informative wiki pages. As you add and update information throughout the semester, originality, resourcefulness, and creativity is encouraged. The wiki will be sustained for successive semesters so that the work you contribute will be available to future students.<br />
<br />
=== ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION ===<br />
<br />
To download and view full details of the assignment, click [https://canvas.ubc.ca/files/4963443/download?download_frd=1 here].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_preparation.gif || <br />
* Read: [https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/2005/7/eli7004-pdf.pdf 7 Things you should know about Wikis]<br />
* Choose a term from the table of contents<br />
* Confirm your selection of topic with your instructor by the '''SECOND WEEK OF CLASSES'''<br />
* Set up your wiki page.<br />
* Instructions on how to use the Visual Editor on UBC Wikis: [https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Visual_Editor Help:Visual Editor]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_finalizing.png ||<br />
* Continue to work towards improving and finalizing your Wiki.<br />
* Consider the wiki as a whole and the usefulness of adding images and links.<br />
* Check your Talk page to see if your peers provided you with any useful feedback<br />
* Ensure your Wiki is properly cited<br />
* Proofread your Wiki<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_research.gif || <br />
* Gather resources in relevance of your discoveries to class materials.<br />
* Familiarize yourself with the wiki-authoring tools of [[GRSJ224/wikibasics|Wiki Basics]]<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_submit.gif ||<br />
* Submit "Wikipedia Report" to your instructor in Connect<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| https://connect.ubc.ca/bbcswebdav/courses/WS.UBC.FL.GRSJ.224.COURSECONTENT.2014S/Files%20for%20UBC%20Wiki/wiki_drafting.gif || <br />
* Read: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia's guide to Writing Better Articles]<br />
* Write content relevant to class material.<br />
* Tailor your page to your audience.<br />
* Check out your peers’ draft Wikis below and provide feedback using the [http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Talk_pages Talk pages]<br />
* The intellectual rules of property DO apply: provide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink links], not [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism plagiarisms].<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Helpful Links:'''<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d2u58vo0/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_kmj3r79h Embed an Image]<br />
* [https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/racialdiscrimination Embed a Video]<br />
* [https://admin.video.ubc.ca/index.php/kwidget/wid/0_d478y7sn/uiconf_id/11170637/entry_id/0_sg3scx28 Link to an external website]<br />
<br />
=== TABLE OF CONTENTS ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" width="100%" style="background:aliceblue; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color: #AEDCF6;" border="1" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+<br />
|- <br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Democracy</span></h2>[[Jury Nullification and Black Communities in the US]]<br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Neoliberalism</span></h2>[[The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender Inequality|The Impact of Neoliberalism in Latin American Gender inequality.]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Post-coloniality</span></h2>[[Cultural Appreciation of Contemporary Indigenous Music in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Indigenous Language Revitalization in Canada]]<br />
<br />
[[Lifetime Impact of Residential School Attendance on Indigenous Health Status|Intergenerational Impact of Residential School Attendance on Indigenous Health Status in Canada]] <br />
<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Immigration</span></h2>The Transnational Asian-Immigrant Youth Culture<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/Challenges in healthcare among Asian Immigrants in the United States|Challenges in health care among Asian Immigrants in the United States]]<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Discrimination</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Documentation+Intro&title=the%C2%A0inequalities%C2%A0that_Canadian_female_employees_facing_in_health_care_occupations&create=Create+Documentation+Page The inequalities that Canadian female employees facing in health care occupations]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Maltreatments_of_Canadian_government_towards_the_Indigenous_community_in_COVID-19_pandemic Maltreatments of the Canadian government towards the Indigenous community in COVID-19 pandemic]<br />
<br />
[[Racism and Persecution against Uyghur Muslims in China]]<br />
<br />
Discrimination against Asian People as a result of COVID-19 in Canada<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Racism_Under_the_COVID-19_Pandemic Racism under the COVID-19 Pandemic]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Masculinity</span></h2><br />
[[Representation of Masculinity in Hong Kong Cinema]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/MexicanMachismo Cultural Analysis of Traditional and Contemporary Mexican Masculine Roles]<br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Medicalization</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/UBC_Wiki:The_Problems_with_the_Medicalization_of_Depression_in_Developed_Countries The Problems with the Medicalization of Depression in Developed Countries]<br />
<br />
[[GRSJ224/medicalizationofmenopause#Medicalization of Menopause|Medicalization of Menopause]]<br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">LGBT Families</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Family_formation_and_environments_in_LGBT_communities Family formation and environments in LGBT communities]<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Reproduction</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/disparities_in_abortion_access_in_Canada Disparities in Abortion Access in Canada]<br />
<br />
[[Pro-natalist Policies in South Korea]]<br />
<br />
[[Reproductive Coercion Inflicted on Women]]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?veaction=edit&editintro=Template%3ANew+Page+Intro&title=The_Reproductive_Healthcare_Disparities_Among_HIV_Positive_Women_in_Developing_Countries&create=Create+page The Reproductive Healthcare Disparities Among HIV Positive Women in Developing Countries]<br />
* <br />
* <br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Feminism</span></h2>[https://wiki.ubc.ca/Discrimination_and_unequal_treatment_on_female_in_workplaces_in_Canada#Overview Discrimination and unequal treatment on female in workplaces in Canada]<br />
<br />
[https://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/Feminist_nonfiction_graphic_novels#Overview Feminist Nonfiction Graphic Novels]<br />
<br />
[[Breast Reconstruction Practices Among LGBTQ Women]] <br />
<br />
* <br />
*<br />
<br />
| valign="top" style="padding: 0; margin:0;width:25%" |<br />
<h2 style="margin:0; background:#2B3087; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"><span style="color:white">Rituals</span></h2><br />
* <br />
*<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===ARCHIVE ===<br />
Here is an archive of the Wiki pages created by previous students: [[GRSJ224/archive|Archive of Wiki pages]]</div>ASHALIKATARIA