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Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-12T00:50:27Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet (Accessed from Wikimedia Commons).|left|442x442px]]Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels<ref name=":14" />. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>. These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-12T00:45:53Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet (Accessed from Wikimedia Commons).|left|442x442px]]Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels<ref name=":14" />. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-12T00:44:43Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet (Accessed from UBC Wiki).|left|442x442px]]Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels<ref name=":14" />. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-12T00:28:40Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|442x442px]]Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels<ref name=":14" />. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-12T00:21:54Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|459x459px]]

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />.

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels<ref name=":14" />. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-11T23:59:34Z

SallyJones: /* References */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|459x459px]]

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />.

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-11T23:56:49Z

SallyJones: /* Solutions */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|459x459px]]

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />.

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref name=":7" /> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-11T23:41:36Z

SallyJones: /* Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|459x459px]]

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />.

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. ''Asia Pacific Viewpoint'', 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. ''Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management'', 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). ''How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact?'' Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. ''Brodogradnja'', 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems<ref name=":16" />. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification<ref>Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref> - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. ''Energy Conversion and Management'', 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. ''Applied Energy'', 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-11T23:32:00Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). ''BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|459x459px]]

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2019). ''Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref name=":13" />.

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). ''Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future''. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). ''2019 Clean Futures Plan''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). ''Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate''. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>.These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported<ref name=":13" />.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste[7][8]. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems[9]. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life[10]. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems[8]. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification[11] - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones[12], and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines[13]. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-11T23:19:52Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction[1], much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|459x459px]]

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall[2]. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges[2].

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked[3]. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future[4]. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet[5][6].These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world[4][6].

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported[2].

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste[7][8]. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems[9]. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life[10]. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems[8]. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification[11] - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones[12], and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines[13]. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-11T23:17:19Z

SallyJones: /* Local Solutions: BC Ferries */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more <ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings<ref name=":9" /><ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”<ref name=":18" />.

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the ''Species at Risk Act''<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1</ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries<ref name=":18" />.

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food<ref>“Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"<ref name=":18">Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers<ref>Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886</nowiki></ref>.

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|257x257px]]
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> typically composed of several components:
*'''Sewage:''' A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>, although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Annotated map of coastal British Columbia.png|thumb|286x286px|Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].]]
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to the anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry<ref name=":5" /> - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 was forecast to further increase before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States<ref name=":4" />, though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years <ref name=":19">Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). ''Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations''. Justice Laws Website. <nowiki>https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html</nowiki></ref>. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed<ref name=":19" />.
== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction[1], much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|427x427px]]In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall[2]. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges[2].

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked[3]. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future[4]. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet[5][6].These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world[4][6].

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported[2].

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste[7][8]. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems[9]. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life[10]. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems[8]. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification[11] - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones[12], and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines[13]. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-03-09T03:52:40Z

SallyJones: /* Local and Global Solutions */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref>. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref> negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia<ref name=":8">''Discover our routes: BC Ferries''. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref>. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>.

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets<ref name=":1" />.

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref>. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations<ref>Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). ''Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies''. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies</nowiki></ref><ref>Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). ''Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada''. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/</nowiki></ref>. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Killer Whale populations around Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands<ref name=":8" />, and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-28 at 10.45.36 AM.png|alt=|thumb|390x390px|In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry<ref name=":17">''The Power of Tourism: Destination BC''. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/</nowiki></ref>. ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />.

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19<ref name=":0" />. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down<ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref>. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy<ref name=":17" />, and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>.

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref>. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref>. These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>.

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria<ref name=":9" />. Active Pass is known for orca sightings<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref>. The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref>. Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref>. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref>. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon). The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate; interestingly, the specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref>. In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging<ref name=":12" />. Lack of hunting success has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss, resulting in further inability to catch prey<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>.[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref>. Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change<ref name=":10" />.

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74<ref name=":11" />. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>.

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>".

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska<ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year<ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref>. This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components: [[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|330x330px]]
*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily<ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land<ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms<ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref>. Particulate accumulates on the seafloor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders<ref name=":4" />. High concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds<ref name=":6" />. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to large-scale ecosystem changes and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens<ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day<ref name=":4" />. Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste<ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>.
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations<ref name=":4" />. The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic<ref name=":4" />. Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels<ref name=":6" />. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development<ref name=":6" />.
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours<ref name=":5" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material<ref name=":7" />.
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref>. Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic<ref name=":5" />.
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train<ref name=":5" />. Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters<ref name=":7" />.

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic<ref name=":4" />. Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States<ref name=":4" />. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments<ref name=":7" />.

== Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions: BC Ferries ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|427x427px]]The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment<ref name=":13" />. Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>. These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>.

=== Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>.

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage<ref name=":16" />.

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land<ref name=":16" />. Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-27T21:18:19Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries Routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems, due to their issues with waste expulsion and noise pollution.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems, enforcing the importance of personal responsibility when travelling.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|390x390px|Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to the gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref>, indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon). The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate; interestingly, the specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of hunting success has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss, resulting in further inability to catch prey.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components: [[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|330x330px]]
*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref> Particulate accumulates on the seafloor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":6" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to large-scale ecosystem changes and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":6" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic.<ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":6" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":6" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":5" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage.<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":5" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":5" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":7" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":7" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|427x427px]]The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment<ref name=":13" />. Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref>. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref>. These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />.

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>.

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref>. Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>.

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref>. In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage<ref name=":16" />.

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land<ref name=":16" />. Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref>, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-26T00:54:28Z

SallyJones: /* Local and Global Solutions */

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries Routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems, due to their issues with waste expulsion and noise pollution.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems, enforcing the importance of personal responsibility when travelling.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|390x390px|Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to the gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref>, indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.|455x455px]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon). The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate; interestingly, the specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of hunting success has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss, resulting in further inability to catch prey.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|364x364px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components: [[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|330x330px]]
*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref> Particulate accumulates on the seafloor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":6" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to large-scale ecosystem changes and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":6" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic.<ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":6" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":6" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":5" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage.<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":5" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":5" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":7" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":7" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise,<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref> much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|427x427px]]The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future.<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked,<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref> and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-16T00:35:49Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.21.42 PM.png|thumb|474x474px|Map showing BC Ferries Routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia.]]

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems, due to their issues with waste expulsion and noise pollution.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems, enforcing the importance of personal responsibility when travelling.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|390x390px|Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to the gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref>, indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 4.23.02 PM.png|alt=|thumb|SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Salish Sea is home to many species significant to the Coast Salish Indigenous Nations.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> Today, there are fewer than 80 SRKWs. One major factor for population decline is ship disruptions.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> The noise emitted from ships makes it harder for SRKWs to use echolocation to hunt prey (chinook salmon).<ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> The specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is potentially more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of food availability has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|289x289px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components: [[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.|left|330x330px]]
*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":6">Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''48''(7-8), 624-649. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004</nowiki></ref> Particulate accumulates on the seafloor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":6" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to large-scale ecosystem changes and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":6" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":7">Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), ''Cruise Tourism and Society'' (pp. 47-67). Springer. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent</nowiki></ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic.<ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":6" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":6" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":5" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage.<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":5" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":5" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":7" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":7" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise,<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref> much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems. [[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.|left|405x405px]]The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future.<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked,<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref> and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-10T00:21:57Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|340x340px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|336x336px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:BC ferry at Tsawwassen Terminal - panoramio.jpg|thumb|BC Ferry at Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal—a vessel departure hot spot. Ferries connect passengers to various spots around BC, traveling through SRKW habitat.]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Salish Sea is home to many species significant to the Coast Salish Indigenous Nations.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> Today, there are fewer than 80 SRKWs. One major factor for population decline is ship disruptions.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> The noise emitted from ships makes it harder for SRKWs to use echolocation to hunt prey (chinook salmon).<ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> The specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is potentially more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of food availability has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|289x289px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4">Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). ''Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters''. <nowiki>https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf</nowiki></ref> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4" />, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of potentially pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses may cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":5">Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. ''Journal of Ocean Technology'', ''5''(1), 7-15. <nowiki>https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf</nowiki></ref>[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.]]
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic.<ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":5" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":8" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage.<ref>Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. ''Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences'', ''2717'', xii-87. <nowiki>https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf</nowiki></ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":5" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":5" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
[[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.]]
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise,<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref> much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future.<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked,<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref> and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T23:12:59Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|340x340px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|336x336px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:BC ferry at Tsawwassen Terminal - panoramio.jpg|thumb|BC Ferry at Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal—a vessel departure hot spot. Ferries connect passengers to various spots around BC, traveling through SRKW habitat.]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Salish Sea is home to many species significant to the Coast Salish Indigenous Nations.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> Today, there are fewer than 80 SRKWs. One major factor for population decline is ship disruptions.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> The noise emitted from ships makes it harder for SRKWs to use echolocation to hunt prey (chinook salmon).<ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> The specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is potentially more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of food availability has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|289x289px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of potentially pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses may cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.]]
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":8" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
[[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.]]
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future.<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked,<ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref> and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T22:57:35Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|340x340px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|336x336px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:BC ferry at Tsawwassen Terminal - panoramio.jpg|thumb|BC Ferry at Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal—a vessel departure hot spot. Ferries connect passengers to various spots around BC, traveling through SRKW habitat.]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Salish Sea is home to many species significant to the Coast Salish Indigenous Nations.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> Today, there are fewer than 80 SRKWs. One major factor for population decline is ship disruptions.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> The noise emitted from ships makes it harder for SRKWs to use echolocation to hunt prey (chinook salmon).<ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> The specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is potentially more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of food availability has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|289x289px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of potentially pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses may cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.]]
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":8" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
[[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.]]
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future.<ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked <ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T22:45:09Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|340x340px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|336x336px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:BC ferry at Tsawwassen Terminal - panoramio.jpg|thumb|BC Ferry at Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal—a vessel departure hot spot. Ferries connect passengers to various spots around BC, traveling through SRKW habitat.]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Salish Sea is home to many species significant to the Coast Salish Indigenous Nations.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> Today, there are fewer than 80 SRKWs. One major factor for population decline is ship disruptions.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> The noise emitted from ships makes it harder for SRKWs to use echolocation to hunt prey (chinook salmon).<ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> The specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is potentially more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of food availability has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|289x289px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of potentially pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses may cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.]]
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":8" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
[[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.]]
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked <ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T22:35:59Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|340x340px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|336x336px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
[[File:BC ferry at Tsawwassen Terminal - panoramio.jpg|thumb|BC Ferry at Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal—a vessel departure hot spot. Ferries connect passengers to various spots around BC, traveling through SRKW habitat.]]
One example of a specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries. BC Ferries is an independently owned ferry company that connects the public between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, Haida Gwaii, and more.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map</nowiki></ref> In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips, transporting 21.7 million passengers.<ref>BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020</nowiki>.</ref> These trips disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution.<ref>McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015</nowiki></ref>

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass, connecting Tsawassen to Victoria.<ref name=":9" /> Active Pass is known for orca sightings.<ref>Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass</nowiki></ref> The Salish Sea is also a very ecologically important place; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Salish Sea is home to many species significant to the Coast Salish Indigenous Nations.<ref>“Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html</nowiki></ref> Despite the ecological importance of BC coastal waters, the region experiences damaging high ship traffic.

BC Ferries has a particularly negative and pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act.<ref>“Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699</nowiki></ref> Today, there are fewer than 80 SRKWs. One major factor for population decline is ship disruptions.<ref>Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150</nowiki></ref> The noise emitted from ships makes it harder for SRKWs to use echolocation to hunt prey (chinook salmon).<ref name=":10">WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB</nowiki></ref> The specific frequency of smaller ships (such as ferries) is potentially more harmful to SRKWs than the noise emitted from commercial tankers.<ref name=":12">Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0</nowiki></ref> In 2017, a team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging.<ref name=":12" /> Lack of food availability has resulted in the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies. According to research published by Christine Erbe from Fisheries & Oceans Canada, prolonged and specific boat noise can even cause permanent hearing loss.<ref>Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x</nowiki></ref>[[File:Screen Shot 2022-02-08 at 10.39.38 PM.png|thumb|Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).<ref>Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying</nowiki></ref>|289x289px]]
=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Orcas are culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. Loss of SRKWs also has important ecological impacts. Killer whales are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains.<ref name=":11">EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from <nowiki>https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important</nowiki></ref> Additionally, whales are vessels of carbon sequestration—an important aspect of fighting climate change.<ref name=":10" />

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74.<ref name=":11" /> If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food. To make matters worse, BC Ferries continues to add additional vessels and trips.<ref>Duffy, A. (2019). B.C. ferries doubles Q1 profits with increased sailings, more passengers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/b-c-ferries-doubles-q1-profits-with-increased-sailings-more-passengers</nowiki></ref>

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries increasing sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question”.<ref>Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6</nowiki></ref>

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

*'''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> High concentrations of potentially pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses may cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Greywater:''' The greywater category encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>[[File:Alaskan_cruise_ship.jpg|alt=|thumb|Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters.]]
*'''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes, and bioaccumulate over time as well as increase in concentration through trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development. <ref name=":7" />
*'''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which contains heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material. <ref name=":8" />
*'''Solid garbage and food waste:''' In one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, zones remain where release is legal, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruises produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce particulate air pollution, and smog settling on the ocean surface can acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters remain less precise than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and the previously forecast path, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the cruise industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic natural areas for tourism value simultaneously harms those sensitive environments. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.
[[File:BC Ferry Island Discovery.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|336x336px|The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet.]]
The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked <ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has six diesel-electric hybrid vessels.<ref name=":13">BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref><ref name=":15">BC Ferries. (2021, December). ''Island class ferries 2020''. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also have only two propellers instead of four, producing less noise pollution.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":16">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>
[[File:00 7320 Geirangerfjorden - Cruise ship.jpg|thumb|332x332px|Cruise ship in the Geirangerfjord near Geiranger]]
The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":16" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":16" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T06:02:10Z

SallyJones: added images

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to a place outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours, and often includes local recreational activities and experiences.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|396x396px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

A consequence of the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism is the a wide range of marine ecosystems and regions the industry negatively impacts. The consequences of marine tourism can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems is mainly due to recreational tourist water activities, vessels and infrastructure.<ref name=":1" /> These include cruise ships, the BC Ferries, whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels (cruise ships and the BC Ferries) can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|385x385px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, the tourism industry took a massive hit. British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
·    How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

·    What organisms does it impact?

·    How and why does it impact this organism/s?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
·    What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

·    What is the present status compared to the past?

·    What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

* '''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of harmful pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity which depletes oxygen in the water, and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> Sewage contains high concentrations of bacteria, fungi, and viruses, many of which cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> High concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus may prompt excessive plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Greywater:''' The category of greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, the exhaust from which must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes in metabolism, disrupting integral processes such as those in metabolism and the cell cycle, and bioaccumulate over time, also increasing in concentration as they move up trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development in marine organisms. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other aspects of machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which is filtered before release but may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material from machinery. <ref name=":8" />
* '''Solid garbage and food waste:''' Over the course of one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, there are still zones where release of solid waste is permitted, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruise ships produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce a significant amount of particulate air pollution, and the smog which forms from mixing moisture in the air and smoke can settle on the ocean surface and acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a ban on instituted in May 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters, through increased since the early 2000s, remain less stringent than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and continues on the previously forecast path, the marine ecosystems of British Columbia face increasing levels of disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: cruises pass through scenic natural areas for tourism value, but hasten the decline of those sensitive environments with each passage. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.
[[File:BC Ferry Salish Orca.jpg|left|thumb|336x336px|BC Ferries Vessel, Salish Orca]]
The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked <ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has two hybrid vessels with four more in production.<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also produce less noise pollution.<ref name=":9" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>
[[File:00 7320 Geirangerfjorden - Cruise ship.jpg|thumb|332x332px|Cruise ship in the Geirangerfjord near Geiranger]]
The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":10" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":10" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T05:47:01Z

SallyJones: added citations

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to a place outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours, and often includes local recreational activities and experiences.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|396x396px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

A consequence of the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism is the a wide range of marine ecosystems and regions the industry negatively impacts. The consequences of marine tourism can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems is mainly due to recreational tourist water activities, vessels and infrastructure.<ref name=":1" /> These include cruise ships, the BC Ferries, whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels (cruise ships and the BC Ferries) can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|385x385px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, the tourism industry took a massive hit. British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
·    How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

·    What organisms does it impact?

·    How and why does it impact this organism/s?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
·    What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

·    What is the present status compared to the past?

·    What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

* '''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of harmful pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity which depletes oxygen in the water, and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> Sewage contains high concentrations of bacteria, fungi, and viruses, many of which cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> High concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus may prompt excessive plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Greywater:''' The category of greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, the exhaust from which must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes in metabolism, disrupting integral processes such as those in metabolism and the cell cycle, and bioaccumulate over time, also increasing in concentration as they move up trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development in marine organisms. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other aspects of machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which is filtered before release but may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material from machinery. <ref name=":8" />
* '''Solid garbage and food waste:''' Over the course of one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, there are still zones where release of solid waste is permitted, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruise ships produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce a significant amount of particulate air pollution, and the smog which forms from mixing moisture in the air and smoke can settle on the ocean surface and acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a ban on instituted in May 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters, through increased since the early 2000s, remain less stringent than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and continues on the previously forecast path, the marine ecosystems of British Columbia face increasing levels of disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: cruises pass through scenic natural areas for tourism value, but hasten the decline of those sensitive environments with each passage. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked <ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has two hybrid vessels with four more in production.<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also produce less noise pollution.<ref name=":9" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste.<ref>Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x</nowiki></ref><ref name=":10">Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107</nowiki></ref> Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.<ref>Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/</nowiki></ref>

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard.<ref>Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305</nowiki></ref> In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.<ref name=":10" />

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land.<ref name=":10" /> Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones,<ref>Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166</nowiki></ref> and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.<ref>Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057</nowiki></ref>

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-09T05:39:55Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to a place outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours, and often includes local recreational activities and experiences.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|396x396px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular destination in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve vulnerable to the effects of tourism. ]]
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

A consequence of the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism is the a wide range of marine ecosystems and regions the industry negatively impacts. The consequences of marine tourism can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems is mainly due to recreational tourist water activities, vessels and infrastructure.<ref name=":1" /> These include cruise ships, the BC Ferries, whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels (cruise ships and the BC Ferries) can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|385x385px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019.<ref>Roser, M. (2017, April 24). ''Tourism''. Our World in Data. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from <nowiki>https://ourworldindata.org/tourism</nowiki></ref> ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, the tourism industry took a massive hit. British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
·    How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

·    What organisms does it impact?

·    How and why does it impact this organism/s?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
·    What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

·    What is the present status compared to the past?

·    What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska <ref name=":3" />, which release an estimated 31 billion liters of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution typically has several components:

* '''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of harmful pollutants, in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land. <ref name=":4" /> Organic material in sewage prompts bacterial activity which depletes oxygen in the water, and breaks down proteins to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to many organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> Sewage contains high concentrations of bacteria, fungi, and viruses, many of which cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> High concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus may prompt excessive plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Greywater:''' The category of greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, and kitchens <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, the exhaust from which must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The treatment machines, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm organisms down to the level of cellular processes in metabolism, disrupting integral processes such as those in metabolism and the cell cycle, and bioaccumulate over time, also increasing in concentration as they move up trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development in marine organisms. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other aspects of machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which is filtered before release but may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material from machinery. <ref name=":8" />
* '''Solid garbage and food waste:''' Over the course of one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, there are still zones where release of solid waste is permitted, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruise ships produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce a significant amount of particulate air pollution, and the smog which forms from mixing moisture in the air and smoke can settle on the ocean surface and acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a ban on instituted in May 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters, through increased since the early 2000s, remain less stringent than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and continues on the previously forecast path, the marine ecosystems of British Columbia face increasing levels of disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: cruises pass through scenic natural areas for tourism value, but hasten the decline of those sensitive environments with each passage. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===
Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader for reducing greenhouse gases and underwater noise<ref>BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards</nowiki></ref>, much still remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

The fleet is currently transitioning from ultra-low-sulphur diesel to liquified natural gas (LNG), a less carbon-intensive fuel source with fewer detrimental effects on the environment.<ref name=":9">BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf</nowiki></ref> Improving the type of gas used, however, is an interim solution - and other emission reduction methods, including hybrid solutions, would be more effective. Since infrastructure is not yet in place to allow a full transition to electric power, diesel-battery hybrid ships have been proposed as a transitory step towards a zero emission future. Ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked <ref>Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future</nowiki></ref>, and BC Ferries currently has two hybrid vessels with four more in production.<ref>BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate</nowiki></ref> These ships are not only more efficient than diesel-powered ferries, but also produce less noise pollution.<ref name=":9" />

In recognition of the ways in which noise pollution harms Southern Resident Killer Whales, BC Ferries also plans to build and retrofit vessels with fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges.<ref>BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== Global Solutions ===
Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution worldwide - a significant percentage of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste. Investment in better waste treatment solutions and implementation of cleaner fuel options, however, could help to reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems.

The harmful effects of the wastewater produced by a cruise ship are inversely proportional to the calibre of the treatment system onboard. In building these systems, however, ship designers often prioritise compactness over efficiency. Marine sanitation devices, historically used on large ships, have proven largely ineffective. Even when advanced wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) are present onboard, the ship may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in a greater number of jurisdictions could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for environmental damage.

Transparency regarding solid waste disposal protocols can also encourage consumers to hold the industry accountable for detrimental practices. Many ships dump their solid waste overboard if their itineraries do not include stops at ports, but following public criticism, some cruise lines have committed to responsible disposal of solid waste following return to land. Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall gas pollution from ships - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones, and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

2022-02-07T19:13:41Z

SallyJones:

== What is the problem? ==
Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to a place outside of their regular location near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours, and often includes local recreational activities and experiences.<ref>''World Tourism Organization''. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond</nowiki></ref> It is the largest sector of the tourism industry<ref>Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''129'', 44–48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006</nowiki></ref> and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019<ref>Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). ''Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/</nowiki></ref> and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017.<ref name=":0">''Value of tourism''. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/</nowiki></ref>
[[File:Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia.jpg|border|thumb|396x396px|Figure 1. Long Beach, British Columbia. A popular marine tourist location in the Pacific Rim National Park Reserve. ]]
While the marine tourism industry contributes largely to the economy, it is also responsible for the devastation of marine ecosystems due to destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions.<ref name=":1">Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? ''Ocean & Coastal Management'', ''44''(9-10), 601–618. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0</nowiki></ref>

=== Where does marine tourism occur? ===
Marine tourism is a global industry that is found on the ocean and in coastal regions.

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland.<ref name=":2">''Industry performance''. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/</nowiki></ref> Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour, also contribute to BC's tourism industry as they extends up the coast, ending in Alaska.<ref name=":3">Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). ''Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise''. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/</nowiki></ref>

A consequence of the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism is the a wide range of marine ecosystems and regions the industry negatively impacts. The consequences of marine tourism can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets.<ref name=":1" />

=== What human actions cause tourism to be destructive to marine ecosystems? ===
The marine tourism in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems is mainly due to recreational tourist water activities, vessels and infrastructure.<ref name=":1" /> These include cruise ships, the BC Ferries, whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling, diving.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''47''(1), 26–35. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x</nowiki></ref> While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels (cruise ships and the BC Ferries) can have some of the largest and lasting impacts on marine ecosystems.<ref>Carić, H. (2016). Challenges and prospects of valuation – cruise ship pollution case. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', ''111'', 487–498. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033</nowiki></ref> The behaviour of individual tourists, their respect for the surrounding environment and their willingness to make ecologically responsible visits also has a large impact on the marine ecosystems and larger tourist organizations. Personal responsibility cannot be underestimated when travel decisions and choice of activities are being made.<ref>Zgolli, S., & Zaiem, I. (2018). The responsible behavior of tourist: The role of personnel factors and public power and effect on the choice of destination. ''Arab Economic and Business Journal'', ''13''(2), 168–178. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aebj.2018.09.004</nowiki></ref>
[[File:International-tourist-arrivals-by-world-region.png|thumb|385x385px|Figure 2. Barometer showing the drastic increase in tourist arrivals in different regions of the world from 1950 to 2019. ]]
All of these activities contribute to the following destructive impacts on marine ecosystems cause by humans: noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction.<ref>Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', ''159'', 111450. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450</nowiki></ref><ref name=":1" />

=== How pervasive is marine tourism? ===
In 2020, the tourism industry took a massive hit. British Columbia's tourism GDP dropped by 67.4% as travel restriction were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19.<ref name=":0" /> However, as earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down. <ref>United Nations. (n.d.). ''Population''. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100</nowiki></ref> Travel and tourism contributed 9,170 billion USD to gross domestic product in 2019<ref>Published by Statista Research Department, & 7, O. (2021, October 7). ''Travel and tourism: Contribution to global GDP 2020''. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.statista.com/statistics/233223/travel-and-tourism--total-economic-contribution-worldwide/</nowiki></ref> indicating that destructive economic issues would arise if popular marine tourist attractions and organizations were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

In the future there will be a drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, that will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit.<ref>Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). ''How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution''. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from <nowiki>https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact</nowiki></ref>

== BC Ferries ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
·    How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

·    What organisms does it impact?

·    How and why does it impact this organism/s?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
·    What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

·    What is the present status compared to the past?

·    What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Cruise Ships ==

=== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ===
Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, particularly those en route to Alaska traveling through the Inside Passage along B.C.'s north coast <ref name=":3" />, which produce and release an estimated total of 31 billion litres of wastewater each year. <ref name=":4" /> This enormous amount of marine pollution consists of a number of kinds of waste:

* '''Sewage:''' A cruise ship releases an estimated 32 litres of sewage per person onboard every day <ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Stand.Earth Organization|first=|date=2020, July 14|title=Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship
Pollution in Canada’s West Coast Waters|url=https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>, which, even after treatment, contains elevated levels of numerous harmful pollutants. Sewage wastewater is also diluted by less water during treatment, compared to sewage processed on land <ref name=":4" />. Organic material in sewage prompts increased bacterial activity, which depletes oxygen in the water, and the breakdown of proteins forms hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, toxic to marine organisms. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Islam|first=M.d. Shahidul, et.al.|date=2004 January 17|title=Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X03005459|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=48|pages=624-649|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Particulate may build up on the sea floor, harming benthic life and filter-feeders. <ref name=":4" /> Sewage contains high concentrations of bacteria, fungi, and viruses which may cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds. <ref name=":7" /> High concentrations of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus also may prompt excessive plant and/or algae growth, leading to large-scale changes in ecosystem function and in the case of algal blooms, toxicity to fish and shellfish. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Greywater:''' The category of greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, swimming pools, kitchens, and various cleaning activities <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Caric|first=Hrvoje|date=2012 November 14|title=Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5|journal=Cruise Tourism and Society|volume=|pages=47-67|via=Springer}}</ref>, and for each passenger, a cruise ship releases around 253.6 litres per day. <ref name=":4" /> Greywater may contain many of the same pollutants as sewage, with added risks from increased cleaning products, food particles, and medical product waste. <ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Ross A.|date=2010|title=Greening the Cruise Industry|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf|journal=Journal of Ocean Technology|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>
* '''Scrubber wastewater:''' Cruise ships typically run on combustion of heavy fuel oil, the exhaust from which must be treated to remove sulfur oxides before release per regulations. <ref name=":4" /> The machines used to do so, called scrubbers, generate wastewater which may contain heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in addition to being highly acidic. <ref name=":4" /> Heavy metals can harm marine life down to the cellular level, disrupting integral processes such as those in metabolism and the cell cycle, and bioaccumulate over time, also increasing in concentration as they move up trophic levels. <ref name=":7" /> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development in marine organisms. <ref name=":7" />
* '''Oily bilge water:''' Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other aspects of machinery within cruise ships produce around eight tons of bilge wastewater every 24 hours <ref name=":6" />, which is filtered before release but may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even scraps of metal and other material from machinery. <ref name=":8" />
* '''Solid garbage and food waste:''' Over the course of one week, a cruise ship may produce as much as 50 tons of garbage. <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Johannessen|first=D.I., et.al.|date=2007|title=Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> Although most is held onboard for the duration of the cruise, there are still zones where release of solid waste is permitted, and commonly discharged food waste can be especially problematic. <ref name=":6" />
On a large scale, cruise ships produce carbon emissions - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry, and 36 times more than a passenger train. <ref name=":6" /> Above the surface, ships also produce a significant amount of particulate air pollution, and the smog which forms from mixing moisture in the air and smoke can settle on the ocean surface and acidify shallow waters. <ref name=":8" />

=== What is the extent of the problem? ===
Cruise ship voyages in British Columbia increased steadily through the 2010s, and 2020 numbers had been predicted to increase further before a ban on instituted in May 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.<ref name=":4" /> Regulations in Canadian waters, through increased since the early 2000s, remain less stringent than those put in place by the United States. <ref name=":4" /> If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels and continues on the previously forecast path, the marine ecosystems of British Columbia face increasing levels of disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: cruises pass through scenic natural areas for tourism value, but hasten the decline of those sensitive environments with each passage. <ref name=":8" />

== Local and Global Solutions ==

=== Local Solutions ===

=== Global Solutions ===

== References ==
<references />

User:SallyJones

2022-01-22T04:03:33Z

SallyJones: Created page with "== About Me == Hello! My name is Sally Jones and I am in second year. I am majoring in oceanography and biology. I am taking EOSC270 this semester."

== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Sally Jones and I am in second year. I am majoring in oceanography and biology. I am taking [[Course:EOSC270|EOSC270]] this semester.