UBC Wiki - User contributions [en]

Course:APBI200/Soil in the News

2019-04-03T19:21:14Z

MingyangYuan: /* What do gardens bring to urban ecosystems? */ new section

== Reviewing the New York Times' "A Secret Superpower, Right in Your Backyard" ==

Name: Amy Sigsworth
Student number: 4697501
News source: The New York Times
Title: A Secret Superpower, Right in Your Backyard
Date: March 6, 2018
Author: Kendra Pierre-Louis
URL:https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/06/climate/yard-garden-global-warming.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FSoil&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=5&pgtype=collection

Summary:

A PhD candidate from the University of Wisconsin-Madison (Carly Ziter) is studying the potential for carbon sequestration in soils around Madison, Wisconsin. Samples were taken from 100 different sites including forests, grasslands, and open spaces (i.e. parks, golf courses). Additionally, samples were taken from residential lots which encompasses almost half of Madison. The results of her research, published in the journal Ecological Applications, found that backyard soils have a high potential for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. Ziter has found that these soils can lock in more carbon than grasslands or urban forests. These results may influence urban development by including more green space to counteract emissions produced by erecting large buildings and other urban developments. It also may encourage individuals and home owners to minimize pavement in lieu of grass or greenery.

At first I found the article misleading (i.e. urban lawns sequester more carbon than forests or grasslands). However, towards the end of it, they quote an unrelated researcher (Marco Keiluweit) who points out that not all carbon sequestering power is in the soil. The article does a good job at showing the importance of soil in mitigating emissions while keeping it simple enough to understand. It also mentions that there is a great water storage capacity in forest soils. This is likely due to less impaction and more pores in those soils compared to urban green settings. Overall, I liked this article and thought that it might have a positive impact on current ideas surrounding soil.

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/its-time-to-get-arsenic-and-other-toxic-substances-out-of-baby-food/
|Date=January 4, 2019
|Authors=THE EDITORS
|Summary=
This article shows the correlation between the sources of groundwater, the soil, the food we eat and health related issues.
Arsenic is a metalloid often found in water and in soils. It is released in the environment by natural processes such as weathering and erosion of volcanic rocks and ash but also by human actions. The principal sources of arsenic in Canada are related to industrial emissions in metal refinery facilities and power generating stations (Wang and Mulligan, 2006). Although activities like mining, wood preserving, combustion of coal and use of arsenical pesticides are also important sources of contamination to water and soil.
Once the substance is released in the environment, it becomes available to be absorbed by plants. Currently researches are being conducted to evaluate the risks associated with human exposure to arsenic but it is believed that children are at higher risk not only because of type of food ingested but also because of their smaller body weight. According to Rasheed, Kay, Slack, Gong (2018), the arsenic found in raw rice is unavoidable, but some measures like using low arsenic water on crops and on rice cooking could reduce dietary intake.

}}

== Blowing soil concerning, 'disappointing' for P.E.I. farmers ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-blowing-top-soil-winter-climate-change-1.5014814
|Date= February 11, 2019
|Authors= Laura Meader
|Summary= The article highlights how a lack of snow cover is one of the main factors contributing to the amount of soil being blown from the fields in Prince Edward Island. It is discussed in the article that the early arrival of winter makes it difficult for farmers to preemptively plant cover crops to protect their fields from these harsh conditions and restore soil nutrients. In addition, due to the rapid change in weather, there were cases where the seeded plants did not properly germinate. Overall, the extreme weather is making it more challenging for farmers to prepare for these unpredictable events. However, it is mentioned in the article that extensive research is being conducted on ways to protect the soil and provide further education for farmers and aid them if similar events occur in the future.

This article helped further my understanding of the impact that alterations in the factors of soil formation may have on soils. In particular, this article highlighted how the varying climate heavily impacted farmers growing their crops. The rapid decrease in temperature, lack of snowfall, and windy conditions provided challenges for keeping the soil on the ground and posed as a large problem for farmers. While the lack of snow covering the fields is one of the main reasons for why the soil is being blown from the fields, it can also be an important indicator towards one of the profound impacts that climate change has on our ecosystem services.

}}

== When Earthquakes Liquefy Soil, Devastation Can Follow ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/world/liquefaction-earthquakes.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FSoil&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=1&pgtype=collection
|Date=October 1st, 2018
|Authors=Henry Fountain
|Summary=
The news introduces the definition of liquefaction, some conditions that make the soil become vulnerable to liquefaction during the earthquake and the devastating effects that liquefaction brought to Indonesia. Liquefaction happens when a quake strikes an area with loose moist soil that has been shaken violently, causing the soil behaves like a liquid or suspension with frightening results. Wet and loosely-packed soil, which comprises more sands are more vulnerable to liquefaction. The earthquake makes soil lose strength and stiffness. Consequently, liquefied soil flows like water and loses its ability to support building structures, which is life-threatening to humans in earthquakes.

Liquefaction is related to changing soil physical properties. The earthquake causes significant compaction which would lead to liquefaction. As the water drains out from macropores, the soil porosity decreases and bulk density increases. The original soil structure — for instance, the pore distribution — is completely messed up. As a result, a series of soil physical properties would be altered such as the water and nutrient infiltration and retention, aeration. Additionally, after recovering from the earthquake, the crops which were originally suitable for this soil might not be able to grow well after the earthquake.

}}

== More Data, More Land Reclamation Success ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/more-data-more-land-reclamation-success
|Date= 02/13/19
|Authors= Adityarup “Rup” Chakravorty
|Summary= The article is about returning soil to its original state (or close to) after the previously undisturbed land has had a pipeline placed in it or, land reclamation. The article focuses on the strategy of collecting soil over such a vast distance and using different amounts of lime and fertilizers to restore a healthy pH level overall. With soil pH levels varying within a mile, it was planned to sample every half mile in order for accurate supplements of the soil. This topic relates very closely to our soil chemistry unit and learning about the importance of soil pH with the optimal pH of soils in resulting in nutrient availability for plants. Within the 350 soil samples collected along the pipeline, there was a range of pH from 4.5 to 8.5. Normally, soil pH "goldilocks zone" is within 5.5 to 7. With this information, they decided to change strategies of adding 2 tons of lime per acre of soil to adding almost no lime to half of the pipeline and almost 3 tons per acre along a quarter of the pipeline. Because the team took many samples, they were able to target the optimal pH level for the majority of the soil. This resulted in fast regrowth of plants and restoration of the land to its original state. This article is important to me because I place a lot of value on green-land on Earth's surface and the fact that we as a population mustn't waste the resources at our disposal.

}}

== Soil becomes fertile ground for climate action ==

'''URL:''' https://www.greenbiz.com/article/soil-becomes-fertile-ground-climate-action

'''Date:''' Feb 25, 2019

'''Authors:''' Holly Secon

This article focuses on soil quality and how it relates to sustainability. Fertile soil has been rapidly degrading and agriculture and ranching companies are investing into healthy soil initiatives. Soil is an important part of climate solution since it is a large carbon store, regulates water, filters pollutants, and supports plants. Many companies have been looking into different techniques such as cover cropping, crop rotation, carbon farming, and regenerative grazing to regenerate the degraded lands. Furthermore, increased funding and research projects have been dedicated to this cause. Recently, a standard was set for the measurements of soil health. Since reports are warning of massive impacts of current farming practices, actions must be taken.

This article relates to our APBI 200 course's later topics such as soil degradation and soil fertility. It is important because our food is grown from agriculture, and if the soil is degraded, either more land must be cleared or the land must be restored to continue agricultural practices. This will ultimately affect the climate, and so researching into restoration is the most sustainable solution.

== Farmers in the Midwest Face Decades of Recovery as Flooding Strips Away Crucial Soil ==

URL= https://earther.gizmodo.com/farmers-in-the-midwest-face-decades-of-recovery-as-floo-1833436732

Date= 03/21/2019

Authors= Brian Kahn

The main concern of this article is the extreme erosion of soils in Nebraska following devastating floods. This is a major concern for the state because much of its industry relies on farming which is dependent on the maintenance of nutrient-rich soils that can support plant like for crops like wheat, corn, and soybean. The rich loam soils of the area were washed away by the extent of the flooding and sand was deposited. With some areas receiving as much as 24 inches, some farmers are being advised to abandon the land altogether. This relates to APBI topics because it is about the texture of the soil and how that affects plant life, water retention, and nutrient retention. This affects me because a similar flood happened in Colorado in 2008 and was devastating for the many farmers in my community.

}}

== Study finds Okanagan Lake a ‘surprising source of carbon dioxide’ ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://globalnews.ca/news/4992674/study-finds-okanagan-lake-a-surprising-source-of-carbon-dioxide/
|Date= February 23, 2019
|Authors= Doyle Potenteau
|Summary= This news article reported the founding in the Okanagan Lake of its unexpected storage of carbon dioxide. A study conducted by Melanie Jones shows that the lake’s cool water contains bicarbonates that can be transferred in to soil by irrigation. Carbon dioxide in soil can dissociate and contribute to atmospheric carbon emissions. However, carbon dioxide is essential for plant growth. Plant converts from carbon to plant roots and leaves, then release oxygen to the atmosphere. The bicarbonates in irrigation water cause the release of CO2, which contribute the rising level of atmospheric CO2. However, the CO2 also helps plant growth, which can promote heterotrophic respiration, absorbing more CO2.

Carbon is everywhere on the earth; it is abundant in soil organic matter. Carbon dioxide is a typical example of greenhouse gas which contribute to global warming. Hence, soil is crucial in global carbon balance, greenhouse gas and climate change. Photosynthesis of plants and heterotrophic respiration forms the basic structure of carbon cycle. This concept is included in soil biology studied in class. This news is important to understand how carbon is balanced in atmosphere and soil, and soil is a complex body and a single change of its components can lead to multiple consequences.

}}

== Rotating use of farmland will bring a harvest of new growth ==

{{APBI
|URL=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201903/19/WS5c9042f4a3106c65c34ef565.html
|Date=Mar 19, 2019
|Authors=Hu Yongqi
|Summary=This news article talks about China’s new strategy of rotating the use of farmland to increase sustainability. The Chinese government will subsidize farmlands that lie fallow for one year or rotate between corn or soybean”. This article closely relates to the soil fertility and soil degradation topics in this course. The Chinese government’s new strategy would discourage monocropping which would deplete the soil of certain nutrients and lead to increased erosion rates. The Chinese government encouraged two soil management strategies, fallowing land and crop rotation. Fallowing soil is a more sustainable land management strategy since it would give farmlands time to replenish nutrients and lead to increased soil fertility. On the other hand, rotating to growing soybeans and corn can also increase the soil’s fertility, as these two crops’ roots accumulate fertilizing nitrogen because these crops have nitrogen-fixing bacteria on their nodules. Crop rotation also reduces soil erosion since it improves soil stability by alternating between crops with different root depths. I am fascinated by this article as did not know that farmers need to rotate crops for farmlands to stay healthy and that farmlands need a ‘break’ from growing crops. Finally, I think having proper soil management strategies is a very vital component to ensure the efficiency of agriculture production and soil health. (by Paul Liu, 68077031)
}}

== Farmers in the Midwest Face Decades of Recovery as Flooding Strips Away Crucial Soil ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://earther.gizmodo.com/farmers-in-the-midwest-face-decades-of-recovery-as-floo-1833436732
|Date= March 21, 2019
|Authors= Brian Kahn
|Summary= Floods in the Midwest of the United States are proving to cause harm to farmers and their land. In the Nebraska region, flooding caused intense damage to infrastructure and soil, with estimates of up to 440 million dollars in crop losses. The recent flooding was due to extreme moisture content in the soil proceeding winter. Possibly due to climate change, more snow fell as winter rain in Nebraska than before. Water began to runoff the saturated soil and created the damaging floods. In this process, topsoil was washed away with the floodwaters.

In other areas, the floodwaters cut deep into the ground. Water weight contributed to additional compaction of the soil. Large amounts of sand and silt were transported and deposited, which creates problems because they lack both the nutrients and structure of the original soil. Farmers in Nebraska are now facing management decisions and must choose between replanting or recovery for the affected fields. For the ones hit the hardest, it is more cost-effective for them to give up their land than to implement recovery.

This news article is extremely relevant to many of the topics covered in APBI 200. Learning about the water runoff in soils explains why the flooding was so extreme in this case, because saturated soils have no infiltration capacity. Additionally, learning about soil textures and structures and their effect on plant growth explains why large amounts of deposited sand and silt is a problem for farmers.

[Adriana Burton 36958643]
}}

== Fire's effect on soil moisture, runoff ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/fire-effects-soil-moisture-runoff
|Date= December 12, 2018
|Authors= Penelope Hillemann

This article introduces the interaction of soil's water and fire which acts as a natural disturbance in the ecosystem, and access how will soil's water balance the external changes. The researchers set an experimental model that imitates the wildfire's impact for water balance of a burnt site, and ultimately figure out there're multiple ways that water leaves out. Evapotranspiration occurs when water moves as vapor through pores in the leaves. When the vegetation on the soil surface burnt, evapotranspiration is significantly reduced meaning that less amount of water is moved out. Another mode of water movement is surface runoff, the wildfire burning out those organic layers which store more moisture on the forest floor will cause high infiltration. In other words, heavy rains can supply more water than the ground can absorb. Generally, the degree of fire severity determines the soil's moisture, and the burnt sites turn wetter since the change of evapotranspiration is much greater than change in runoff. Inversely, the high severity will become drier since the runoff changes is lower than that in the evapotranspiration (2018, Hillemann)

This article is an important finding that closely connected with soil's water retention capacity, soil heat capacity and thermal conductivity. The amount of heat in fire transfers to the underground depends on the fire's severity and the soil structure. The forest fire is a common issue around us and it needs to attract more and more attention from the public to minimize the resources loss.

Finnley He (Zhifang He)
91651752

}}

== Short post on the news “Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change?” ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date= March 26th, 2019
|Authors= John J. Berger
|Summary= To relieve the severe climate change, some experts put forwards a method called “carbon farming”, which inspires the author to write this news. The aim of the piece of news is to introduce an experiment on carbon farming conducted by a microbiologist David Johnson. The method that Johnson used for this experiment is increase the soil fungal to bacterial ratio.

This news is important to me that I am interested in how to alleviate climate change and I am learning soil science currently. Related to the biology part we have learnt in class, we could tell that although both fungi and bacteria could decompose organic matter into humic substance, fungi are more beneficial because it could help control diseases. Hence, it might keep plants healthy and absorb more carbon from the atmosphere.

To conclude, soil carbon sequestration is not a sustainable way because carbon store capacity is limited in soil but we could still apply carbon farming to control climate change in short term.

Chiyan Huang (73251621)

}}

== Can Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=2019-03-26
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=This article relates to the soil organisms portion of the course. It describes experimental research conducted by a researcher named David Johnson. Johnson asserts that by increasing the fungal to bacterial ratio in soils, carbon sequestration of agricultural land can be vastly improved. By applying vermiculture compost to soil, he was able to vastly increase the growth of cover crops, resulting in carbon capture of ~16 metric tons per hectare. He also claims that with a larger proportion of fungi in the soil, less carbon dioxide is released out of the soil by heterotrophic respiration. The article is unclear on a direct causation between the application of vermiculture, increased fungal ratio and increased plant growth (which is the mechanism of carbon sequestration involved). Critics state that his approach is not easy to replicate in that his vermiculture approach may not have the same desired effect on a wide range of soil types, and that the increased carbon sequestration may not be directly due to the increased fungal to bacterial ratio. Furthermore, soils have a certain limit of carbon that can be absorbed depending on various factors, and is not a continuous, ever-accumulating process which limits the usefulness of Johnson's approach for permanent carbon capture.
Summary by: Matthew Bavis
}}

== Tackling China’s soil pollution may be harder than fighting pm2.5 ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.caixinglobal.com/2019-03-08/tackling-chinas-soil-pollution-may-be-harder-than-fighting-pm25-101389509.html
|Date=March 8, 2019, 4:51PM
|Authors=Shen Fan, Qi Xiaomei, Zhao Runhua and Zhou Tailai
|Summary=This news article described the issues of the severe soil pollution in China. The main source of soil pollution is from the agricultural use of pesticides and fertilizers. And industrial activities are also significant sources of soil pollution. The chemicals from pesticides and fertilizers accumulated within the soil throughout the years of agricultural development. The current levels of toxic chemicals within the soil would have significant effects on plant growth. The news report claimed that there are various cases of toxic crops produced on polluted soils in China. The contaminant in the polluted soil is mainly heavy metals, which is very difficult to remove. Not only should people limit the use of pesticides and fertilizers, but they should also devise methods to alleviate the current conditions of the soil. For example, they could use microorganisms such as fungus to extract the heavy metals and other toxic contaminants from the soil. However, the main issue with this topic is that most crop producers in China has limited knowledge about soil science. People would continue to use pesticides and fertilizers to enhance the production of crops. And the soil condition would continue to deteriorate if there are no regulations for the use of pesticides and fertilizers. (Allen Li 88599543)

}}

== Are no-fun fungi keeping fertilizer from plants? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/are-no-fun-fungi-keeping-fertilizer-from-plants
|Date=March 27, 2019
|Authors=Adityarup “Rup” Chakravorty
|Summary=The key findings from this news report is that Crops cannot grow without phosphorus. More than 45 million tons of phosphate fertilizer is expected to be used worldwide in 2019. But only a small amount of added phosphorus ends up in crops. Fertilizer costs are important for farmers in south Florida, and phosphorus rock, the most widely used source of phosphate fertilizer, is in short supply worldwide. It is believed that phosphorite resources can only be used in the next 50-200 years. Fungi release phosphorus from minerals (rocks) and organic matter (decaying matter) and thus play a significant role in the phosphorus cycle in the soil. From there, the plant absorbs the phosphorus released. "But under certain environmental conditions, fungi may be one of the causes of phosphorus deficiency. Some fungi extract minerals from elements dissolved in soil water. This process is called "bioprecipitation”.However, Without freed-up phosphorus, crops can’t grow successfully. So many farmers in south Florida have kept adding phosphorus to soils. In a continuing cycle, most of this phosphorus becomes unavailable to plants.

This is important to me because this research could also help unravel how land use influences fungal communities in soil. It may also help us better understand vital soil-phosphorus dynamics.And I learned that fungi play a tremendous role in cycling phosphorus within soils. This report relate to topics of soil biological of fungi and phosphorus-cycle in APBI 200. By--Wendy Liu (45216637).}}

== Our drying soils: The invisible crisis under our feet ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.eco-business.com/news/our-dying-soils-the-invisible-crisis-under-our-feet/
|Date= 19 March 2018
|Authors=Vaidehi Shah
|Summary=Soils are essential for life because they are many species' habitat, provide the medium for plant growth,and provide foods for people to consume. Due to the advancement of technology, industrial agriculture, and unsustainable development, soil degradation becomes a severe issue nowadays. The Food and Agricultural Organization lead a project, which promotes an alternative farming method instead of the traditional practices which may have direct harm to the soil. Because of the FAO project, the production increases and soils have been well protected. We, humans, are the main cause of soil degradation, and now we should have an awareness of soil degradation and try to help restore and preserve the health of the soil. Just like what David Montgomery, professor of earth and space sciences, said,” Soil health is like human health; it is hard to define, but you sure know when you don’t have it.” The healthiness of the soil had direct correlation not only to the quality of our life but also the lives of the future generation.

This is important to me because I rely on soil for food, and everyone of you also rely on soil to live, and we should work together to preserve it.This article relates to soil degradation in the APBI 200 course.
Erin Lin (54577440)

}}

== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=This article is about a potential method to reduce carbon emissions: using agricultural soil as a store. This article points out that, as much of today's earth is used for agriculture, the idea of "carbon farming" is becoming a more and more possible way to combat climate change. However, the big question this is whether or not farmers can engage in these carbon-capturing activities while maintaining high yields for their crops. The scientist featured in this article says that this issue can be solved by increasing the fungal-to-bacteria ratio because fungi use carbon more efficiently, allowing the soil to release less CO2. This was found to improve the soil’s ability to store CO2 by tenfold, though the results are controversial. It was also found that a higher fungal-to-bacteria ratio improves the C/N ratio to encourage plant growth, which relates to the topics of soil microbes and fertility in soil science. Though these results have yet to be replicated on a larger scale, climate change is an enormous issue today and any proposed solution to reduce the effects of CO2 emissions is a step in the right direction. Therefore, this article represents another much-needed method that we can combine with other sustainable actions to fight CO2 emissions and climate change in the long run. This issue is close to my heart as well as my degree, which is why this article intrigued me.

}}

== Tateum Cava 53041018: Soil in the News ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/what-do-gardens-bring-to-urban-ecosystems
|Date= March 13, 2019, Soil Science Society of America
|Authors= Martha Pings
|Summary=
The news report discusses a research project that is ongoing. The research project entails gardens in urban ecosystems, and their importance. The report goes into detail about the benefits of "healthy soil". They refer to healthy soil as soil with enough organic matter and nutrients to encourage good plant growth. The research project also entails researchers gathering soil and plant samples for 20 different lab tests. This article relates to APBI 200 because they test the soils water retention and fertility. We tested water retention by doing tests such as hand texturing/taste testing to determine the relative portions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. A soil with a high relative portion of sand has poor water retention, and a soil with a high relative portion of clay retains water well. Article is important to me because this group encourages urban gardening, and if everyone had a garden there would be less green-house gas emissions in the long-run.

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== Terroir trouble: B.C. vineyards harm soil quality, UBC study says ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://vancouversun.com/life/food/terroir-trouble-b-c-vineyards-harm-soil-quality-ubc-study-says
|Date= July 17, 2016
|Authors= Glenda Luymes
|Summary= The article explained that vineyards increase the amount of microbial activity, causing possibly more nutrient availability but fungal abundance was shown to go down. The article was really comparing the differences of a managed vineyard and a vineyard that grows on uncultivated soils with little intervention. Luymes explained how the managed vineyards are causing significant changes in the soils that it the vineyard is planted in, which could cause the flavour of the grapes to change. The uncultivated, less intervention technique could be a better alternative to get better quality grapes and thus, a better quality wine.

This article is important to me because I am concerned with what conventional agriculture does to the land it is being planted up but even more so to what it is doing to the quality of the food it is producing. Less management of agriculture may be more cost effective for a better product. It relates to the course APBI 200 because of microbial activity and the nutrient cycling within soils and how vegetation impacts those cycles.

}}

== Better water testing, safer produce ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/better-water-testing-safer-produce
|Date= March 20, 2019
|Authors= Penelope Hillemann
|Summary= This news is about the effects of different water quality on the quantity of E. coli in plants, since eating uncooked vegetables like lettuce cannot kill E. coli people can lead to bad healthy outcomes. The other way to eliminate E. coli is back to the plants in soil. In addition, water that used to drainage plants is a good conductor of E. coli. Therefore scientists collect water sample monthly and then send them to three different laboratories, to test how well the method result were produced. I interested in this news because it is about our daily life and healthy and me personaly eat a lot of lettuce in food like salad, so I am curious about the result scientists get about the safty of eating this and solutions for situation like that. This news also relative to the APBI 200 course material and detailly the organisms in soil and how can these bactirias effects the growth of plants. The connection between course and my real life give me a specific example of the concept I learned in class and I can understand both of them better by making these connections.

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== The Caribbean Has A 'Dirty' Solution For Climate Change ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.forbes.com/sites/daphneewingchow/2019/03/10/regenerative-agriculture/#21ffb79f6661
|Date= Mar 10, 2019
|Authors= Daphne Ewing-Chow
|Summary= Article looks at regenerative agricultural practices being done in the Caribbean. Things like managed grazing, agroforestry, and organic farming all allow the soil to generate more organic matter, and hence improve the soil's ability to retain important nutrient. The article also mentions that these practices improve the soil's ability to sequester carbon. The potential upsides from restoring these degraded soils is enormous. Better soils increase food security, and reduce negative impacts on water supply. Another big upside is that the soils have the potential to sequester a significant amount of carbon, allowing some of these Caribbean countries to become carbon neutral.

This is relevant to me because climate change is a global issue that is relevant to everyone. I also come from a developing country and realize the importance of the soil's ability to meet the food demands of the people on it. Improving the soil quality is an easy way to improve the quality of life of the people.

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== Right green for crop, environment, wallet ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/right-green-crop-environment-wheat
|Date= January 16, 2019
|Authors= Adityarup “Rup” Chakravorty
|Summary= This news introduced a new technology that can control the nitrogen in soil more efficiently so that can maximum the soil productivity. Fertilization act a necessary role in silviculture and agriculture. The productivity of crops influences the price and economy directly and influence the quality of worlds' life indirectly. This is very important and will bring effect to everyone's life. This news is relate to the Nitrogen cycle and Soil chemical in lecture. If the nitrogen fertilizers is too much, the plant will look lush and green, but the ability of fruit and flower will decrease. If the nitrogen content in soil is too low, plant growth is likely to be slow with weak spindly stems and small leaves. It is very important to keep the nitrogen concentration perfect to keep the maximum productivity. This new tools can help us observe the nitrogen content in soil easily and helps us control easily. This will make agriculture more effective and crops can remain on the maximum profivity. This can also reduce the waste of over fertilized.

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== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=This article begins pointing out the global carbon issues our world is facing. There are some scientists that think that we should store carbon in the soil to combat the amount that is in the air. The scientist focused on in this article is David Johnson and he believes this can be done while keeping a balance to agricultural used soils. He thinks the way to achieve this balance is implementing the use of microbe-rich solution to aid in plants pulling CO2 from the air. He claims that as the ratio of fungi to bacteria in soil increases, the soil becomes more efficient in utilizing carbon and thus storing it. Other scientists are skeptical about his results, but they continue to test long term and attempt to recreate his results.
This is important to me because of the environmental challenges we as a human race are facing. Our current carbon use is negatively impacting every aspect of the environment and is increasing at exponential rates. These need to be slowed if we have hopes of keeping the global temperature rise under 2°C from pre-industrial temperature. The younger generation (me) are faced with these challenges and how to attempt to keep our world as livable as possible for us and future generations. This relates to what we’ve been learning because we have talked about microbes in soil and throughout the course have touched on the responsibility of humans to the soil and how to attempt to use it responsibly.

}}

== "How to Turn Dirt Into Soil" ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.resilience.org/stories/2019-03-08/how-to-turn-dirt-into-soil/
|Date=March 8, 2019
|Authors=Anne Biklé, David R. Montgomery
|Summary=A biologist and a geologist couple who needed to put their potted plants into their backyard soil find out that the soil has glacial till parent material very close to the surface and has thus turned into dirt, making it hard for them to plant anything. They decide to add organic matter to their soil to revive it; They used wood chips, coffee grounds, fallen leaves and oyster/mussel shells to create mulch for their garden. After four years, they discover that the mulch and compost have turned into humus and that their soil has come back to life and now contains soil organisms such as earthworms and mites and now they can grow their plants and food crops such as kale. They realize that all they needed to do bring back life into their garden was to increase the soil’s carbon content by adding organic matter.
This article is very interesting and relates to the material learned in this class as it talks about the real-life applications of the course content. For example, we learned that organic matter is very crucial for soil fauna and flora as it helps with aeration, drainage, water retention and much more. In summary, organic matter transforms the soil and resurrects it.

}}

== Soil pollution ‘jeopardizing’ life on Earth, UN agency warns on World Day ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/12/1027681
|Date= December 5, 2018
|Authors= The Food and Agriculture Organization, UN
|Summary= The article exposes some severe problems about soil degradation caused by “thousands of chemicals used in every-day lives” and “tonnes of urban, industrial and agricultural waste” (UN News 2018). It also points out the significance of soil regarding not only providing food but also mitigating poverty. Professor Rattan Lal was awarded the Glinka World Soil Prize for his contribution to “soil organic carbon restoration” and “improvement of soil structure” (UN News 2018). Food and Agriculture Organization emphasizes that every person can help to solve the problems in soil degradation and solid contamination by using products with recycled packaging.

This article relates to several topics covered in APBI 200—N/P cycle, soil organic matter, and soil structure. Excess chemicals would break the N/P cycles in the soil, resulting in imbalanced chemical composition. This might also lead to a decrease in soil organisms since many of them require a certain pH to survive. Professor Rattan Lal restores soil organic carbon to increase organic matter in the soil helping with soil aggregation and the cation exchange capacity of the soil. A good soil structure requires well-developed soil aggregates with a mix of macro- and micropores. This type of soil has good water infiltration and nutrient retention as well as good aeration for plant roots and soil organisms.

}}

== Skepticism of Plans for Soil Remediation in the Comox Valley ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.mycomoxvalleynow.com/52320/contaminated-union-bay-soil-to-be-disposed-of-on-site/
|Date=March 29, 2019
|Authors=James Wood
|Summary= James Wood writes about contaminated soil that has been dug out of Vancouver Island development and developers plans to deal with it. This soil was "contaminated railbed soil" and was removed during land clearing without any pre-established plan to deal with it. This was allowed as they were issued a permit by the Ministry of Transportation which granted them access to clear land in order to construct a road The article states that the soil was out of risk of riparian contamination as it was more than 50 metres away from a nearby creek and that erosion and leaching were not a worry as the piles were covered by plastic sheetings with "additional erosion and sediment controls installed around them". The article is vague in it's ending stating that the soil will be managed on site but points out that what management looks like can vary greatly depending on a number of variables.

Although the tone of the article is optimistic- my learnings within APBI 200 makes me sceptical of this optimism. The article states that the plastic sheeting was found to be in need of repair after heavy snowfall. I wonder if this soil would have received enough moisture or wind exposure during this time to cause movement of these contaminants to surrounding soil and from there depending on conditions and soil structure move horizontally and vertically across soil horizons effectively introducing these contaminants into soil systems that will not receive remediation.

}}

== The City’s Buried Treasure Isn’t Under the Dirt. It Is the Dirt. ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/25/nyregion/the-citys-buried-treasure-isnt-under-the-dirt-it-is-the-dirt.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FSoil&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=3&pgtype=collection
|Date= July 25th,2018
|Authors= Richard Schiffman
|Summary=
This article reports on the status of soils in urban areas, particularly in New York City. Much of New York’s soil found at construction sites has continued to be classified as toxic waste, resulting in the disposal of two to three million tons of soil a year. This waste is often unnecessary because toxic waste is often limited to the soil’s surface, resulting in the waste of the perfectly safe soil underneath it. This waste is significant because as climate change continues to impact the city, soil could be useful for various adaptation methods. One example of this is the need for soil to build levees, protecting communities from rising sea levels. To address this problem a program called PUREsoil NYC has been launched to create demand for soils sourced from construction sites, using them to replace contaminated soils in community gardens. This is the first soil exchange of its kind facilitated by a city government, and it has already saved construction companies an estimated $30 million that would have been spent on transportation of soils to landfills. The program’s main goal is to expose New Yorkers to all that the city’s soil has to offer. In addition the article mentioned the opening of a soil museum in Brooklyn.

}}

== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger, Scientific American
|Summary=''"Johnson, a trim 67-year-old microbiologist who is as comfortable using the latest metagenomics technology as he is shoveling cow manure into a composter, thinks society can only maximize carbon storage, increase soil’s water-holding capacity and grow plentiful crops if it restores the soil microbiome. “We currently have very degraded soils physically, chemically, but mostly biologically,” he says. “Microbes restore this balance.”"''

With carbon emissions hitting all time highs as we barrel further into our technological future, we are no doubt heading towards catastrophe if we continue the way we are. While many scientists are looking at conservation, resource management, government policy and taxation as ways to slow carbon emissions, some are looking beneath our feet.

It is estimated that half of the world's topsoil has been lost over the past 150 years, and poor management practices have lead to increased degradation. What is missing, says Dr. David Johnson of New Mexico State University, is fungus. There's too much bacteria in our soil, and bacteria off-gass CO2 (unless you're talking about that wild recently discovered deep sea bacteria that absorbs CO2, but our soils aren't at the bottom of the ocean just yet), and so far it seems that increasing the fungal to bacterial ratio can help surface plants absorb more CO2 and overall release less CO2 back into the atmosphere.

Soil management practices may actually be what is killing these fungal networks within the soil. Tilling and tearing apart the top soil is a great way to mix in nutrients but not a great way to preserve mycelium, therefore in competition with bacterial microbes with their single-celled advantage, fungi often loses. While unfortunately peer-reviewed confirmation of these findings are yet to be published, it wouldn't hurt to stop assaulting the soil microbiota and let them do what they do best in carbon and nitrogen cycling.

SN: 65697757

}}

== Eden Project investigates soil future with Plymouth University ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cornwall-46866713
|Date= 15 January 2019
|Authors= BBC UK, official authors not referenced
|Summary= In the article I am summarizing, the main idea is based around a study conducted by Plymouth University at the Eden Project site in Cornwall. The study revolves around a study on the topsoil at the project, and the fact that it consists of a mix of wastes from the nearby town, and rests in a location that was previously a post-industrial clay pit. The current project is about moving forward with the soils, and how they can tailor it to support different types of ecosystems, such as the outback in Australia, for one. This is important to me for the reason that being able to tailor soils in order to be able to grow different crops from different biomes in the same vicinity could be extremely useful for combating issues such as world hunger. The costs and problems associated with shipping could be cut out of the process. This relates most to the field of soil chemical and organic properties, as well as soil processes.
}}

== Sask. farmers concerned about early melt, lack of soil moisture ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatoon/sask-farmers-crop-report-early-melt-concerned-1.5071025
|Date= March 25th, 2019
|Authors= Jason Warick
|Summary=

This CBC article explains how the farmers in Saskatchewan are worried about a lack of precipitation, which affects the amount of moisture in the soil. This is the second straight year Saskatchewan soils have received inadequate moisture. In the province of Saskatchewan, most areas received only 60-80 percent of the soil moisture required; and other areas received as low as 40 percent of required soil moisture. Shannon Chant, the crop extension specialist with the Ministry of Agriculture, explained how some fields are better at retaining moisture than others. Zero-till or low-till fields are better at trapping water and stop water from moving into streams and rivers.

Two identifiable factors of soil formation have impacted the amount of moisture in the Saskatchewan soils; climate and topography. In climate, when winters are wet with high precipitation, the rainwater will contact the soil and be stored inside. In addition, during higher temperatures, snow will be melt and be utilized as a substitute for rainwater for the soil. With a lack of soil moisture, the farmers in Saskatchewan should use a soil with a soil texture consisting of more clay and silt percentage as these particles have a better water retention than sand particles. In topography, soil moisture (precipitation) likes to move from a high elevation to a low elevation. When the farmland is situation at an area in high elevation, the soil moisture will be transferred downwards to streams and rivers. Therefore, it is important to put farm areas at a lower elevation to not lose soil moisture along with soil nutrients.

}}

== Modeling Digs Beyond Soil Properties and Processes ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://eos.org/meeting-reports/modeling-digs-beyond-soil-properties-and-processes
|Date= 29 March 2019
|Authors= Martine van der Ploeg, Coleen Carranza, and Roland Baatz
|Summary= The International Soil Modeling Consortium (ISMC)conference identified that "most current soil and land surface models do not consider the dynamic nature of soil properties". The dynamic nature of soil properties is important to be considered especially with the effects of urbanization and climate change nowadays. The ISMC conference also highlighted that more soil properties should be studied due to the effects of global climate change.

}}

== Farmer’s fight to save Britain’s disappearing Earthworms ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/feb/26/specieswatch-farmers-britain-disappearing-earthworms
|Date= Feb 26, 2019
|Authors= Paul Brown
|Summary=
In Britain, the number of earthworms in soil have declined threatening soil fertility. Earthworms vary from “those that live on the surface, others that feed and dwell in the soil, while a third group makes deep burrows and comes to the surface to feed on dead leaves” (the guardian, 2019). However, the epigeic earthworms, which are surface dwellers, are in critical danger. There numbers have decreased to only “9 per spadeful” yet they previously were three times as much in a spadeful. Earthworms are very important for the soil as they aide nutrient availability, better soil structure, better water infiltration/ drainage, and overall providing finer farmland. They do so by tilling the soil, mixing soil and organic matter, and leaving casts in the soil to become soil aggregates. According to the news report, these earthworms are disappearing due to the “intensive farming practices, mostly excessive tillage and overuse of chemicals”. This is causing poor soil fertility, lower crop yield, loss of carbon from soil, and increasing climate change. This topic relates to the APBI 200 section discussing the importances of soil biology and soil organisms impact on the soil. This information is important to me as I do care about the condition of our soil as without soil, humanity couldn’t survive. Soil health and fertility is very significant as without earthworms it can lead to increasing climate change and lower crop yields. Overall, if farmers can change their farming practices we could possibly prevent this situation from worsening.

SN: 69197358

}}

== Life on Earth Is Under Assault—But There’s Still Hope ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/03/ipbes-biodiversity-report-conservation-climate-change-spd/
|Date=March 23, 2018
|Authors=Stephen Leahy
|Summary=
This Report done by Stephen Leahy discusses the Earth’s ecosystem declines and some potential solutions to fix it, or at least slow them down. The report discusses an intergovernmental group called IPBES which attempting to protect the biodiversity of the world, and assesses global threats. A later part of the report mentions how public involvement can be critical in progressing with biodiversity protection.

The report mentions how biodiversity is important for soil, and how activities like deforestation and agriculture expansion can ruin the state of the soil. Urban expansion is also another problem briefly mentioned, as that has serious consequences on soil formation and structure. I thought that this was important due to the cycle of soil formation by organic matter, and how decreasing biodiversity may affect the soil in the future. Of course, there are other ways of soil formation, but organic matter is still critical to some soil ecosystems, and ecosystems in general.

}}

== Are no-fun fungi keeping fertilizer from plants? ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/are-no-fun-fungi-keeping-fertilizer-from-plants
|Date= March 27, 2019
|Authors= Adityarup “Rup” Chakravorty
|Summary= The article discusses the problem of fertilizer using in Florida, and talks about the importance of different species of fungi in the soil. It makes a clearer point of view about the function of fungus in the soil from real case. From the article, I can easily understand that fungus can release phosphorus element and other minerals to the plant and promote phosphorus cycling in the soil.

It offer a more environmental way to fertilize crops and decrease the cost of fertilizer to4 farmers. Furthermore, it relates to soil organic in APBI200.

}}

== “The Green Deal could help the Planet” ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.popsci.com/farmers-green-new-deal#page-4
|Date= February 14, 2019
|Authors= Jeremy Deaton
|Summary=
This news report discusses the possible “more advanced forms of energy sources,” and “shifting to more traditional forms of agriculture,” that could come from attempting to meet the New Democratic plan for the United States to reach net zero carbon emissions by ten years (Deaton, 2019). This plan is called the Green Deal.

The article explains how agriculture is a significant contributor to carbon pollution and the ins and outs of the carbon cycle which we learned about in class. It proposes the idea of ‘carbon farming’ to maximize the soils retention of carbon to extend the storage of said carbon. The author, Jeremy Deaton, also provides some examples of how farmers can help more carbon enter the soil than what gets released. Such as, ”namely disturb the soil as little as possible and till the earth only where necessary. Keep the soil covered in a diverse array of deep-rooted crops. Rotate between cash crops, like wheat, and cover crops, like ryegrass, which nurture the soil and can be fed to livestock. Avoid the use of pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilizers. Protect areas that are rich in plant-life - and therefore carbon , such as forests, wetlands, and peat bogs” (Deaton, 2019).

These suggestions may seem very general and rather obvious, but for many, this is an important message to stay sustainable and help move towards making a difference. The article continues discussing the potential economic benefits of the Green Deal but also how we as a society can do so much more with it than simply transitioning to clean energy sources. This information is essential to me because it is vital to everyone and I recommend everyone read this article as it lays things down directly in a very easy to understand both the mechanics and the urgency of our situation.

}}

== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date= March 26, 2019
|Authors= John J. Berger
|Summary= In this article, Berger reports on the recent research of a microbiologist, David Johnson, on carbon sequestration in soils. As the threat of climate change is becoming ever-present, some researchers are discussing the potential of attempting to increase carbon storage in soil via spiking the fungi concentrations. Johnson’s hope is that he can manipulate fungi concentrations to increase carbon storage while also optimizing agricultural production. He conducts an experiment where microbe-rich solutions are applied to soils. The increased fungi concentration is supposed to pull CO2 from the air due to the microbes conducting photosynthesis. The results found that there was a net increase of almost 11 metric tons of soil carbon per hectare and an increase in crop yields. Despite these positive results, many scientists feel that this hypothesis must be tested many more times before being implemented. Additionally, there are many questions of whether this will be effective large-scale or long-term.
This topic is very important as climate change affects soils, agriculture, and food production. It is necessary to determine if there are potential solutions to the degradation of soil health. Climate change degrades the productivity and nutrient retention of soil. Therefore, this could cause damage to the agricultural sector and lead to food shortages. The potential of slowing down climate change by sequestering carbon in soil while increasing crop production could be an incredible step towards healthier soil overall. This topic relates to the soil properties and organisms that lead to carbon sequestration.

}}

== A Change in Equipment vs. a Change in Mindset: Refocusing attention on soil health is the driver behind newer technologies ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.country-guide.ca/crops/refocusing-attention-on-soil-health-the-driver-behind-newer-technologies/
|Date=March 25, 2019
|Authors=Ralph Pearce
|Summary=The article introduces a new tillage machine, CurseBuster. It minimizes the impact on tillage by de-compacting the top soil, flattening the crop stalks to cover the soil and fracturing the sub-surface soil. Compared with the full-tillage function, this machine leaves crop residues at the top of soil as a source on biological decomposition. Also, the fracturing opens space for soil organisms to survive. After using this new machine, a farmer found the number of worms in his soil increased a lot. Another benefit is that the machine increases the infiltration and prevent drowning of products. Also, the farmer believes the leaching and run-off in his soil is decreased, which helps retain minerals and nutrients in his soil. The min-tillage approach of CurseBuster increases the population of microbiomes and thus enhance the relationship between plants and microbes which increases the uptake of phosphate and other nutrients of plants.
This article is related to the course content of soil physical characteristic. Soil consist of solids, water and air. The proportion of pores is an important characteristic of soil since it influences soil organisms, aeration, infiltration, etc. operation in agriculture usually compacts soil and limits the growth of crops. The improvement in tillage is important for soil health in continuous agriculture and prevents the degradation of top soil. The invention of the new machine is an approach to deal with the issue of losing top soil due to heavy agricultural operation.

}}

== Whether fungi keep fertilizer from plants ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/are-no-fun-fungi-keeping-fertilizer-from-plants
|Date=March 27, 2019
|Authors=Adityarup “Rup” Chakravorty
|Summary= It is about whether fungi will make the soil fertile. As we all know, soil need some important element to be fertile in order to support plants growth such as phosphorus minerals. Farmer cost a lot on fertilizer to make sure that the soil enrich of those kind of materials. Nevertheless, some scientist find that fungi will contribute to the soil for keeping fertilizer in the soil. One important investigation is that if the fungi can create phosphorus minerals to the soil. “We plan to analyze fungal samples and any biproducts of their growth using a scanning electron microscope,” says Tiedeman. Now scientists are still doing some researches and test and trying to make a conclusion of this investigation. The essential of the article is that "Identifying all processes involved in phosphorus unavailability in calcareous soils will be useful in developing strategies to improve fertilizer use efficiency. " that will be good to the farmer, producer and the environment.

}}

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2187324/chinas-taste-worms-killing-soil
|Date=6:04pm, 22 Feb, 2019
|Authors=Alice Yan
|Summary=In this news, Alice reported the action of a group of Chinese people catching and killing earthworms for food because it has similar tastes with the pork belly. This action greatly influences the wellbeing of soil in the areas. From the video uploaded, we can acknowledge that the problem is the method they used for catching earthworms. A young man inserted wires into the soil and use electric current to drive the worms to the surface. The method definitely harmed the wellbeing of soil. Firstly, the earthworm is macrofauna living in soil, macrofauna are animals with a body size greater than 1 cm (in longest dimension) such as earthworms, vertebrates, mollusks, and large arthropods. The presenting of them gradually fertile the soil in the area by grinding and break apart the soil aggregate. Once the aggregates are smaller, the soil porosity increases and there is more surface area presenting. Thus, the soil has better water retention ability which ultimately is good for plants and the organism’s growth. Despite the action done by this group of young people, using electricity to catch earthworms is not uncommon in China, where the earthworms are mostly sold for use in traditional Chinese medicine or for fishing bait. I like this news because it’s highly related to soil biology that we learned last month, it helps me review it again.

}}

== China’s taste for worms is killing the soil ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2187324/chinas-taste-worms-killing-soil
|Date=6:04pm, 22 Feb, 2019
|Authors=Alice Yan
|Summary=In this news, Alice reported the action of a group of Chinese people catching and killing earthworms for food because it has similar tastes with the pork belly. This action greatly influences the wellbeing of soil in the areas. From the video uploaded, we can acknowledge that the problem is the method they used for catching earthworms. A young man inserted wires into the soil and use electric current to drive the worms to the surface. The method definitely harmed the wellbeing of soil. Firstly, the earthworm is macrofauna living in soil, macrofauna are animals with a body size greater than 1 cm (in longest dimension) such as earthworms, vertebrates, mollusks, and large arthropods. The presenting of them gradually fertile the soil in the area by grinding and break apart the soil aggregate. Once the aggregates are smaller, the soil porosity increases and there is more surface area presenting. Thus, the soil has better water retention ability which ultimately is good for plants and the organism’s growth. Despite the action done by this group of young people, using electricity to catch earthworms is not uncommon in China, where the earthworms are mostly sold for use in traditional Chinese medicine or for fishing bait. I like this news because it’s highly related to soil biology that we learned last month, it helps me review it again.

}}

== Better water testing, safer produce ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/better-water-testing-safer-produce
|Date=March 20, 2019
|Authors=Penelope Hillemann
|Summary=This article explain the importance association about the better water quality with the safer products, for instances, there are many micro bacterias live in the water, in the meanwhile, people usually eat raw lettuces which grow in natural environment, so there are many safe issues and they are even potential deadly for people, however, to prevent the danger which might widespread through the markets, the public require producers to test their irrigation water to see if it is contaminated microorganisms that can cause illness. The produce industry implements these food safety measures to keep people safe and grow a reliable, nutritious product for consumers. "In 2011, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration proposed ten EPA-approved tests to detect generic E.coli in irrigation water. One of these methods called mTEC® is excellent to test generic E. coli, but it is not used commonly in water industry." Actually even though those methods have shown excellent results only if water samples are clean. "But because these methods were developed for drinking water, they are might working as well with environmental water samples, which can contain salts, sediments, and naturally-occurring microbes." Anyway, the most significant and essential way is to prevent the water make people harmful, the water quality should be certified through some subjective testing methods due to guaranty there are less and less microorganisms which are harmful to people.
}}

== Soil in News: 20th horse in 2 months dies at Santa Anita racetrack in California ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://abcnews.go.com/US/20th-horse-months-dies-santa-anita-racetrack-california/story?id=61449565
|Date=March 3, 2019
|Authors=Karma Allen
|Summary=Santa Anita Park is well known race track in Southern California. In early March, the racetrack received a lot of attention. In a span of two months, 20 racehorses were reported dead after racing at the park. Although hundreds of horses race in one day without incident, a 4 year old filly, Eskenforadrink, most recently suffered an ankle injury while racing and was euthanized shortly after. This death occurred only 2 days after Santa Anita Park reopened its main track, Arcadia. Since the spike in racehorse deaths since the winter season began, Arcadia was closed for 4 days for a careful soil inspection. It was investigated whether, recent rainfall contributed to the horses injuries and changes in the racetrack. Mick Peterson, director of the University of Kentucky's Agricultural Equine Programs and Santa Anita Park track Superintendent Andy LaRocco said that the soil had been tested and deemed “ready for racing”. A ground penetrating radar was used to check the texture of the soil and it was verified that the amount of sand, silt, clay as well as moisture was consistent throughout the entire track. It was checked if all the soil components and the cushion, pad and base were in good order. This article is important to me because I was very shocked by this news and the frequency of horse deaths. This topic is very much related to water retention, drainage and texture of soils which we discussed in APBI 200. People were worried that the increased rainfall lead to compaction and hardening of the racetrack, creating high impact on the horses’ legs. The optimal racetrack would have a mixture of sand, silt and clay so that there was water drainage and certain compaction. As I learnt in class, too much clay in certain areas would lead to water build up due to its high specific surface are and micropores.

}}

== Soil Mitigating Climate Change ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date= March 26, 2019
|Authors= John J. Berger
|Summary= The article Can soil Microbes Slow Climate Change, written by John J. Berger, focuses on the new science of carbon farming. Carbon farming is the practice of changing the chemistry of existing soil so that it can hold more carbon than it does naturally and using this soil across agricultural lands to aid in mitigating climate change.

Berger discusses the work of David Johnson from New Mexico State University and how he’s recognized that to increase the capacity of carbon that can be stored, there needs to be a higher fungal: bacteria concentration than what would naturally occur. The drawback however is knowing whether or not it is practical or achievable for this to grow economically to be able to be on farms everywhere. His work also focuses on restoring current degraded soils with soil microbes to increase quality and production.

This article has a lot of paralleling topics to the soil chemistry lectures that have been discussed this semester. More specifically, focusing on the varying ratios and chemical concentrations in soils and how the soil productivity is dependent on that.

As the potentially catastrophic changes foreseen for the future climate will happen within my lifetime, and having many hobbies heavily reliant on sensitive weather zones, such as alpine skiing and scuba diving, I am very motivated to be educated on and promote different ways to mitigate climate change.

}}

== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/

|Date=3/26/2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary= This article discusses the findings of a soil scientist on the potential for fungi to aid in fighting climate change. David Johnson of New Mexico State University thinks feels that overall, soils are primarily lacking in terms of biological life within them, and that enhancing the soil microbiome would be extremely beneficial, due to their abilities to "maximize carbon storage, increase soil’s water-holding capacity and grow plentiful crops". His study results were incredibly positive. He found that adding a microbe-rich solution to fast growing crops "reported a net annual increase of almost 11 metric tons of soil carbon per hectare on his cropland. That’s equivalent to removing about 16 metric tons of carbon dioxide per acre from the atmosphere annually". This applies to course material because of all that we have learned about soil microbes, especially Johnson's belief that focusing more on the abilities of fungi in soils is particularly important because of their "efficiency". However, other studies in this realm did not have these same findings, however they were conducted in vastly different climates and soil types. This point also applies to what we have been learning, as a critique of his work in this study is the limited types of soils that he studied. As a different scientist points out, his work is lacking because "the rate of carbon gain will depend on a host of interactive factors, including soil properties, previous management practices, climatic conditions and the vagaries of human whims.”

}}

== Changing relationship with fungi and phosphorous. ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/are-no-fun-fungi-keeping-fertilizer-from-plants
|Date=March 27, 2019
|Authors=Adityarup “Rup” Chakravorty
|Summary=
Plant available phosphorous is an essential nutrient plant needs to grow in a healthy state, which is why gardeners and foresters keep on adding phosphorous with fertilizers. However, realistically, only a fraction of phosphorous added through fertilization would be plant available. In many regions, fungi had played a huge role in supporting plants and other organisms in the soil by converting phosphorous into plant available phosphorous. According to Tiedeman, in specific areas such as Florida, fungi is actually acting as a negative source for plants, converting phosphorous into plant non-available. He is bringing in fungi to the lab to assess and achieve more concrete evidence to this. This is important to me because in class, we learnt how the nutrient cycle works and how different organisms such as bacteria and macro fauna contributes to the whole soil forming processes, eventually leading to the support to plant growth. If fungi turns out to be a possible nutrient degrading factor, then it will affect a lot of crops.

}}

== Fukushima grapples with toxic soil that no one wants ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/11/fukushima-toxic-soil-disaster-radioactive
|Date= Monday, March 11th, 2019
|Authors= Justin McCurry
|Summary= March 11th, 2011, also known as the day of the “triple disasters” is something that devastated the entire world. The tsunamis caused by the earthquake have quickly wiped out cities after cities, causing thousands of fatalities. Yet what made the situation worse was the Fukushima daiichi nuclear power plant, which exploded due to a nuclear core melting down. As a result, surrounding cities have been evacuated, as the radiation has spread throughout the Fukushima prefecture.
This article by The Guardian highlights the ongoing issue of the radioactive topsoil removal initiative, which has been a controversy for quite some time. The process of removing the soil was to simply put them in a large plastic bag, and stacking them up in an open field, and waiting three decades until the radiation levels decrease. Although, due to the high volume of soil which needs to be removed, the government has started to look for alternative locations to store the radioactive soils. The Japanese government has pledged to move all radioactive soils to a facility outside of Fukushima by 2045, yet the residents of Fukushima is very pessimistic.
This topic is something important due to the fact that I'm Japanese, and I can be directly affected by this issue. This is a very important issue which connects back to this course since I believe that putting radioactive soil in a plastic bag is not the most effective method for solving this issue, and there can be much more effective alternatives.

}}

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/09/180913113954.htm
|Date=September 13, 2018
|Authors=University of California - Riverside
|Summary=The article is talking about new research predict the form University of California. Because of humans' behaviors environment changes a lot in the recent year. At the end of the 21st century, intensify the water cycle and contribute to more flash flooding and soil erosion As a natural resource conservation student climate change is the most important part I should focus on and study for it. The soil is the most critical resource for the human to living on the earth. In the article, author mentions that “In a paper published Sept. 5 in Nature, the scientists studied the impact of climate change on macroporosity -- the number of large pores in the soil. Macropores, which are greater than 0.08 mm in diameter, allow water to be absorbed easily into the surrounding soil, where it can be used by plants, transport nutrients, and eventually make its way back into underground aquifers.
” which is related to our course what we study for. Overall, this article combines several courses which I have to learn. The text which I mention is relative with APBI 200 course material. That helps me understand what this article talks about and realize how climate change influence soil.

}}

== When Earthquakes Liquefy Soil, Devastation Can Follow ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/world/liquefaction-earthquakes.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FSoil&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=1&pgtype=collection
|Date= October 1st, 2018
|Authors= Henry Fountain
|Summary= Liquefaction is discussed in this article. Liquefaction is the process where saturated soil loses strength and takes a liquid like form due to violently applied stress, such as that of an earthquake. An example of this is explained in Indonesia, where several thousand homes in and around the city of Palu where destroyed during the earthquake, due to the decreased soil strength at the base of these buildings from liquefaction . Loose sandy soil structures are explained to be a sole reasons for liquefaction, due to large macropores and their ability to easily be mobilized. This article reminds me of an 2011 earthquake in New Zealand that my cousin experienced. She was trapped in a building for a couple hours that collapsed due to liquefaction of the soil surrounding the old building. This article relates to soil structure and its effect on soil strength, pore size and distribution and drainage abilities.

}}

== summary of "Getting to the core of underwater soil" ==

{{APBI
|URL=https:https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/getting-core-underwater-soil
|Date=February 27,2019
|Authors=Kaine Korzekwa
|Summary= soils under water are not traditional soils. But there are a lot of people lives within coastal cities and they are making money on aquaculture, it is certain that these soils have their values and some professionals are working for
better understanding the value and function of them.
Our cultivation on land could also affect the soil under water. Fertilizer on land
may runoff into water. which could reduce the oxygen available for fishes and plants. National cooperative soil survey maps are a database by which researchers can add and share data about soil properties. Soil underwater is quite resilient, our learning might help it. we are also learning the soil for the health and profits of people.

I am interested in this news because it has long been a question for me-- "How could a small pond be a habitat for hundreds of fishes and shrimps".
This news is related to "soil Chemistry" chapter in Apbi200.
}}

== Interdisciplinary approach the only way to address devastating effects of soil erosion ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://phys.org/news/2019-02-interdisciplinary-approach-devastating-effects-soil.html
|Date=FEBRUARY 7, 2019
|Authors=University of Plymouth
|Summary= The article is talking about soil erosion like a disaster for traditional farming landscapes in developing countries. However, that effects can only be adequately addressed through significant advances in interdisciplinary scientific and societal approaches, during new research. For some countries soil erosion like a barrier which is hard to access it and solve the problem. That means some countries will face food problem because of soil erosion. The article which I read is relative with APBI 200 course material. That helps me understand what this article talks about and realize how soil important to human lives on the earth. As a natural resource conservation student, I understand how is soil important to human. However, I do not realize impacts from soil erosion for the environment. After reading this article, I will put more focus on how soil influenced climate.

}}

== Land degradation threatens human wellbeing, major report warns ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/mar/26/land-degradation-is-undermining-human-wellbeing-un-report-warns
|Date=Mon 26 Mar 2018
|Authors=Jonathan Watts
|Summary=This report mainly shows the serious degradation of the earth's soil. This has given the contemporary people a very serious challenge. The fertile soil disappears at a rate of 24 billion tons per year, indicating that the soil available for use is decreasing over time. The main cause of this phenomenon is the over-exploitation of human land, and excessive grazing has caused the loss of soil nutrients. At the same time, including the substantial increase in the size of the population, it has caused some damage to the soil. Degradation and loss of soil can cause some outbreaks of viruses and exacerbate some natural disasters. This also led to the migration of humans, because the poor soil cannot solve their food and clothing problems, when life is facing difficulties, people will choose to seek new places to live. Let us imagine how humans would survive without the cultivation of vegetables and fruits and the land for raising livestock. We know that there are not many organic matters in the soil. Some soil properties are not very good, and they can't retain a lot of organic matter and nutrition. In addition, the effects of human activities have further worsened the degradation of the soil. We cannot let this situation develop, and serious soil degradation is not a good natural phenomenon. The soil is one of the most important components of the earth. If humans still want to survive, they must protect the soil in order to obtain a series of natural gifts.

}}

== Climate change-induced salinity affecting soil across coastal Bangladesh ==

{{APBI
|URL=http://www.lexisnexis.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/hottopics/lnacademic/?shr=t&csi=354858&sr=HLEAD(%22Climate+change-induced+salinity+affecting+soil+across+coastal+Bangladesh%22)+and+date+is+2019
|Date= January 25, 2019 Friday
|Authors= Dhaka Courier
|Summary=The article said that the coastal areas of Bangladesh pose a great threat to primary production systems, coastal biodiversity and human health because of gradual salinity invading. According to country's Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI), salinity increased around 26 percent in the country in the past 35 years, spreading into non-coastal areas as well. For example, form 83.3 million hectares in 1973 to 105.6 million hectares in 2009. In addition, this article shows some real cases affected by soil salinity, for example, crop loss, biodiversity loss, and the shortage of available freshwater.

This article is related to APBI 200’s topic of soil salinization. It is essential because lots of countries also experience this situation, soil salinization causes soil compaction, plants and agriculture do not have enough available water to absorb, and diversity reduction. Moreover, drink water with a high percentage of salt will affect human and animals’ health.

}}

== Getting to the Core of Underwater Soil ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/getting-core-underwater-soil
|Date=February 27, 2019
|Authors=Kaine Korzekwa
|Summary=
This article expresses the necessities in more studies and researches being conducted on underwater soils. With constant revelations being made around soils daily, it is astonishing how little is known about underwater soils. Underwater soils affect us humans through recreation, commercial as well as transportation means and so it should be expected to know more than what little we know. It is essential to understand and the fundamental elements of these soils and their characteristics with around 71% of the Earth’s surface covered in water and it being home to 50-80% of all life on Earth. These life forms are affected by the conditions of the soils in their habitat. Excess fertilizers that are added to soils often drain off into bodies of water which causes an influx algae growth. When the large populations of algae die and decompose, the underwater soils start losing organisms that once used to inhabit the area. Aquatic vegetation also depends on the nutrients that the soils have retained. The actions of human activities heavily influence the underwater soils which then affects the wildlife in the water.

This is especially important to me as Vancouver is just off the coast with a body of water as a border. The activities that we do almost directly affect the condition of underwater soils. We should be able to classify the soils in order to benefit the wildlife around us and recognize the affects of human activity on them. More research should be conducted as it makes up such a large portion of the Earths area. This article relates to APBI 200 as underwater soils are another soil body that could be beneficial to us in the future. It could affect the vegetation and agricultural techniques being used today. More advances should be made indefinitely.

}}

== Soil Microbes and Climate Change ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=This news post looks at the research of David Johnson, a soil scientist who believes that we can both increase agricultural yields while also capturing carbon in our soils by restoring the largely degraded microbiomes in these soil ecosystems. To test this idea, he applied a solution rich in microbes from vermiculture compost onto his crops. The idea was this would act as a food source for nematodes, arthropods, and other organisms which are beneficial to plants. Following a 4-year study, he found that he had very high crop yields, and he had managed to capture close to 11 metric tons of C/hectare on the cropland. His current hypothesis is that the microbe solution allowed for more efficient cycling of carbon and other nutrients among soil organisms, which ultimately led to the plants releasing less CO2 into the atmosphere. This information is important to me because, as one who is going to grow up in a world strongly affected by climate change and potentially food shortages and a growing population, this gives me hope that we might not be completely screwed. The main topics in the course that this relates to are soil organisms, nutrient cycling, soil organic matter, and how these three things interact with each other to affect plant growth.

}}

== Wetland carbon storage controlled by millennial-scale variation in relative sea-level rise ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-0951-7
|Date= March 6 2019
|Authors= Kerrylee Rogers, et Al.
|Summary=

This article discusses and highlights how coastal wetlands including marshes, mangroves and seagrasses already store carbon more efficiently than any other natural ecosystem including forests, because they sustain the highest rates of carbon sequestration per unit area of all-natural systems. Also, primarily because of their comparatively high productivity and preservation of organic carbon within sedimentary substrates. The data collected suggested that carbon concentrations doubled or nearly quadrupled in just the top 20 centimeters of soil, which comes from the carbon added to wetland soils by plant growth and the sediment is buried faster as wetlands become wetter. Trapped underwater with little to no oxygen, the organic detritus does not decompose and release carbon dioxide as quickly. And the higher the waters rise; the more underwater storage space exists for the carbon to get buried.

This topic is important not only to me but other residents of British Columbia, as we have many coastal wetland areas such as Delta. The relative sea lever rise increases the rate of organic carbon burial in coastal wetlands, however the carbon climate feedback effects have diminished over time as wetlands are increasingly submerged and carbon stores become compromised by erosion. This affects many of us because erosion is a form of loss of nitrogen from the soil, which is essential for plant growth. This is related to APBI 200, referring to the C/N ratio which is necessary for plant growth. The preservation of coastal wetlands is critical as they are to play a role in sequestering carbon and mitigating climate change.

}}

== Harnessing soil microbes to enhance crop performance ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://phys.org/news/2019-03-harnessing-soil-microbes-crop.html
|Date=March 28, 2019
|Authors=Microbiology Society |Summary=The article introduces a newly identified bacteria called Ensifer adherens, which can enhance plants’ resistance to diseases by improving their characteristics. Ensifer adherens is an alternative to Agrobacterium tumefaciens that functions similarly but can modify a wider range of plants with greater efficiency. E. adherens has a more mutually beneficial relationship with plants compared to Agrobacterium whereas some plants consider it as a pest. Thus, E. adherens is now used as a modifier for many important crops such as “tobacco, oilseed rape, rice, safflower and cassava.” Scientists acknowledge its potential to produce new potato species resistant to late blight; farmers’ demand towards expensive fungicides would significantly decrease if introducing E. adherens-modified potatoes. The article also explains the importance of rhizosphere, the place E. adherens was discovered, in adjusting the soil quality around the roots and providing life essentials for other microbes. The news allows me to learn the most recent research on soil organisms and how microbes specifically help with plant growth. While it relates to the soil biology topic we covered in class, specifically, micro-fauna and rhizosphere. We also talk about that bacteria like actinobacteria and endophytic bacteria protect plants from pathogens and produce antibiotics. The rhizosphere is the zone affected by the secretion of plant roots that gives birth to microbes.

}}

== Harnessing soil microbes to enhance crop performance ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://phys.org/news/2019-03-harnessing-soil-microbes-crop.html
|Date=March 28, 2019
|Authors=Microbiology Society
|Summary=The article introduces a newly identified bacteria called Ensifer adherens, which can enhance plants’ resistance to diseases by improving their characteristics. Ensifer adherens is an alternative to Agrobacterium tumefaciens that functions similarly but can modify a wider range of plants with greater efficiency. E. adherens has a more mutually beneficial relationship with plants compared to Agrobacterium whereas some plants consider it as a pest. Thus, E. adherens is now used as a modifier for many important crops such as “tobacco, oilseed rape, rice, safflower and cassava.” Scientists acknowledge its potential to produce new potato species resistant to late blight; farmers’ demand towards expensive fungicides would significantly decrease if introducing E. adherens-modified potatoes. The article also explains the importance of rhizosphere, the place E. adherens was discovered, in adjusting the soil quality around the roots and providing life essentials for other microbes. The news allows me to learn the most recent research on soil organisms and how microbes specifically help with plant growth. While it relates to the soil biology topic we covered in class, specifically, micro-fauna and rhizosphere. We also talk about that bacteria like actinobacteria and endophytic bacteria protect plants from pathogens and produce antibiotics. The rhizosphere is the zone affected by the secretion of plant roots that gives birth to microbes.

}}

{{APBI
|URL= https://news.ucr.edu/articles/2018/09/12/climate-induced-soil-changes-may-cause-more-erosion-and-flash-flooding
|Date= September 12, 2018
|Authors= SARAH NIGHTINGALE
|Summary=
This article described the issue of climate-induced soil changes may result in a series of natural disaster. There are several reasons why climate change cause more and more erosion and flash flooding, the scientists researched the influence of climate change on macro porosity, the great number of large pores, especially large than 0.009 mm in diameter, it has better water absorption and transfer into the surrounding soil, which can used by plants and return to underground aquifers. According to the research data, scientists tested changes in macro porosity across a rainfall, temperature and humidity gradient. They found macro pores were more likely to develop in climate which is drier compared with humid climates. Therefore, the result could be less infiltration of water into the ground, it also cause more surface runoff and erosion, and more flash flooding. In addition, this mews is important to me because I am a forestry student and I am really concerned about the environmental protection issues. Moreover, related to the knowledge that we have learnt in class, I found this news article has strongly connection to it. For instance, water potential gradient which is the change in water potential per unit distance along the axis of flow, also we know that hydraulic conductivity is affected by soil porosity, pore size, water content and tortuosity.

}}

== Climate-induced soil changes may cause more erosion and flash flooding ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://news.ucr.edu/articles/2018/09/12/climate-induced-soil-changes-may-cause-more-erosion-and-flash-flooding
|Date= September 12, 2018
|Authors= SARAH NIGHTINGALE
|Summary=
This article described the issue of climate-induced soil changes may result in a series of natural disaster. There are several reasons why climate change cause more and more erosion and flash flooding, the scientists researched the influence of climate change on macro porosity, the great number of large pores, especially large than 0.009 mm in diameter, it has better water absorption and transfer into the surrounding soil, which can used by plants and return to underground aquifers. According to the research data, scientists tested changes in macro porosity across a rainfall, temperature and humidity gradient. They found macro pores were more likely to develop in climate which is drier compared with humid climates. Therefore, the result could be less infiltration of water into the ground, it also cause more surface runoff and erosion, and more flash flooding. In addition, this mews is important to me because I am a forestry student and I am really concerned about the environmental protection issues. Moreover, related to the knowledge that we have learnt in class, I found this news article has strongly connection to it. For instance, water potential gradient which is the change in water potential per unit distance along the axis of flow, also we know that hydraulic conductivity is affected by soil porosity, pore size, water content and tortuosity.

}}

== Lupins provide more diversity in unilateral energy crops cultivation ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.agrar-presseportal.de/Nachrichten/Lupine-bringt-Vielfalt-in-einseitigen-Energiepflanzenanbau_article27184.html
|Date=03/18/2019
|Authors=not stated
|Summary=Sorry, it's in german.
This article talks about a new research project called "LuMi-opt" at Julius-Kühn-Institut (german federal research center for cultivated plants). Goal is to study how the combined use of Lupines and Corn can improve soil fertility and reduce the amount of artificial fertilizer. This is due to the N-fixing ability of the legumes and the deep growing roots who bring humus deep in the soil. To study the effects and the efficiency of the combined cultivation, the researchers plant Corn, which needs vast amounts of Nitrogen, and the Lupines (Lupinus mutabilis) together in different ratios while monitoring the growth and biomass.
This is important to me, because I think it is a good idea to reduce the use of fertilizers and incorporate more natural ways. It relates to the topic of Soil Biology and Nitrogen fixing.

Plus, it's good food for Bumblebees!

}}

== Are no-fun fungi keeping fertilizer from plants? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/are-no-fun-fungi-keeping-fertilizer-from-plants
|Date=March 27, 2019
|Authors=Adityarup "Rup" Chakravorty
|Summary=This article shows that there is some phosphorus that is not available for plant to use in the soil because of some fungus in the soil. This leads the low effectiveness of adding phosphorus and those phosphorus which is not available and stay in soil "forever" is the big issue of environment globally. It is important to me because the country I am come from is an agricultural country (China) and most of the farmers are not able to measure the effectiveness of their fertilization, they just buy and use them. I think if the reason of this can be figured out, farmers in my country can spend less money to fertilize better. The topic that relates to it in APBI200 is the soil fertility-nutrients.

}}

== Root exudates affect soil stability, water repellency - Shruti Sridhar ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/root-exudates-affect-soil-stability-water-repellency
|Date= April 18th 2018
|Authors= Susan V. Fisk
|Summary=

This news report talks about the advantages that roots which produce exudates have in terms of maintaining soil structure and increasing water absorption properties. Roots produce exudates that act as binding agents that can hold soil particles together and help increase soil aggregation. As learnt in class, this reduces chances of erosion and increases soil fertility as plants are able to grow on a soil which can hold nutrients and water. These exudates also influence shrink swell properties and how fast or slow water is absorbed and let out. This in turn affects how well plants can absorb nutrients and hence affects their growth. According to this report, there are certain crops which produce exudates that are more binding than others, for example barley produces exudates that have more binding properties compared to corn. I think that this research is important because of increasing urbanization and human impact on soils which have reduced soil aggregates and altered soil composition, especially closer to the surface. This has caused a decrease in the number of and kind of plants that can grow in urban environments. Combined with adding a top soil layer or soil beds, if we can grow crops that have more soil binding properties, we may be able to combat the growing problem of erosion because of continued deforestation and anthropogenic damage to soils in urban areas. This will also help to reduce food scarcity and simultaneously help us increase sustainable food production practices.

-Shruti Sridhar (69145357)

}}

== Getting to the Core of Underwater Soil ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/penetrating-soil-surface-radar
|Date=October 17, 2018
|Authors=Kaine Korzekwa
|Summary= This news report discusses the possible “under water soil".It is essential to understand the characteristics of this soil, where about 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered with water and 50 to 80 percent of all life on Earth. These forms of life are affected by the soil conditions of the habitat. When soil moisture can be measured in the fields, farmers can optimize water usage. And it can help them this way so that they don't use too much or too little in dry areas where water is limited. And also, scientists can estimate the water content of the soil by using information collected by antennas from waves. Waves move more slowly when there is more water in the soil, it added. When there is less water, they move faster.

The reason why I thought this was important is because of we living in Vancouver, which is along the border just off the coast. And also, the activities we do affect the condition of the underwater soil almost directly.
Why this article is related to APBI 200 is because that under water soil is another soil that can benefit to us in the future. And it can affect the plant and agricultural technologies used today.

}}

== Root exudates affect soil stability, water repellency ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/root-exudates-affect-soil-stability-water-repellency
|Date= April 18, 2018
|Authors= Susan V. Fisk
|Summary= Hallett and fellow researchers at the University of Aberdeen have been focusing their research on the effects of plant’s roots on soil. This is directly related to the section in APBI 200 where we talk about how plants make various chemical secretions in the form of exudates near the rhizosphere region. As taught in class, plant root exudates help hold soil together apart from enhancing plants’ procurance of nutrients and provide food sources for microbes. Exudates also act like cementing agents to help soil aggregate formation.
Hallett and his team have been taking small-scale measurements near root surface to see the impact of plant root exudates on sandy loam soil and clay loam soil respectively. They also looked at how exudates are different from different plants, reaching the conclusion that while corn’s exudates increase how well soil particles are held together and impact soil water repellency, barley’s exudates only have a minor impact.
This is important because it shows different plants are interacting with the surrounding soil in a different manner. As Fisk concluded, “all of these interactions affect the amount of water that is captured by soil and absorbed by plants” (2018, para. 12).
Further research on how the age of roots might be a factor affecting the intensity of soil-holding and water retention is needed.

Alina Zeng Ziyun 93411866

}}

== Urban Growing ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/what-do-gardens-bring-to-urban-ecosystems
|Date= March 13, 2019
|Authors= Martha Pings
|Summary= Urban agriculture can hold a variety of benefits to communities; however, they also pose a handful of challenges to those willing to put in the work. This article well highlights all that goes into the art of urban growing. To begin, many urban growers have different values and goals for their gardens. One may focus more on growing culturally-relevant food while the other may work to build community reconciliation and camaraderie. However, the significant challenge they face are similar. One example is land access where planting can be prevented by taxes, city codes, and lease expirations. They also have trouble when they find items such as copper wires and chemical contamination in the soil. As learned in class, this raises the question whether food grown on these sites which can have traces of these contaminants in them should be consumed. Furthermore, researchers have been comparing urban garden data to urban farms and urban green spaces. This provides information on the urban agricultural ecosystem services. Moreover, this article relates to the urban soil section of the APBI 200 course. This topic is important because the number of urban agricultures are growing and we need to quickly gain more data on the advantages and disadvantages on this practice. Hopefully, this research will help teach growers, policymakers, and communities more about urban growing and lead to a future of better, smarter land decisions.

}}

== Soil Health Matters ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1369395779519
|Date=2019-04-01
|Authors=Tara McMillan
|Summary=This podcast from CBC addresses the importance and problems that are currently prominent within Ontario’s soils and climate change. It states that soil health is important because every piece of food eaten has most-likely touched soil and that eroding soil can contaminate water ways resulting in a reduction of topsoil, ocean acidification and algae blooms. Healthy soil supports diverse flora and fauna, holds carbon and has rich and abundant organic matter (soil biology). It was discussed why this decrease is occurring and relayed that it is due to poor agricultural traditions such as over tillage and synthetic fertilizers which end up stripping the organic matter off the soil. The lack organic matter reduces nutrient and water retention (soil physics and nutrient cycles) and results in a decrease in health. If this problem can be reversed was the following topic which was found to be yes. However, they made it clear that it is much easier to release Carbon from the soil than it is to begin absorbing and storing carbon which is how this all effect climate change. The creating of soil organic matter can and is done but it is very time consuming and difficult, so therefore it can be reversed but will take a lot of time and hard work. Ways to fix this problem are buying local foods, making SOM levels public knowledge, expanding to knew agriculture practices and most importantly changing farms so they produce a crop that is fitted for each local environment.

}}

== What do gardens bring to urban ecosystems? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/what-do-gardens-bring-to-urban-ecosystems
|Date=March 13, 2019
|Authors=Martha Pings
|Summary= This article is in order to determine how soil can be a resource for human and environmental health in urban agriculture. It highlights that healthy soil has enough organic matter and nutrient to encourage good plant growth. It also has a loose structure rather than compacted so that the water movement can be easily transfered. Based on this concept, the identification of healty soil will broadly extent to other soil organisms such as bacteria, insects, wildlife and even human. The content of this article can incorporate with the soil nurtrient cycle and soil biology part of our lecture and textbook.

}}

== More water capacity, Less weathing effects ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1628953788217086598&wfr=spider&for=pc
|Date=3/25/2019
|Authors=Wang Ge
|Summary=This article highlights how weathering and soil cover technology are main factors contributing to apple trees’ growth. It introduces the effects weathering could make on apple trees’ growth relating to the soil cover and how scientists develop the new soil cover technology to reduce the effects weathering on apple trees’ growth.
Soil straw mulching in orchards can significantly improve the quality of soil, enhance the organic matter, provide nutrition for fruit trees, enhance the conversion function of fruit trees to sunlight, contribute to the development of tree body and root, and improve the yield and the quality rate of fruit. Mulching orchards can also suppress weeds and prevent them from competing with fruit trees for soil moisture and nutrients. After mulching in the orchard can adjust the soil temperature, temperature can slow down the bud flowers.
The use of plastic mulch can effectively prevent the evaporation of water by sunlight, maintain the soil moisture, keep the soil warm, and promote the absorption capacity of roots. Thus, in the film after the water can be more concentrated, heat preservation, humidification, the role of water concentration.
Ming Lou
62830591

}}

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=
This article provide a new type of solution for global warming, as it mainly talks about how does the soil condition influence the level of co2 emission. David Johnson claims that the fungal-to-bacterial ratio is positive in relation to the capacity of carbon storage. Jonson states that “we currently have very degraded soil physically, chemically, but also biologically, and microbes restore this balance”. And he conducts precise experiments based on this hypothesis of how to increase the capacity of agricultural systems to absorb carbon from the atmosphere. He plated a fast-growing cover crops and applies a rich in microbe field derived from a worm compost produced of his design. The bacteria, protozoa and fungi fed soil food web if nematodes, microarthropods and other beneficial organisms. Through photosynthesis the atmospheric carbon absorbed by roots and sank down into the earth. The result is significant and highly controversial as Johnson reported there is a net annual increase of 11 metric tons of soil carbon per hectare on the cropland, which is equivalent to 10 times of the increase that other scientist have reported in many other different soils and climates. Besides Johnson is also conducting other laboratory studies on the correlation among fungal-to-bacterial ratios and soil health. From his result, he concluded that increasing in fungal-to-bacterial ratio with a plus large increase in soil carbon and other nutrients as a result of management practice. From his assumption, I remember when we first learn the factors of soil forming process, one of them is biota, which includes most of the organism inside of the soil. All of the organisms are the microbes which affect the soil formation. Microbes often create more room for air and nutrition and provides more nutrients for the plants. Although peer-reviewed soil science literature are admitted to some extent, other findings in submerged, forested soils—exert different circumstances—failed to confirm the relation.

}}

== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=
This article provide a new type of solution for global warming, as it mainly talks about how does the soil condition influence the level of co2 emission. David Johnson claims that the fungal-to-bacterial ratio is positive in relation to the capacity of carbon storage. Jonson states that “we currently have very degraded soil physically, chemically, but also biologically, and microbes restore this balance”. And he conducts precise experiments based on this hypothesis of how to increase the capacity of agricultural systems to absorb carbon from the atmosphere. He plated a fast-growing cover crops and applies a rich in microbe field derived from a worm compost produced of his design. The bacteria, protozoa and fungi fed soil food web if nematodes, microarthropods and other beneficial organisms. Through photosynthesis the atmospheric carbon absorbed by roots and sank down into the earth. The result is significant and highly controversial as Johnson reported there is a net annual increase of 11 metric tons of soil carbon per hectare on the cropland, which is equivalent to 10 times of the increase that other scientist have reported in many other different soils and climates. Besides Johnson is also conducting other laboratory studies on the correlation among fungal-to-bacterial ratios and soil health. From his result, he concluded that increasing in fungal-to-bacterial ratio with a plus large increase in soil carbon and other nutrients as a result of management practice. From his assumption, I remember when we first learn the factors of soil forming process, one of them is biota, which includes most of the organism inside of the soil. All of the organisms are the microbes which affect the soil formation. Microbes often create more room for air and nutrition and provides more nutrients for the plants. Although peer-reviewed soil science literature are admitted to some extent, other findings in submerged, forested soils—exert different circumstances—failed to confirm the relation.

}}

== Can Soil Microbes Slow Climate Change? ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-soil-microbes-slow-climate-change/
|Date=March 26, 2019
|Authors=John J. Berger
|Summary=
This article provide a new type of solution for global warming, as it mainly talks about how does the soil condition influence the level of co2 emission. David Johnson claims that the fungal-to-bacterial ratio is positive in relation to the capacity of carbon storage. Jonson states that “we currently have very degraded soil physically, chemically, but also biologically, and microbes restore this balance”. And he conducts precise experiments based on this hypothesis of how to increase the capacity of agricultural systems to absorb carbon from the atmosphere. He plated a fast-growing cover crops and applies a rich in microbe field derived from a worm compost produced of his design. The bacteria, protozoa and fungi fed soil food web if nematodes, microarthropods and other beneficial organisms. Through photosynthesis the atmospheric carbon absorbed by roots and sank down into the earth. The result is significant and highly controversial as Johnson reported there is a net annual increase of 11 metric tons of soil carbon per hectare on the cropland, which is equivalent to 10 times of the increase that other scientist have reported in many other different soils and climates. Besides Johnson is also conducting other laboratory studies on the correlation among fungal-to-bacterial ratios and soil health. From his result, he concluded that increasing in fungal-to-bacterial ratio with a plus large increase in soil carbon and other nutrients as a result of management practice. From his assumption, I remember when we first learn the factors of soil forming process, one of them is biota, which includes most of the organism inside of the soil. All of the organisms are the microbes which affect the soil formation. Microbes often create more room for air and nutrition and provides more nutrients for the plants. Although peer-reviewed soil science literature are admitted to some extent, other findings in submerged, forested soils—exert different circumstances—failed to confirm the relation.

}}

== Woolly Star Plants Need Catastrophes to Live ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190319135121.htm
|Date=March 19, 2019
|Authors=Ecological Society of America
|Summary=
This article talks about the current state of a perennial plant named the woolly star (Eriastrum densifolium) which grows on loose and unstable clay, silt, sand, and gravel left by infrequent, large floods in the Santa Ana River floodplain of southern California. The perennial plant became endangered after flood controls measures were implemented, reducing its habitat. The researchers hypothesized that soil treatments mimicking catastrophic floods will help reestablish woolly star plants, while taking no action will favor invasive grasses and other exotic plant species and simulations of vegetation and soil being scoured away by rushing floodwaters resulted in the highest rate of woolly star survival. This topic relates more to soil physics and also soil organism interactions. Normally plant roots have the most beneficial conditions when soil aggregates form due to higher soil pore space for the roots to grow due to a lower specific surface area. However, it turns out that not all plants require well aggregated soils, instead, this particular plant need much more dispersed since it is diluted in running water.

}}

== Article: Soft Soil Makes Mexico Shake Like It Was Built on Jelly ==

Article: Soft Soil Makes Mexico Shake Like It Was Built on Jelly

Mexico City centre is currently “sinking”, which appears to be the product of the bad soil properties the city’s ground has. In September 2017, there was a big earthquake which had an increased damage due to the soil present in this area. In addition, the city was built on top of an ancient lake which has increased the factors provoking the disastrous outcomes of this shakes.

NBC News published an article written by Ronaldo Schemidt on September 2017, analyzing the consequences of the major shake, noticing the important role that the soil under which Mexico City has been constructed can present, and highlighting how can this be a great threat to its stability. The article Soft Soil Makes Mexico Shake Like It Was Built on Jelly appears to be of high importance today, as it is still causing the city to shrink, and has major implications in the City buildings. The University of Cambridge had major findings, pointing out that the soft soil, has created exaggerated effects of the earthquakes in this area.

Though the article was written in 2017, the problem continues and there is not recent study that aims to understand how the soil conditions are affecting the city. The city continues to shrink, and many buildings remain under danger. This for me is of great importance, as I live in Mexico City, and believe that security measures should be implemented. Even though the problem appears to be a wicked problem, we must understand the consequences the soil conditions can have, and understand how can this have major effects on the stability and structure of the urbanized area. Mexico City is one of the most populated cities in the world, and if we don’t find a solution it can have major implications.

https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/soft-soil-makes-mexico-city-shake-it-was-built-jelly-n803166?cid=sm_npd_nn_fb_ma&fbclid=IwAR0kDc8Rou5KOcHwHfGTcMpJ2_0x1aruwAR6eu4SCondGcQuUez1kdP0GQQ

== Manure application changes with winter crop can cut nitrogen loss, boost profits ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190402164529.htm
|Date=April 2, 2019
|Authors= Penn State
|Summary=
The main idea of the article suggested in the article is that dairy farmers found that water quality and profitability could be improved if the timing and method of applying manure to fields are changed. The experiment is done by the "three-factor factorial experiment," where researchers compared the result of injecting manure into the soil and allow the crops to grow until planting rye as a winter cover crop versus allowing the rye to grow longer in the spring and harvesting it as forage; and applying manure before the cover crop is planted in September. As a result, they can produce more feed for their cattle and reduce the amount of nitrogen lost from their fields. If dairy farmers have access to manure-injection equipment, it is possible to create a better result with fewer resources needed as the supplier, at the same time, there would also be more environmentally friendly.

I found this article related to Apbi200 because other than the chemistry behind how things work, this also tells us the most basic concept in soil science, which is the combination of the use of the five factors of soil formation. All climate, biota, temperature, parent materials and time are considered in this case. This indicates that these factors are the basics of things we are going to go through in this field.

}}

== Bridge that collapsed six hours after opening was built without geotech investigation of riverbed: Reeve & No geotechnical study done on riverbed where new bridge collapsed in Saskatchewan, reeve says ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/bridge-that-collapsed-six-hours-after-opening-was-built-without-geotech-investigation-of-riverbed-reeve-1.4829890 & https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-no-geotechnical-study-done-on-riverbed-where-new-bridge-collapsed-in/
|Date=20 & 24 September 2018
|Authors=Geoff Leo from CBC News & Sask Hyas from the Canadian Press
|Summary=The geotechnical data for the Dyck Memorial Bridge project at Saskatchewan was not taken – meaning that the engineers who built the bridge did not know the soil properties of the foundation of the bridge. This has caused the bridge to collapse 6 hours after opening. Even though, there were no injuries, but it has caused a lot of issues to the engineers and the end users. Issues include people not being able to cross the Swan River and spending more money to fix/rebuild the bridge.

From researching more on the news, I learnt that soil has to be checked in order to know the properties of the soil. This can show us how strong the soil is (the soil’s bearing capacity). By knowing the soil properties, we can know the maximum height and weight of the building that the soil can hold. Besides that, we can also decide on which materials, such as timber, concrete and steel, to use for the framing structure of the building.

The engineers might not have collected the soil data because they considered it as a negligible matter. Other than that, it might be because a geotechnical test was done in the past. Even so, the results should not be used anymore because the soil properties might have changed. A lot of things that could have happened include earthquakes, acid rain, flooding, etc. Before building anything, engineers need to ensure that the soil properties have the right degrees of saturation, void ratio, and compaction rate, such as water content and air density. Besides that, the right depth us needed for the foundation of the structure.

After learning about soil properties on APBI 200 and finding out about this accident, I realize how crucial it is to check the soil properties as precise and accurate as possible. This is so that they can be used for different kinds of things, for example: building infrastructures. If the data were not taken correctly, it may cause a lot of problems like the Dyck Memorial Bridge collapse. Therefore, taking soil properties needs to be taken seriously.

}}

== Mega Mansions Banned On Agriculture Reserve Lands ==

{{APBI
|URL=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/bc-agricultural-land-reserve-mega-mansions-ban-farmland-february-2019
|Date=February 23, 2019
|Authors= Kenneth Chan of Dailyhive
|Summary= This topic is basically about the banning of constructing mega mansion on British Columbia's agricultural land reserves. This prevents the illegal dumping of waste on farmland, forcing the people living on these lands, to actually use the land for farming purposes. This way it aim to better preserve BC's fertile soils for farming and ranching, not as a sign to flaunt your wealth by destroying the soil. This is important to me because without regulations, people can just buy up these farmlands and turn them into mega mansions which greatly affect the crops grown in BC. What if every blueberry farm turned into one of these? Production will be lower, which means higher cost. This affect me because I love eating blueberries and having to pay more will greatly outrage me. This is related to the topic of soil degradation. Mismanagement of land, addition of toxic chemicals into the soil will have a long lasting impact on these fertile soils.

}}

== What do gardens bring to urban ecosystems? ==

{{APBI
|URL= https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/what-do-gardens-bring-to-urban-ecosystems
|Date= March 13, 2019
|Authors= Martha Pings
|Summary= urban garden plays an important role in protecting environment recently. "A healthy community requires a healthy soil" as said by people, soil is essential for people to grow food or create their garden. organic matter is useful for plants growth as it provides nutrients. Urban agriculture land is differ from urban green land such as parks. They have different uses thus have differnet requirements. Urban argiculture land needs to be more fertilized, while green land maintain less nutrients. scientists encourage people to grow more urban gardens to protect the environment.

Mingyang Yuan 48011308
}}

Course:APBI200/Soil Memes

2019-04-01T19:06:20Z

MingyangYuan: /* Soil mixing? */

== Montmorillonite Meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:Montmorillonite Meme.jpg|thumb|Montmorillonite's shrink-swell properties allow for greater retention of water and plant nutrients]]
}}

== The Definition of Clay ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Definition_of_Clay.png
}}

== Chocolate Wednesdays ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= [[File:Screen Shot 2019-02-23 at 7.07.12 PM.png|thumb|Chocolate Wednesdays]]
}}

== Soil Compaction by Kevin Malone ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Screen_Shot_2019-02-14_at_11.53.45_AM.png#file
}}

== a sand castle building tip ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=File:Sand_Castle.jpg&oldid=545364
}}

== Soil horizon meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://imgflip.com/i/2vw6b1
}}

== ... bacterial farts. SN: 65697757 ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://media.giphy.com/media/crYAYbNvXE2BhOOinq/giphy.gif
}}

== The Struggle- Diana Satkauskas ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= [[File:The Struggle.png|thumb|Soil Meme]]
}}

== Soil Colour Meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_Colour_Meme.jpg
}}

== Someone fix me :') ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Someone_fix_me.png
}}

== Chocolate Wednesday's ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:54518464_2307406839531548_3315998233238437888_n.jpg
}}

== why do A and B horizon don't have kids ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://imgflip.com/i/2wuax5
}}

== https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:If_farmers_would_stop.pngIf farmers would stop ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:If_farmers_would_stop.png
}}

== Called out ==
[[File:Called_out.jpg|thumb|called out]]

== At This Point, I'm Too Afraid To Ask ==
{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/images/d/d9/APBI_200_Soil_Meme.jpg
}}

== [[File:Soil Meme ttulissi.jpg|thumb|soil meme]] ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Pikachu phosphorous meme - Shruti Sridhar ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://imgflip.com/i/2x0yoh

}}

== Plant thoughts ==
[[:File:Plant thoughts.jpg|https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Plant_thoughts.jpg]]

== Nutrient Cycles ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= [[File:Nutrient Cycles.jpg|thumb|APBI 200 Soil Meme]]
}}

== Soil Colour ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_Colour.jpg
}}

== You and soil under mulch after winter ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= http://www.livememe.com/koy2zdt.jpg

}}

== Is it pronounce hummus or humus? ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Hummus_or_Humus.jpg
}}

== It's tru tho ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Its_true_tho.png
}}

== Brian the Gardener ==

[[File:Bad Luck Brian the Gardener.jpg|thumb|meme for apbi200]]

== Soil science is real science. ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

Matthew Bavis[[File:SOIL SCIENCE is real science!.jpg|thumb|This meme is mocking people who don't understand the intricacies and complexity of soil science.]]

== Montmorillonite is Bae ==

https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Montmorillonite_is_Bae.jpg

}}

== B horizons ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:B_horizons.jpg
}}

== Soil Meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_Meme_Yippee.jpg#filelinks

}}

== lab soil texture experiment ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_texture_experiment.jpg
}}

== When you don't know the answer ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:Soil Meme.png|thumb|When Sandra knows your name but you don't know the answer; LEACHING]]
}}

== "the look on my face... " ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:The_look_on_my_face_when.jpg
}}

== "Honest Work" by Kara Lindsay ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_meme_2019.jpg
}}

== Tragic Realization- Samuel Tuffin ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:55529920_2817309068493282_9201989782689808384_n.jpg
}}

== Maury ==

https://imgflip.com/i/2xacwq{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Soil horizons ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:11221.jpg
}}

== Thats none of my business ==

{{APBI200_Meme
|https://imgflip.com/i/2xb3wk|URL= https://imgflip.com/i/2xb3wk
}}

== Tateum Cava 53041018: Soil meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://imgflip.com/i/2xb5mf
}}

== Walking to Forestry building ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Walking_to_Forestry_building.jpg
}}

== I haven't aged ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:I_haven%27t_aged.jpg
}}

== Soil is Life ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_is_Life.jpg
}}

== [[File:Add this to your tinder profile and you will get laid by tortuous soil girls...guaranteed!.gif|thumb|APBI 200 soil meme]]Add this to your to your tinder profile and you will get laid by tortuous soil girls...guaranteed! ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== If there's one thing I know it's this ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
https://wiki.ubc.ca/images/6/65/Loam_meme.png
}}

== Serena Sturton's Soil Meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Serena_Sturton%27s_Soil_Meme.jpg
}}

== Hannah O'Toole's Soil Meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://imgflip.com/i/2xcy4x

== https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Tardigrade_meme_by_Iris_Zeng.png ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Daile (Iris) Zeng's soil meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Tardigrade_meme_by_Iris_Zeng.png
}}

== I'm fine ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:I‘m fine.jpg|thumb|when you can not tell the soil texture by hand-texturing]]
}}

== Iris/Soil Acidity ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_acidity.jpg
}}

== understand soil science student lingo ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:Screen Shot 2019-03-30 at 7.11.25 PM.png|thumb|soil science meme]]
}}

== Soil Definition ==
[[File:Clay_Definition_Meme.jpg|thumb|I generated this meme through imgflip.comhttps://imgflip.com/i/2xds2p?merp=1554013261.8664]]

== Tristen Brush soil meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
[[File:Soil meme.png|thumb]]
}}

== [[File:APBI 200 Conductivity Meme.jpg|thumb|Hydraulic Conductivity meme]] ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Soil Microbe ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Screen_Shot_2019-03-31_at_12.23.07_PM.png
}}

== What's Your Favorite Color? ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Whatsyourfavoritecolor.jpg
}}

== Watching Water Drip ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= [[File:Watching Water Drip.png|thumb|APBI bonus]]
}}

== Look at the soil deposit by environment ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:BioMeme.jpg
}}

== Everything gets fixed ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Everything_gets_fixed.jpg
}}

== Mass ion effect ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Mass_Ion_Effect_Meme.jpg
}}

== organic layer has better thermal conductivity ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Thermal_conductivity_meme.jpg
}}

== ABC's Horizons ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:ABC%27s_Horizons.jpg#filelinks
}}

[http://File:ABC%27s_Horizons.jpg#filelinks File:ABC%27s_Horizons.jpg#filelinks]

== LOAM!? ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= [[File:2xfqa7.jpg|thumb|POST MALOAM]]
}}

== [[File:What's your favourite colour?.jpg|thumb|what's your favourite colour?]] ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Soil horizon ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:Screen Shot 2019-03-31 at 8.18.01 PM.png|thumb|Soil horizon meme]]
}}

== Aggregation ==

[[File:2xfzfq.jpg|thumb]]
{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Water when the soil is porous ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:Water when the soil is porous.jpg|thumb|soil meme]]
}}

== Final Exam Meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= [[File:Soil Meme - GW.jpg|thumb|Gabriel Wan's (88631841) Soil Meme - APBI 200 Bonus]]
}}

== When you forget how to spell montmorillonite ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}
https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Soil_memes.jpg

== Soil analysis ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:2xgaq9.jpg|thumb|A meme for the APBI 200 Meme bonus assignment]]
}}

== Soil color by Alexandra Iannantuono ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}
[[File:Soil color.jpg|thumb|Soil color]]

== Sandra has changed my way of thinking! ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Wow!_Much_Surprise!_Much_Knowledge!.jpg
}}

== Humus form order knowledge ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Humus_form_order_knoweldge.jpg
}}

== soil taste test ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=[[File:Soil meme- taste the soil.png|thumb|soil meme]]
}}

== Soil science meme ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://imgflip.com/i/2xhq2e
}}

== Soil Surface ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
[[File:Surface Soil|thumb|[[File:Soil meme Wei Yue 24802019.jpg|thumb|Surface Soil]]]]
}}

== Perfect Soil ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Perfect_soil.jpg
}}

== What is argillipedoturbation? ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:What_is_argillipedoturbation%3F.jpg
}}

== "Soil Salesman" by Morgan Tien ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL= https://imgflip.com/i/2xhsk9
}}

== Shanzae Tariq soil meme ==

https://www.livememe.com/i8if48x{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

== Soil mixing? ==

{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=https://www.livememe.com/anqr9b5
}}

== Sandra's Office ==

[[File:Queer Office.jpg|thumb|Sandra's Office]]
{{APBI200_Meme
||URL=
}}

Course:APBI200/Soil Memes

2019-04-01T19:00:16Z

MingyangYuan: /* Soil mixing? */ new section

File:Mingyang Yuan Memo.jpg

2019-04-01T18:55:00Z

MingyangYuan: User created page with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Student #48011308}}
|date=2019-04-01
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:MingyangYuan|MingyangYuan]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

[[Category:Memo]]

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-26T22:24:51Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

This case study will discuss how local community and individuals together with local government reconstruct Sendai after the Great Earthquake in 2011. It uses different resources including governmental survey, news, and journals to explore the topic. This case study talks about the components of community forestry in Sendai, Japan. It examines the tenure arrangements and what actions are taken to rebuild the forestry system. It also explains the importance of forestry in the reconstruction process, and how community benefits from it. Community acts as an important part in recovering and actions are made to help reconstruction. This case study talks about the actions of government, community, and individual taken through reconstruction. Though it has been 7 years after the earthquake happened, this area is still under construction. So this case study states some advice for further efforts.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
[[File:Ordinance designed Cities.png|thumb|479x479px|Japan Map]]
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into '''"owner-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by an owner, and '''"tenant-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the '''land commission''' of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state. (Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are being affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: '''local community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''': the farmers asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science''': they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

==Discussion==
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' (JFS, 2013) aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan''' works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.
[[File:Sendai city - Hirose river 2005.jpg|thumb|395x395px|Sendai City]]
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
{{Projectbox FRST370
|names=
|share=
}}

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-26T21:29:00Z

MingyangYuan: /* Description */

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
[[File:Ordinance designed Cities.png|thumb|479x479px|Japan Map]]
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into '''"owner-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by an owner, and '''"tenant-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the '''land commission''' of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state. (Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are being affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: '''local community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''': the farmers asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science''': they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

==Discussion==
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' (JFS, 2013) aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan''' works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.
[[File:Sendai city - Hirose river 2005.jpg|thumb|395x395px|Sendai City]]
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
{{Projectbox FRST370
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}}

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-26T21:27:25Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
[[File:Ordinance designed Cities.png|thumb|479x479px|Japan Map]]
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into '''"owner-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by an owner, and '''"tenant-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the '''land commission''' of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state. (Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are being affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: '''local community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''': the farmers asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science''': they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

==Discussion==
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' (JFS, 2013) aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan''' works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.
[[File:Sendai city - Hirose river 2005.jpg|thumb|395x395px|Sendai City]]
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
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Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-26T21:20:43Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).
[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
[[File:Ordinance designed Cities.png|thumb|479x479px|Japan Map]]
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into '''"owner-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by an owner, and '''"tenant-farmer" land''', which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the '''land commission''' of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state. (Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: '''local community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''': the farmers asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science''': they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' (JFS, 2013) aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.
[[File:Sendai city - Hirose river 2005.jpg|thumb|395x395px|Sendai City]]
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
{{Projectbox FRST370
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Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-26T21:01:31Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. Although buildings have been under phased reconstruction, there remain many vacant lots in this area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).
[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
[[File:Ordinance designed Cities.png|thumb|479x479px|Japan Map]]
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into "owner-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by an owner, and "tenant-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the land commission of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

(Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事 ''chiji'') in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長 ''shichōsonchō'') in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会 ''gikai''), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会 ''sōkai''). (MIC, 2009)
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: l'''ocal community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Seaside exchange and revitalization project to “restore the beautiful coast”:

- Restore coastal disaster-prevention forests, Gamo tidal flats, etc.

- Re-develop sports/recreation facilities.

- Secure the safety of citizens visiting the coast.

3. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''' (affected stakeholders): the farmers(affected stakeholders) asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government(interested stakeholder) or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)(interested stakeholder) that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science'''(interested stakeholders): they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': the agricultural production systems that had been operated by '''individual farmers or collectives'''(affected stakeholders) collapsed, as did the communities that had supported them. The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

'''Students''' who participated in this project to help restoration shared the experiences of participating in the '''Revival Rice Project''', the '''East Japan Assistance Project''' and the '''Radioactivity Monitoring System of Farmland'''. In their words, we know that the '''local people and community''' are urgent to recover their land and farm again. The '''forest managers''' are also finding ways to recover the forest land.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' (JFS, 2013) aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide. Non-hazardous debris is selected and then mixed with soil to build an embankment for a plantation, increasing the height of the forest and thus enhancing its tsunami control capabilities.

There are conflicts between natural elements and constructions, so that community and government should work together to solve these problems. Local people knows their lands better than the government officers, while government has more power and access to the resources. If they can collaborate, the work would be done efficiently within relatively short time.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

Seawalls and dikes might damage coastal ecosystems and flora and fauna. The new marsh habitats created by the tsunami might also be damaged by seawall construction. Hardening of the coastline can also affect tourism and fisheries by limiting access to the coastline for recreation and destroying or damaging fish habitat.

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.
[[File:Sendai city - Hirose river 2005.jpg|thumb|395x395px|Sendai City]]
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
{{Projectbox FRST370
|names=
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Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-16T18:30:03Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. Although buildings have been under phased reconstruction, there remain many vacant lots in this area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).
[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
[[File:Ordinance designed Cities.png|thumb|479x479px|Japan Map]]
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into "owner-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by an owner, and "tenant-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the land commission of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

(Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事 ''chiji'') in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長 ''shichōsonchō'') in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会 ''gikai''), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会 ''sōkai''). (MIC, 2009)
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: l'''ocal community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Seaside exchange and revitalization project to “restore the beautiful coast”:

- Restore coastal disaster-prevention forests, Gamo tidal flats, etc.

- Re-develop sports/recreation facilities.

- Secure the safety of citizens visiting the coast.

3. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''' (affected stakeholders): the farmers(affected stakeholders) asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government(interested stakeholder) or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)(interested stakeholder) that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science'''(interested stakeholders): they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': the agricultural production systems that had been operated by '''individual farmers or collectives'''(affected stakeholders) collapsed, as did the communities that had supported them. The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

3. The use of MMS: MMS is a 3-D laser measurement system based on technology developed by NTT Geospace Corporation that uses a vehicle-mounted digital camera and 3-D laser measurement device to create 3-D digital maps of an area’s topography, including buildings. They confirm the utility of the MMS 3-D laser measurement device for creating agricultural and community revival plans following disasters. They will use this measurement for future restoration work.

'''Students''' who participated in this project to help restoration shared the experiences of participating in the '''Revival Rice Project''', the '''East Japan Assistance Project''' and the '''Radioactivity Monitoring System of Farmland'''. In their words, we know that the '''local people and community''' are urgent to recover their land and farm again. The '''forest managers''' are also finding ways to recover the forest land.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

In 17th century, rice cultivation was heavily supported by trees, leaves, fallen leaves and water from “satoyama”, where community forests grown on hilly and low mountain regions. Since 1911, “forest conservation projects”, which aims to recover deteriorated forests ad prevent sediment disasters, have been conducted systematically.

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

There is a volunteer project called "'''Great Forest Wall'''" (JFS, 2013). It is an effort to protect lives from future tsunamis by mixing disaster debris with soil to form an embankment along the Tōhoku coastline and planting various types of broad-leaf trees along its top. This resource can be used as the effort of community forestry made in the reconstruction of the Earthquake.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide. Non-hazardous debris is selected and then mixed with soil to build an embankment for a plantation, increasing the height of the forest and thus enhancing its tsunami control capabilities.

There are conflicts between natural elements and constructions, so that community and government should work together to solve these problems. Local people knows their lands better than the government officers, while government has more power and access to the resources. If they can collaborate, the work would be done efficiently within relatively short time.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

Seawalls and dikes might damage coastal ecosystems and flora and fauna. The new marsh habitats created by the tsunami might also be damaged by seawall construction. Hardening of the coastline can also affect tourism and fisheries by limiting access to the coastline for recreation and destroying or damaging fish habitat.

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

The environmental, social, and economic benefits of investments such as coastal forests, parks, and natural spaces are documented, but how these measures preform as a disaster risk reduction method at a large-scale needs further research.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.
[[File:Sendai city - Hirose river 2005.jpg|thumb|395x395px|Sendai City]]
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
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Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-16T18:18:48Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
[[File:Symbol of Sendai, Miyagi.svg|thumb|
Symbol of Sendai City
]]
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. Although buildings have been under phased reconstruction, there remain many vacant lots in this area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).
[[File:Sendai Dainohara Forest Park (17158977807).jpg|center|thumb|780x780px|Sendai Forest Park]]
==Tenure arrangements==
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into "owner-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by an owner, and "tenant-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the land commission of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

(Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事 ''chiji'') in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長 ''shichōsonchō'') in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会 ''gikai''), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会 ''sōkai''). (MIC, 2009)
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: l'''ocal community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:
[[File:Sendai Airport after the tsunami.jpg|thumb|410x410px|Sendai Airport after the Earthquake]]
1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Seaside exchange and revitalization project to “restore the beautiful coast”:

- Restore coastal disaster-prevention forests, Gamo tidal flats, etc.

- Re-develop sports/recreation facilities.

- Secure the safety of citizens visiting the coast.

3. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''' (affected stakeholders): the farmers(affected stakeholders) asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.
[[File:Japan earthquake & tsunami- UK response (5552754450).jpg|thumb|International assistance]]
2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government(interested stakeholder) or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)(interested stakeholder) that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science'''(interested stakeholders): they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': the agricultural production systems that had been operated by '''individual farmers or collectives'''(affected stakeholders) collapsed, as did the communities that had supported them. The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

3. The use of MMS: MMS is a 3-D laser measurement system based on technology developed by NTT Geospace Corporation that uses a vehicle-mounted digital camera and 3-D laser measurement device to create 3-D digital maps of an area’s topography, including buildings. They confirm the utility of the MMS 3-D laser measurement device for creating agricultural and community revival plans following disasters. They will use this measurement for future restoration work.

'''Students''' who participated in this project to help restoration shared the experiences of participating in the '''Revival Rice Project''', the '''East Japan Assistance Project''' and the '''Radioactivity Monitoring System of Farmland'''. In their words, we know that the '''local people and community''' are urgent to recover their land and farm again. The '''forest managers''' are also finding ways to recover the forest land.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).
[[File:Lights in Japan after earthquake.jpg|thumb|476x476px|Light in Japan after Earthquake -- Sendai]]
The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

In 17th century, rice cultivation was heavily supported by trees, leaves, fallen leaves and water from “satoyama”, where community forests grown on hilly and low mountain regions. Since 1911, “forest conservation projects”, which aims to recover deteriorated forests ad prevent sediment disasters, have been conducted systematically.

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

There is a volunteer project called "'''Great Forest Wall'''" (JFS, 2013). It is an effort to protect lives from future tsunamis by mixing disaster debris with soil to form an embankment along the Tōhoku coastline and planting various types of broad-leaf trees along its top. This resource can be used as the effort of community forestry made in the reconstruction of the Earthquake.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide. Non-hazardous debris is selected and then mixed with soil to build an embankment for a plantation, increasing the height of the forest and thus enhancing its tsunami control capabilities.

There are conflicts between natural elements and constructions, so that community and government should work together to solve these problems. Local people knows their lands better than the government officers, while government has more power and access to the resources. If they can collaborate, the work would be done efficiently within relatively short time.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

Seawalls and dikes might damage coastal ecosystems and flora and fauna. The new marsh habitats created by the tsunami might also be damaged by seawall construction. Hardening of the coastline can also affect tourism and fisheries by limiting access to the coastline for recreation and destroying or damaging fish habitat.

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

The environmental, social, and economic benefits of investments such as coastal forests, parks, and natural spaces are documented, but how these measures preform as a disaster risk reduction method at a large-scale needs further research.

==Assessment==
[[File:Reconstruction of Senseki Line after 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.jpg|thumb|396x396px|Reconstruction after the Earthquake]]
The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
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Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-15T03:51:38Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. Although buildings have been under phased reconstruction, there remain many vacant lots in this area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).

==Tenure arrangements==
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into "owner-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by an owner, and "tenant-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the land commission of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

(Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事 ''chiji'') in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長 ''shichōsonchō'') in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会 ''gikai''), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会 ''sōkai''). (MIC, 2009)
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: l'''ocal community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:

1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Seaside exchange and revitalization project to “restore the beautiful coast”:

- Restore coastal disaster-prevention forests, Gamo tidal flats, etc.

- Re-develop sports/recreation facilities.

- Secure the safety of citizens visiting the coast.

3. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''' (affected stakeholders): the farmers(affected stakeholders) asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.

2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government(interested stakeholder) or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)(interested stakeholder) that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science'''(interested stakeholders): they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': the agricultural production systems that had been operated by '''individual farmers or collectives'''(affected stakeholders) collapsed, as did the communities that had supported them. The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

3. The use of MMS: MMS is a 3-D laser measurement system based on technology developed by NTT Geospace Corporation that uses a vehicle-mounted digital camera and 3-D laser measurement device to create 3-D digital maps of an area’s topography, including buildings. They confirm the utility of the MMS 3-D laser measurement device for creating agricultural and community revival plans following disasters. They will use this measurement for future restoration work.

'''Students''' who participated in this project to help restoration shared the experiences of participating in the '''Revival Rice Project''', the '''East Japan Assistance Project''' and the '''Radioactivity Monitoring System of Farmland'''. In their words, we know that the '''local people and community''' are urgent to recover their land and farm again. The '''forest managers''' are also finding ways to recover the forest land.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).

The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

In 17th century, rice cultivation was heavily supported by trees, leaves, fallen leaves and water from “satoyama”, where community forests grown on hilly and low mountain regions. Since 1911, “forest conservation projects”, which aims to recover deteriorated forests ad prevent sediment disasters, have been conducted systematically.

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

There is a volunteer project called "'''Great Forest Wall'''" (JFS, 2013). It is an effort to protect lives from future tsunamis by mixing disaster debris with soil to form an embankment along the Tōhoku coastline and planting various types of broad-leaf trees along its top. This resource can be used as the effort of community forestry made in the reconstruction of the Earthquake.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide. Non-hazardous debris is selected and then mixed with soil to build an embankment for a plantation, increasing the height of the forest and thus enhancing its tsunami control capabilities.

There are conflicts between natural elements and constructions, so that community and government should work together to solve these problems. Local people knows their lands better than the government officers, while government has more power and access to the resources. If they can collaborate, the work would be done efficiently within relatively short time.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

Seawalls and dikes might damage coastal ecosystems and flora and fauna. The new marsh habitats created by the tsunami might also be damaged by seawall construction. Hardening of the coastline can also affect tourism and fisheries by limiting access to the coastline for recreation and destroying or damaging fish habitat.

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

The environmental, social, and economic benefits of investments such as coastal forests, parks, and natural spaces are documented, but how these measures preform as a disaster risk reduction method at a large-scale needs further research.

==Assessment==

The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks (Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

Apparently, the power of the government is the strongest. Government has experts to make the reconstruction plan and policy and staffs to implement them. It also has the greatest influence and can call on the masses and companies to participate in the event. All departments of the government have their own special work and accusations. The cooperation between the departments can make the country operate. But sometimes, the structure of the government has its drawbacks, for example, the promotion and implementation of policies cannot be timely conveyed. Also the national government does not know the local situation in a timely and accurate manner, so that it might be hard to provide right directions. This situation often causes some conflicts and delays.

Local communities also have strong power, they are affected stakeholders who value their lands and property. They live in that area and care about the environments. They know the nature condition better than outsiders and often willing to protect them. Personal strength is not enough to change the overall environment, but individuals who unite to form groups have more ability to accomplish what they want to accomplish. Their voice is more easily heard and responded to by the society. Communities can also receive funding and help from more sources., which help them recover faster.

Interested outside stakeholders, like the student volunteers and NGOs, have different level of powers, they can provide financial or physical assistance. They might not have the power of making policy, but they can be the implementer. They play a similar role with social media, attracting more resources for local help.

==Recommendations==
I have different recommendations for the governments, local communities, and the interested outside stakeholders. These suggestions might not be sufficient, but they can help more or less for their current situation.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Recommendations
|-
|Government
|There are several recommendations for the central government:
* The government should send researchers or directors to this particular area for better knowledge of the real situation of local people and the environment.
* The government should supervise the mainstream media to report relevant information and attract as much help as possible through propaganda.
* The government should negotiate with the bank about the use and flow of bailout funds to ensure that funds can be used in time for rescue and reconstruction work in the disaster area.
* The government should give people confidence and hope, and let people believe that one day they can return to their familiar hometown.
For the local government:
* The government should develop resources and potential careers other than agriculture or rice cultivation. Tourism might be a good choice, it can attract people from different culture and countries who can provide different suggestions for local constructions.
* The government should work closely with the people for construction and timely adjust and improve the plan.
|-
|Local communities
|Local communities should plant and protect their vegetation and forests together. People can organize meetings regularly to discuss the current level of progress and future plans. Coastal forests need to be managed and maintained, and local people are undoubtedly the most suitable people to do this work. Some influential people in the local area, such as actors, athletes, and politicians, can promote their hometowns on suitable occasions, attract more people to travel to this place, and drive economic development. Local communities can create some local specialties that can be used as representative or label of this area. It also benefits the exportation, which can be a financial support for construction.
|-
|Interested outside stakeholders (e.g. NGOs, volunteers)
|Universities, regional or international, can provide more activities, like student volunteers and researches. These activities can both help the local communities and improve the abilities of students as well as the reputation of schools.
NGOs can set up a special project or foundation to provide technical and financial assistance to local people.

Some organizations can also take the opportunity to train technicians with relevant qualities, like forests maintainanceor forest science, to prepare for future challenges.
|}

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
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Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T23:16:22Z

MingyangYuan: /* Assessment */

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. Although buildings have been under phased reconstruction, there remain many vacant lots in this area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).

==Tenure arrangements==
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into "owner-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by an owner, and "tenant-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the land commission of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

(Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事 ''chiji'') in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長 ''shichōsonchō'') in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会 ''gikai''), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会 ''sōkai''). (MIC, 2009)
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: l'''ocal community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:

1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Seaside exchange and revitalization project to “restore the beautiful coast”:

- Restore coastal disaster-prevention forests, Gamo tidal flats, etc.

- Re-develop sports/recreation facilities.

- Secure the safety of citizens visiting the coast.

3. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''' (affected stakeholders): the farmers(affected stakeholders) asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.

2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government(interested stakeholder) or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)(interested stakeholder) that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science'''(interested stakeholders): they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': the agricultural production systems that had been operated by '''individual farmers or collectives'''(affected stakeholders) collapsed, as did the communities that had supported them. The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

3. The use of MMS: MMS is a 3-D laser measurement system based on technology developed by NTT Geospace Corporation that uses a vehicle-mounted digital camera and 3-D laser measurement device to create 3-D digital maps of an area’s topography, including buildings. They confirm the utility of the MMS 3-D laser measurement device for creating agricultural and community revival plans following disasters. They will use this measurement for future restoration work.

'''Students''' who participated in this project to help restoration shared the experiences of participating in the '''Revival Rice Project''', the '''East Japan Assistance Project''' and the '''Radioactivity Monitoring System of Farmland'''. In their words, we know that the '''local people and community''' are urgent to recover their land and farm again. The '''forest managers''' are also finding ways to recover the forest land.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).

The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

In 17th century, rice cultivation was heavily supported by trees, leaves, fallen leaves and water from “satoyama”, where community forests grown on hilly and low mountain regions. Since 1911, “forest conservation projects”, which aims to recover deteriorated forests ad prevent sediment disasters, have been conducted systematically.

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

There is a volunteer project called "'''Great Forest Wall'''" (JFS, 2013). It is an effort to protect lives from future tsunamis by mixing disaster debris with soil to form an embankment along the Tōhoku coastline and planting various types of broad-leaf trees along its top. This resource can be used as the effort of community forestry made in the reconstruction of the Earthquake.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide. Non-hazardous debris is selected and then mixed with soil to build an embankment for a plantation, increasing the height of the forest and thus enhancing its tsunami control capabilities.

There are conflicts between natural elements and constructions, so that community and government should work together to solve these problems. Local people knows their lands better than the government officers, while government has more power and access to the resources. If they can collaborate, the work would be done efficiently within relatively short time.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

Seawalls and dikes might damage coastal ecosystems and flora and fauna. The new marsh habitats created by the tsunami might also be damaged by seawall construction. Hardening of the coastline can also affect tourism and fisheries by limiting access to the coastline for recreation and destroying or damaging fish habitat.

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

The environmental, social, and economic benefits of investments such as coastal forests, parks, and natural spaces are documented, but how these measures preform as a disaster risk reduction method at a large-scale needs further research.

==Assessment==

The speed of reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake is relatively slow. According to Reconstruction Agency figures, over the last two years more than 100,000 people displaced by the Great East Japan Earthquake have moved from provisional lodging to permanent accommodations. As of January 2018, though, approximately 75,000 evacuees remain in temporary housing, including around 20,000 who reside with relatives and another 20,000 in temporary prefabricated structures (2018).

Japanese government funds budgeted for reconstruction and transferred to local governments are stuck in banks across the tsunami-ravaged northeast, a Reuters review of budget and bank deposit data and interviews with bank officials reveals. The central government has paid out more than $50 billion directly to local governments in Miyagi, Iwate and Fukushima prefectures, the areas hardest hit by the disaster. But about 60 percent of that money remains on deposit in the region's banks(Uranaka & Slodkowski, 2014).

==Recommendations==
Your recommendations about this community forestry project

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

The State of Recovery in Tōhoku Seven Years After 3/11. (2018). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00169/</nowiki>

Uranaka, T., & Slodkowski, A. (2014). $30 Billion Meant To Rebuild After The Japan Tsunami Is Still Sitting In Banks. Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.businessinsider.com/r-special-report-tsunami-evacuees-caught-in-30-billion-money-trap-2014-10</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
{{Projectbox FRST370
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}}

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T23:01:03Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
Sendai is the capital city of Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, the largest city in the Tōhoku region, and the second largest city north of Tokyo. The Great East Japan earthquake occurred at March 11th, 2011. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since 1900. The earthquake triggered tsunami and caused enormous damage including the nuclear accidents.

Over the centuries, communities have planted coastal forests as barriers against the sea. Of the 230 kilometers of protective coastal forests, two-thirds were heavily damaged by the tsunami (Cyranoski, 2012). There is only one single pine tree left after the catastrophic damage, and it has become a symbol of the local society's reconstruction (Edahiro, 2011).

According to the assessment done by the Ecological Science Working Group, Integrative Biology Committee of the Science Council of Japan, Tōhoku area must overcome the extensive salt damage challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again. Coastal zone ecosystems are more resilient compared to terrestrial forests, however have been weakened by human impacts (Edahiro, 2011).

The land cover and land use (LULC) changes a lot after the earthquake. Abandoned farmlands and wildlife numbers have increased in the evacuation zone and surrounding area. Although buildings have been under phased reconstruction, there remain many vacant lots in this area. The crop species are changed, some plants can no longer be cultivated due to the effects of tsunami. There is a high possibility that LULC will change in the future. Abandoned farmlands have become grasslands and are anticipated to ultimately change into forest (Ishihara & Tadono, 2017)

30% of the total area changed to barn land, 10% of the overall area changed for artificial use. Sand dune vegetation and coastal forest were vastly reduced in all surrey regions, and most were transformed through man-made developments or changed into barren lands. The seaweed beds, Zostera beds seabird breeding sites and benthos living landscape, were damaged at different degrees (Ichihashi, Horii, Tsukamoto, Someya, Terasawa, Iki & Abe, 2016).

Trees play an important role in coastal area. The coastal forests providing a wind break that stops san form blowing inland, and there is evidence that the forests have slowed tsunami waves resulting from some smaller quakes. The trees that stood saved lives in other ways. Some people who missed the call to evacuate were able to climb to safety and wait for rescue (Cyranoski, 2012).

Japanese government decided to invest ¥59 billion in replanting trees (Cyranoski, 2012).

==Tenure arrangements==
The forest covers 67% of land in Japan, which is the second highest rate in the world (Tajima, 2010).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Land use and forest use (total 37 million ha)
|-
|Forest
|67%
|-
|Farm
|13%
|-
|Others
|8%
|-
|Residential
|5%
|-
|River
|3%
|-
|Road
|3%
|-
|Plain
|1%
|}
More than half of the forestland is owned by individuals. The National Forest is 31% (7.8 million ha), Public Forest is 11% (2.7 minion ha), Private Forest is 58% (14.6 million ha).
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Forest Ownership (total 25 billon ha)
|-
|Private
|58%
|-
|National
|31%
|-
|State, city, Village (public)
|11%
|}
From the 2008 report of Ministry of Forestry, Japan. The forest land divided into 3 parts: planation, natural and unstacked land.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Planation
!Natural
!Unstocked land
|-
|Private Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|-
|National Forest
|30%
|65%
|5%
|-
|Public Forest
|45%
|50%
|5%
|}
The land tenure has changed in the history of Japan, and the recent four categories are: owner-farmer, part-owner, part-tenant, and tenant (Hewes, 1949).
* Agriculture land is divided into "owner-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by an owner, and "tenant-farmer" land, which is land cultivated by a tenant.
* The Owner-Farmer Establishment and Special Measures Law provides for transfer of agricultural land form owners to tenants. Its stated purpose is to establish ownership widely in order to stabilize the status of cultivators, increase production and promote democratic tendencies.
* Land is selected for purchase by the land commission of the city, town or village in which the land is situated. The plan is passed to the prefectural governor who consummates the purchase on behalf of the government. Which means government have the authority to buy the land from its owner and sell land to eligible persons.
* The lease of land must be in writing.
* All farm households can participate in the election of commissioners of the agricultural land commissions.

==Administrative arrangements==
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. Government is divided into three branches; the Legislative branch, the Executive branch and the Judicial branch.

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Emperor of Japan
!(the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people)
|-
|Executive branch
|Prime minister
|the head of the Cabinet, the government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (Article 72, Section 5 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947).
|-
|
|Cabinet of Japan
|Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

(Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|Ministries of Japan
|The Ministries of Japan consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister.
'''Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries''' are one of the ministries. It has Fisheries Agency and Forestry Agency.

("Ministries and Agencies". Government of Japan Website)
|-
|Legislative branch
|National Diet
|It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors.
The Diet responsibilities include the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the election of the Prime Minister.

(Article 1, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Representatives
|The legislative power of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. It is able to override vetos on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two-thirds majority, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will.
(Article 7, Section 1 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|
|House of Councillors
|The House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Councillors cannot be dissolved by the Prime Minister.
(Article 54(2), Section 4 of the Constitution of Japan, 1947)
|-
|Judicial branch
|Supreme Court
|It is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review.
4 lower courts: the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts, and Summary Courts. ("overview of the Judicial System in Japan". Supreme Court of Japan)
|-
|Local government
|
|The '''local governments''' of Japan are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially (Local government, n.d.).
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事 ''chiji'') in prefectures and a mayor (市町村長 ''shichōsonchō'') in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会 ''gikai''), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会 ''sōkai''). (MIC, 2009)
|}

==Affected Stakeholders==
The local people who lives in the Sendai area during the Great East Japan Earthquake period were strongly affected by the Earthquake and tsunami. The houses, buildings, farming lands and forests were destroyed. Many people lost their home and agricultural lands, some area even lost the access of electricity and clean water.

The '''farmers, individual and collectives,''' are affected the most. Agriculture and rice cultivation have been one of the most important industries of Japan for a very long time. After the catastrophe, the area have to overcome the extensive salt damage and the radioactive challenges if communities want to support agriculture and rice cultivation again (Edahiro, 2011).

The local government, '''Sendai government''' illustrated some relative policies for the reconstruction after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Sendai, n.d.). These policies encourage individuals, communities and government to work together to reconstruct the city and natural system:

1. '''Sendai’s efforts''': disaster prevention and disaster risk reduction measurement. These projects include restoration of the waste water treatment facilities and providing support for improving the earthquake resistance of detached houses and condominiums. The city of Sendai offers support for recovery and reconstruction of disaster areas by dispatching their staff members and providing relief supplies.

2. 3-dimention: Self-help: '''individual residents''' will take action to secure safety for themselves and their families during a disaster. Mutual aid: l'''ocal community organizations''' such as neighborhood associations will take action to secure the safety of their local communities during a disaster. Public assistance: the '''government''' will work to improve tangible aspects of disaster prevention such as infrastructure and facilities as well as intangible aspects such as ‘self-help’, ‘mutual aid’.

3. '''Resident’s efforts''': education for residents and children-How to make a community “disaster-resilient”. disaster risk reduction brochure for non-Japanese residents prepare for disasters together. Sharing experiences and lessons learned form the tsunami and our Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) efforts with future generations.

Sendai city also a specific plan for reconstruction after the Earthquake (2018), which community forestry engaged in:

1. Agricultural and food frontier zone:

- Building an agricultural and food frontier.

- Restoring and recovering farmland.

- Supporting farmers in enhancing their management base.

- Launching suburban agriculture.

- Promoting the sixth industry.

2. Seaside exchange and revitalization project to “restore the beautiful coast”:

- Restore coastal disaster-prevention forests, Gamo tidal flats, etc.

- Re-develop sports/recreation facilities.

- Secure the safety of citizens visiting the coast.

3. Exchange promotion project to “promote the features of the city and its reconstruction efforts”:

- Attracting '''international''' conferences and conventions, such as the '''United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction'''.

- Conducing a large-scale '''tourism''' campaign, etc.

- Inviting '''facilities''' to make Sendai more attractive and vital.

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Japanese society attached highly importance to the reconstruction after the disaster, and many outside organizations and groups contribute to the restoration process.

'''Tokyo University of Agriculture''' started a project called '''East Japan Assistance Project''', which aimed to help check the facilities and students whose family had been affected by the earthquake. It also provided financial aid to these students. This project would be act to resolve issues in response to requests for help from the disaster zones, rather than acting according their own interests (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. '''Student volunteers''' (affected stakeholders): the farmers(affected stakeholders) asked the project to send student volunteers to help them with some tasks like recovering the strawberry greenhouses and helping to grow strawberries. International students have also taken part in these voluntary activities.

2. '''Farming team''': check for radionuclides, obtaining an assurance form the national government(interested stakeholder) or Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)(interested stakeholder) that they would compensate farmers by buying agricultural produce if radionuclides were detected and produce could not be sold.

3. '''Soil fertilization team''': remove salt in farmland. They test the soil in farmland and provide information about this process to the farmers affected by the disasters. Their works include recovering the strawberry greenhouse, recover Tsunami-damaged paddy fields, and recover farmland contaminated by radioactivity.

4. '''Forest recovery team''': collect data and analyze the accumulation of radionuclide in forests and the penetration of cesium into trees.

There are many '''workshops that the Great East Japan Earthquake Recovery Assistance Project held with farmers''' aiming to proceed the revival of agriculture in Tōhoku Area. They use a three-dimensional laser measurement system with MMS(mobile mapping system) to reveal the changes in the topography. This system can be applied several fields related to community development, such as improving road infrastructure, or forecasting agricultural production (Monma, Gotō, Hayashi, Tachiya & Ohsawa, 2015).

1. The '''Faculty of Regional Environment Science''' and its 3 departments -- the '''Department of Forest Science''', the '''Department of Bioproduction and Environment Engineering''', and the '''Department of Landscape Architecture Science'''(interested stakeholders): they use multiple theories, such as education theory, planning and technology theory, policies and economic theory, to help revive rural communities.

2. '''Agricultural revival workshops''': the agricultural production systems that had been operated by '''individual farmers or collectives'''(affected stakeholders) collapsed, as did the communities that had supported them. The workshops is a means to discuss how to work toward resuming commercial agriculture in line with the community’s visions for its future.

3. The use of MMS: MMS is a 3-D laser measurement system based on technology developed by NTT Geospace Corporation that uses a vehicle-mounted digital camera and 3-D laser measurement device to create 3-D digital maps of an area’s topography, including buildings. They confirm the utility of the MMS 3-D laser measurement device for creating agricultural and community revival plans following disasters. They will use this measurement for future restoration work.

'''Students''' who participated in this project to help restoration shared the experiences of participating in the '''Revival Rice Project''', the '''East Japan Assistance Project''' and the '''Radioactivity Monitoring System of Farmland'''. In their words, we know that the '''local people and community''' are urgent to recover their land and farm again. The '''forest managers''' are also finding ways to recover the forest land.

==Discussion==
Local governments have provided approximately 54,000 “emergency temporary houses” with a quarter of those houses (approximately 15,000 houses) being built with a wooden structure. They also constructed or plan to construct approximately 7,000 public houses (reconstruction houses) with a wooden structure (Forest Agency, 2015).

The recovery works in the damaged coastal disaster-prevention forests are underway, to be completed within ten years. The recovery works have been commenced in a total of 114km of coastal disaster-prevention forests, except for areas where entry is prohibited due to radioactivity. The works have been completed for 38km of the entire forests under recovery work (Forest Agency, 2015).

Coastal forests helped to reduce the power of tsunami, slow the speed of tsunami to arrive on land, capture driftage and contributed to weakening the disaster. They are effective to certain extent against waves less than 6 meters and significantly effective for those waves which are 3 meters and below (Takehiko, 2012).

In 17th century, rice cultivation was heavily supported by trees, leaves, fallen leaves and water from “satoyama”, where community forests grown on hilly and low mountain regions. Since 1911, “forest conservation projects”, which aims to recover deteriorated forests ad prevent sediment disasters, have been conducted systematically.

Recovery and strengthening of the coastal forests should be done cooperatively by the '''people''' and the '''governments''' of that region, '''volunteer groups''' and everyone in Japan and around the world.

Timber is suitable for architectural material and engineering material. It should be stored in future so that it may be used as emergency material.

There is a volunteer project called "'''Great Forest Wall'''" (JFS, 2013). It is an effort to protect lives from future tsunamis by mixing disaster debris with soil to form an embankment along the Tōhoku coastline and planting various types of broad-leaf trees along its top. This resource can be used as the effort of community forestry made in the reconstruction of the Earthquake.

The '''Great Forest Wall Project''' aims to build a green seawall that will reduce the force of tsunamis and prevent people and personal possessions from drifting out into the ocean in an ebb tide. Non-hazardous debris is selected and then mixed with soil to build an embankment for a plantation, increasing the height of the forest and thus enhancing its tsunami control capabilities.

There are conflicts between natural elements and constructions, so that community and government should work together to solve these problems. Local people knows their lands better than the government officers, while government has more power and access to the resources. If they can collaborate, the work would be done efficiently within relatively short time.

There are alternative plans for the construction while facing the conflicts with nature (2017):

1. Coastal defenses:

Seawalls and dikes might damage coastal ecosystems and flora and fauna. The new marsh habitats created by the tsunami might also be damaged by seawall construction. Hardening of the coastline can also affect tourism and fisheries by limiting access to the coastline for recreation and destroying or damaging fish habitat.

One of the alternative initiatives is the '''Millennium Hope Hills project''', which is a park system that will provide an evacuation area and buffer against tsunami impacts through a system of engineered tree-covered mounds and elevated pathways.

Another alternative example is the '''restoration of the coastal forest belt''' designed to buffer tsunami impacts. Replanted trees will be on elevated mounds to create additional room for the roots to take hold as well as provide an additional buffer against tsunamis and debris.

2. Coastal livelihoods:

'''WWF-Japan'''(interested stakeholder) works to improve coastal livelihood an fisheries. The '''Nature and Livelihood Recovery Project''', included natural environment, marine pollution, and fishery economics surveys.

The environmental, social, and economic benefits of investments such as coastal forests, parks, and natural spaces are documented, but how these measures preform as a disaster risk reduction method at a large-scale needs further research.

==Assessment==

==Recommendations==
Your recommendations about this community forestry project

==References==
Annual Report on Forest and Forestry in Japan(summary). (2015). ''Forestry Agency. Ministry of agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.'' Retrieved November 14, 2018 from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kikaku/hakusyo/27hakusyo/attach/pdf/index-1.pdf</nowiki>

Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

"Government Directory." JapanGov. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>https://www.japan.go.jp/directory/</nowiki>.

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

MIC. (2009). Local autonomy in Japan: current situation 7 future shape. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from http://www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/other_data/pdf/20100216_soumu_e.pdf

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Tajima, D. (2010). Forestry in Japan: Solutions for the Future. ''World Forestry Center''. Retrieved November 14, 2018 from

<nowiki>https://www.worldforestry.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dtajima_2010.pdf</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

三割自治 "Local Government". (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2018, from <nowiki>http://countrystudies.us/japan/116.htm</nowiki>
"裁判所 Courts in Japan." 裁判所｜Justices of the Supreme Court. Accessed November 14, 2018. <nowiki>http://www.courts.go.jp/about/sosiki/gaiyo/index.html</nowiki>.
{{Projectbox FRST370
|names=
|share=
}}

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T21:58:47Z

MingyangYuan:

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T21:52:15Z

MingyangYuan:

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T21:39:42Z

MingyangYuan: /* Administrative arrangements */

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T21:00:37Z

MingyangYuan: /* Tenure arrangements */

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T19:04:12Z

MingyangYuan: /* References */

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T19:02:54Z

MingyangYuan: /* Tenure arrangements */

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T18:17:02Z

MingyangYuan: /* Description */

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T16:42:50Z

MingyangYuan:

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T16:02:54Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry is engaged in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

==Description==
Description of the community forestry case study – Where located; history; national or regional context (if appropriate)

==Tenure arrangements==
Tenure arrangements. Describe the nature of the tenure: freehold or forest management agreement/arrangements, duration, etc.

==Administrative arrangements==
Administrative arrangements. Describe the management authority and the reporting system.

==Affected Stakeholders==
Social actors (stakeholders, user groups) who are affected stakeholders, their main relevant objectives, and their relative power

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Social actors (stakeholders, user groups) who are interested stakeholders, outside the community, their main relevant objectives, and their relative power

==Discussion==
A discussion of the aims and intentions of the community forestry project and your assessment of relative successes or failures. You should also include a discussion of critical issues or conflicts in this community and how they are being managed

==Assessment==
Your assessment of the relative power of each group of social actors, and how that power is being used

==Recommendations==
Your recommendations about this community forestry project

==References==
Cyranoski, D. (2012). Rebuilding Japan: After the deluge. ''Nature,483''(7388), 141-143. doi:10.1038/483141a

Edahiro, J. (2011). How Did the Great East Japan Earthquake Affect Ecosystems and Biodiversity?｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. Retrieved October 08, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id031172.html</nowiki>

Hewes, L. I. (1949). On the Current Readjustment of Land Tenure in Japan. ''Land Economics,25''(3), 246-259. doi:10.2307/3144795

Ishihara, M., & Tadono, T. (2017). Land cover changes induced by the great east Japan earthquake in 2011. ''Scientific Reports,7''(1). doi:10.1038/srep45769

Monma, T., Gotō, I., Hayashi, T., Tachiya, H., & Ohsawa, K. (2015). ''Agricultural and forestry reconstruction after the great East Japan earthquake: Tsunami, radioactive, and reputational damages''. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55558-2

Ichihashi, O., Horii, D., Tsukamoto, Y., Someya, T., Terasawa, H., Iki, S., Abe, S. (2016). Survey of Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Natural Environment in Tohoku Coastal Regions. ''Ecological Impacts of Tsunamis on Coastal Ecosystems Ecological Research Monographs,''395-410. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56448-5_23

Sendai -Towards a Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City. (n.d.). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://sendai-resilience.jp/en/efforts/government/development/</nowiki>

Sendai City Earthquake Disaster Reconstruction Plan, Digest Version(2011, December) Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.preventionweb.net/applications/hfa/lgsat/en/image/href/824</nowiki>

Six Years After Tsunami Japan is Finding Ways to Work with Nature. (2017). Environment & Disaster Management. Retrieved October 09, 2018, from <nowiki>http://envirodm.org/post/six-years-after-tsunami-japan-is-finding-ways-to-work-with-nature</nowiki>

Takehiko, O. (2012) The Role of Forests in the Great East Japan Earthquake and Sustainable Forest Management and its Usage. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/kaigai/pdf/keynote_final_english.pdf</nowiki>

Volunteers Building 'Great Forest Wall' Tsunami Barrier from Earthquake Debris｜JFS Japan for Sustainability. (2013). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from <nowiki>https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id032922.html</nowiki>

{{Projectbox FRST370
|names=
|share=
}}

Course:FRST370/Projects/Community forestry in the reconstruction of Sendai after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

2018-11-14T16:00:21Z

MingyangYuan:

How community forestry engaged in the reconstruction after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake in Sendai, Japan.

==Description==
Description of the community forestry case study – Where located; history; national or regional context (if appropriate)

==Tenure arrangements==
Tenure arrangements. Describe the nature of the tenure: freehold or forest management agreement/arrangements, duration, etc.

==Administrative arrangements==
Administrative arrangements. Describe the management authority and the reporting system.

==Affected Stakeholders==
Social actors (stakeholders, user groups) who are affected stakeholders, their main relevant objectives, and their relative power

==Interested Outside Stakeholders==
Social actors (stakeholders, user groups) who are interested stakeholders, outside the community, their main relevant objectives, and their relative power

==Discussion==
A discussion of the aims and intentions of the community forestry project and your assessment of relative successes or failures. You should also include a discussion of critical issues or conflicts in this community and how they are being managed

==Assessment==
Your assessment of the relative power of each group of social actors, and how that power is being used

==Recommendations==
Your recommendations about this community forestry project

==References==
<references/>

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