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Documentation:Open Case Studies/GRSJ306/Anti-Slavery International

2017-05-08T22:43:15Z

MichelleHepburn:

[[File:Screen_Shot_2016-11-29_at_11.43.23_AM.png|500px|thumb|left|Anti-Slavery International]]
'''[http://www.antislavery.org/english/ Anti-Slavery International]''' is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that exclusively works to eliminate all forms of slavery. Founded in 1839 by British abolitionists, it is the world’s oldest human rights organization. It is a charity and lobby group that has consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council, participatory status with the Council of Europe, and membership in the International Labour Organization Special List of NGOs. By raising awareness and carrying out campaigns, Anti-Slavery International engages with various governments, international organizations, and local organizations. This NGO works on both a grassroots and international level to better approach specific local needs, and larger systemic needs based on worldwide movements. By approaching '''human trafficking''' issues on a local and global level, the organization is able to support individuals and communities, facilitate access to education, and seek justice and compensation for victims.

== Origins of Human Trafficking ==
Human trafficking dates back to the early 1400s with the start of the European slave trade in Portugal and Africa. However, laws against “white slave traffic” weren't brought into legislation until 1904 with the International Agreement for the Suppression of the “White Slave Trade.” Its goal was to protect women and children from being forced or deceived into prostitution.

'''1910'''

International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic, signed by the Kings and Queens of Europe, stated that:
“whoever, in order to gratify the passions of another person, has procured, enticed, or led way, even with her consent, with a woman or girl underage, for immoral purposes shall be punished.”

'''1927'''

The League of Nations focused the international laws on issues such as human trafficking, which marks the first use of the term “trafficking”.

League of Nations 1927 states: “Those whose duty it has been to grapple with the traffic in women, whether as Government officials, or as members of voluntary associations, are faced with doubts of a different character. Their experience force them to believe that the evil which for so many years has resisted the constant attempts of many countries to uproot it must still exist; but the extent of its operations, and precise form which it assumes at the present time are to them matters of uncertainty.”

League of Nations 1927 sets the goal of maintaining world peace by focusing on issues such a human trafficking. It looks at the number of women engaged in prostitution, the demand, and the environment of women trafficked.

'''1949'''

The United Nations '''Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others'''<ref name="OHCHR 1949">OHCHR. (1949). Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 317 (IV) of 2. Retrieved November 15, 2016, from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/TrafficInPersons.aspx</ref> was adopted, put into force in 1951. The first time that a law regarding trafficking was legally binding. Currently 66 countries have ratified, most have not because they wanted to avoid criminalizing prostitution. This convention made no delineation between free and forced prostitution.

'''1956'''

India also passed a Immoral Trafficking act, which prosecuted third parties for trafficking that includes running brothels, living on earnings from sex work, capturing and imprisoning people into prostitution. This act was argued to fail to protect women.

'''1995'''

The fourth world conference addressed the issue of trafficking women; it was then recognized as a violent act against women. This event enforced international conventions on trafficking and human slavery, addressed factors that encourage trafficking, set up effective law enforcement and institutions that work to eliminate trafficking both nationally and internationally, and implemented programs including educational and rehabilitation institutions to provide the social, medical and psychological need to trafficking victims.

'''2000'''

The next instrument to combat trafficking was passed; The United Nations '''Protocol Against Trafficking Persons''' was adopted and came into effect in 2003.<ref name="OHCHR 2000">OHCHR. (2000). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, General Assembly resolution 55/25. Retrieved November 15, 2016, from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/ProtocolTraffickingInPersons.aspx</ref> It was the first definition of Human Trafficking, and the only international legal instrument addressing all human trafficking as a crime including all forms of exploitation This developed the three P's: Prevention, Protection and Prosecution. The UN thus has this definition for human trafficking as the following:

“the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of use of threat or force or either from of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a possession of vulnerability or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits consent of a person having the control over another person for the purpose of exploitation*. *Exploitation, should include at minimum; the exploitation of forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs."

The United States passed '''Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act''' that classifies trafficking into two different categories and attempts to combat those with their definitions of trafficking and exploitation.<ref name="US State 2000">U.S. Department of State. (2000). Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000, Retrieved November 15, 2016 from http://www.state.gov/j/tip/laws/61124.htm</ref>

'''2002'''

The United Nations '''Optional Protocol on The Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography''' entered into force on 18 January 2002.<ref name="OHCHR 2002">OHCHR. (2002). Optional Protocol on The Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography, A/RES/54/263. Retrieved November 15, 2016, from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/OPSCCRC.aspx</ref>

The first non-profit organization to combat and raise awareness against human trafficking was the '''[https://polarisproject.org/ Polaris Project]''', which was started by two students attending Brown University.

'''2011'''

President Obama declares January “Human Trafficking awareness month” and '''January 11''' as human trafficking awareness day.<ref name="White House 2015">The White House. (2015, December 31). Presidential Proclamation -- National Slavery and Human Trafficking Prevention Month. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/12/31/presidential-proclamation-national-slavery-and-human-trafficking.</ref>

Various non-profits have been started out of this increased knowledge spread about human trafficking. In the end however, legislative methods of combating human trafficking is still the same since 1927: the spread of knowledge, international cooperation, and the criminalization of trafficking.

===Legal Definitions===

'''Labor Trafficking''' is defined as the recruitment, harbouring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery. Such violations might include domestic services, manufacturing, construction, migrant laboring and other services obtained through subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery.

'''Sex Trafficking''' involves the recruitment, harbouring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person forced to perform such an act is under the age of eighteen years old.

==Origins of Anti-Slavery International==
The organization originated from the anti-slavery societies of the 1820s-30s. In 1823, William Wilberforce, Thomas Clarkson, and Thomas Fowell were the founding members of the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions.<ref name="BBC 2011">The BBC. (2011, February 17). British Anti-slavery History. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/antislavery_01.shtml</ref> This society worked to eradicate slavery in the British Empire and was succeed by the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1839.<ref name="BBC 2011"/> This successor campaigned against slavery practices and in 1990 it was reestablished as Anti-Slavery International.<ref name="Anti-Slavery 2008">Anti-Slavery International. (2008). History of Anti-Slavery International. Retrieved from http://www.antislavery.org/english/who_we_are/our_history/default.aspx</ref> Anti-Slavery International is an organization with deep roots that has retained its 1839 mission of combating slavery, but has evolved to better combat modern day human trafficking. Currently, it aims to achieve sustainable change and abolish human trafficking by advocating for the recognition of victims, implementing programs to combat human trafficking practices, and addressing the foundational causes and consequences of human trafficking.<ref name="Anti-Slavery">Anti-Slavery International. Who We Are. Retrieved from http://www.antislavery.org/english/who_we_are/english/who_we_are/english/who_we_are/antislavery_international_today.aspx</ref> Anti-Slavery International bases its actions on United Nations treaties against slavery and works with other organizations to combat various forms of slavery such as forced labour and bonded labour, descent-based slavery, child labour, slavery in supply chains, forced and early marriage, and the exploitation of migrant workers.<ref name="Anti-Slavery"/>

===Global Movement Timeline (1839-2008)===
* '''1839''': Formation of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society by abolitionists to campaign against global slavery.
* '''1840''': The world’s first anti-slavery convention was held in London.
* '''1850''': 26 “slave-free produce” consumer action groups formed to promote alternatives to slave-produced plantation sugar.
* '''1890''': The first comprehensive anti-slavery treaty, the Brussels Act, was established. This treaty allowed the inspection of ships and the arrest of anyone transporting slaves.
* '''1904-1913''': Campaigns were held against the slavery practices being carried out in the Congo Free State by King Leopold II of Belgium. These campaigns helped end these practices and other tyrannical actions.
* '''1920''': Campaigns were held against the use of Indian and Chinese “coolies”. These campaigns helped to end the indentured labour system used in the British colonies.
* '''1921''': Played a key part in ending the slavery practices used by the Peruvian Amazon Company. The company used indigenous slave labour for rubber production.
* '''1922''': Successfully lobbied for the League of Nations to inquiry into slavery.
* '''1926''': Slavery Convention was held and all ratifying states obliged to end slavery.
* '''1956''': Helped shape the content of the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery.
* '''1984''': Helped establish the Human Rights Fund for Indigenous People.
* '''1994''': Was an original supporter of the End Child Prostitution, Pornography and Trafficking campaign and helped to set up the UK branch of this campaign.
* '''1995''': Supported an Indian NGO initiative for the establishment of the Rugmark Foundation.
* '''1998''': Was one of the organizers of the 1998 Global March Against Child Labour. This event helped lead to the adoption of a new ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour in 1999.
* '''2000''': Partnered with the Nepalese NGO Informal Sector Service Centre, to secure government backing for the abolishment of the Kamaiya form of bonded labour.
* '''2003''': Worked with the NGO Timidria in Niger to conduct survey that led to the criminalization of slavery in Niger. Lobbied in the Brazilian government for the introduction of a national plan to eradicate slavery.
* '''2004''': Successfully lobbied to make the trafficking of persons for sexual and labour exploitation a criminal offence in the UK.
* '''2005''': Campaigns were held against child camel jockeying in the Gulf States. These campaigns influenced the UAE’s decision to rescue 3,000 child camel jockeys and return them to their home countries. Influenced the development of the Council of Europe Convention against trafficking in human beings. This convention was ratified by the UK government at the end of 2008 and provides a minimum standard of protection and support for human trafficking victims.
* '''2007''': Pushed for the appointment of a UN Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery.
* '''2008''': Played a pivotal role in getting the Transatlantic Slave Trade taught in UK schools as part of the national curriculum. Supported former slave Hadijatou Mani to sue Niger for failing to protect her from slavery. Hadijatou's former master was found guilty of carrying out slavery practices.<ref name="Anti-Slavery 2008"/>

==Development and Strategies==

Anti-Slavery International is working via a grassroots-inspired, project based model to bring about sustained systemic change in eradicating the practice, ignorance, and acceptance of slavery around the world.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd1">Anti-Slavery International. n.d. How We Work. Retrieved December 01, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/what_we_do/how_we_work.aspx</ref> The organization believes that the elimination of slavery will occur when "top-down" activities (like the implementation of policies by governments and organizations) and "bottom-up" activities (such as the empowerment of people affected by slavery to claim their rights and the adoption of new social norms by societies) collide. Anti-Slavery works to enable victims of slavery to leave, help these people through psychological and legal services, educating from a grassroots level and finally collaborating with key decision makers on putting effective policies in place.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd2">Anti-Slavery International. n.d. Who We Are. Retrieved December 10, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/who_we_are/english/who_we_are/english/who_we_are/antislavery_international_today.aspx</ref>.

Their concerns include globalization and the potential for mass exploitation in the intricate supply chains of multinational corporations. They recognize that the task of ending slavery and human trafficking is a political one that requires change in the way that business and diplomacy are conducted, as well as change in migration policy is viewed.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd2"/>

===Goals===
The organization has these general goals:

* Enabling people to leave slavery – via frontline projects educating local decision makers, giving them the capabilities to address human rights
* Helping victims of slavery – with more frontline work ensuring they access the psychological and legal support they need to recover and obtain justice and compensation
* Supporting the empowerment of people to be better protected from slavery – again working at grass roots level, to help communities demand respect for their human rights and tackle the root causes of slavery through access to education and the elimination of caste and gender inequality
* Identifying ways abuses can be ended, using frontline work to empower individuals and communities to sustainably leave, or obtain protection from, slavery
* Anti-Slavery International closely links its advocacy and programme work, communicating messages from victims to decision makers, as well as recommendations from on-the-ground partners<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd3">Anti-Slavery International. n.d. Our Vision, Mission, Strategies and Values. Retrieved December 10, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/who_we_are/our_vision_mission_values_and_strategy.aspx</ref>

===Strategies===
* Lobbying within countries for legislation, policy and practise that prevent and eradicates slavery
* International policy work and campaigning – holding government institutions, aid organizations and business to account ourselves and through coalitions and partnerships
* Raising the profile and understanding of modern slavery through media work, membership, and supporter campaigns

===Objectives===

Anti-Slavery re-examined its platform in 2015, establishing new strategic objectives to take it through the next five years, in light of current global disasters such as the Syrian refugee crisis.

#Duty bearers are responsive and accountable to the rights and needs of people affected by and vulnerable to slavery.
#People affected by and vulnerable to slavery are empowered to understand, assert and claim their rights.
#The social norms and attitudes that underpin and perpetuate slavery are rejected.
#The impact and sustainability of the organization is maximized.

Anti-Slavery International aims to spark acknowledgement of human trafficking in institutions and companies and hold them accountable to the legislation and policies they implement. They believe that is important for people in populations vulnerable to being affected by trafficking to be aware of the legal framework in the country they reside in, the rights they have, and the potential risks and hazards of specific occupations that make them more susceptible to being trafficked. By providing this education they hope to inspire confidence and capacity for vulnerable people to assert their rights, as well as participate in collective representation that protects these rights. Anti-Slavery's platform addresses that the proliferation of enslaved people is systemic, deriving from the current political economy and societal discrimination, and they aim to help partner organizations challenge the social norms and attitudes that allow for this proliferation of trafficking, like acceptance of goods and services made by trafficked people in developed countries, as well as sexism and alienation of sex trafficking victims, particularly women. Discrimination is not limited only to gender- class (or caste in some cases) discrimination can also impact the opportunities and abilities that some populations have to escape positions of trafficking. Finally, Anti-Slavery plans to continue expanding its communications ability to accurately educate people about human trafficking globally, and encourage organization of movements against the enslavement of people.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd4">Anti-Slavery International. (n.d.). Organizational Strategy 2015-2020 [PDF]. London.</ref>

===Media Presence===

As many other social movements demonstrate, social media is an increasingly powerful tool to spread a message across the globe. The current global awareness and limited immediacy of the human trafficking problem makes it difficult for Anti-Slavery and like organizations to ignite the kind of social media social movement that movements like Black Lives Matter have relied on. Anti-Slavery has an extensive website with detailed reports of their past accomplishments, current plans and future projects, but as of yet it has a small following on social networks like Twitter, Facebook and Youtube, though it is comparable to other organizations dedicated to the eradication of human trafficking.<ref name="Anti-Slavery Facebook">Anti-Slavery International. (n.d.). Facebook. Retrieved December 10, 2016, from https://www.facebook.com/Anti-Slavery-International-46852258376/</ref>

[[File:Anti-Slavery_International_.png ‎|500px|thumb|right|Anti-Slavery International Campaign]]

'''Effectiveness of Media Presence'''

Anti-Slavery itself has been unable to create the sort of viral hashtag or story that helps social movements to spread, like the wave of stories, hashtags and posts in the fall of 2016 surrounding the protests against the building of the Dakota Access Pipeline through the Standing Rock Indian Reservation in North Dakota. In fact, the only viral human trafficking sensation of note was the Bring Back Our Girls hashtag in 2014, to protest the kidnapping of nearly 300 girls from a school in Chibok, Nigeria. However, even this viral hashtag- used over 6 million times- failed to produce any notable achievements and soon petered out. Nearly 200 of the kidnapped girls are still missing.

Though Anti-Slavery runs well-maintained media accounts, it faces difficulties in achieving widespread awareness of its cause due to the disconnect many people in the developed world have with human trafficking issues.

==Current Projects==

===Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group===

Anti-Slavery is leading a project called the Anti Trafficking Monitoring Group, set up in 2009. This group is made up of 12 major anti-trafficking organizations, like Amnesty International and the Human Trafficking Foundation. This group has done extensive reporting on human trafficking issues, determining in an April 2012 report that prevention was most lacking in the UK out of their “3 Ps”- prevention, protection, and prosecution.

The ATMG found that “found that coordination of anti-trafficking efforts, including prevention, has been fragmented” and there is an “absence of a clearly identifiable national anti-trafficking coordinator”. The report criticizes British anti-trafficking policy for emphasizing law enforcement and immigration control, rather than taking on the root causes of trafficking. This group helped bring the Modern Slavery Bill to light in British Parliament, and has since worked to improve and amend the bill’s shortcomings. Critics have said the bill is “The bill is wholly and exclusively about law enforcement” and “very poor on victim protection”, as it focuses mainly on the prosecution of those involved in sex trafficking.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd5">Anti-Slavery International. n.d. Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group. Retrieved December 10, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/what_we_do/trafficking/anti_trafficking_monitoring_group/default.aspx</ref>

==="RACE in Europe" Project===

Anti-Slavery is also working on a project “to improve knowledge about the nature and scale of trafficking of children and adults… across Europe.” The project goals are:
• Enhancing knowledge and awareness amongst law enforcement, policy makers, legislators, the media and civil society of human trafficking for forced criminal activities in Europe
• Training practitioners in three European sub-regions on intervention in cases of forced criminal activities and begging
• Building cross-EU links and strengthen partnerships amongst relevant stakeholders

A report by this group on the state of human trafficking in Europe determined that their are the legislative tools within the EU to combat human trafficking, but they are underused. The project recommended several notable adjustments to EU policy:

# Guaranteeing safe accommodation to child victims of trafficking
# Improving data collection systems for better monitoring of trafficking within Europe
# Delivering increased training to officials coming into contact with trafficked persons
# Making full use of tools available under Europol and Eurojust, like Joint Investigation Teams for transnational trafficking<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd6">Anti-Slavery International. n.d. "Race in Europe" Project. Retrieved December 10, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/what_we_do/trafficking/race_in_europe_project.aspx</ref>

===Safe Migration Project===

This project provides training and materials for potential economic migrants and their families. It is estimated that over 500 000 Indians work in Qatar, a number that is expected to grow in anticipation of the 2022 World Cup that is being held in Qatar, requiring vast amounts of labor to build the infrastructure needed for the event. However arduous conditions of work, torture, widespread forced labour and even the death potentially await at the construction sites. The project aims to inform workers of the possibilities and challenges of migrating, empowering them with knowledge of correct recruitment policies and procedures. It aims to enhance their ability to access rights and entitlements, including safe remittance channels, and empowering them to resolve crisis situations and avoid exploitation.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd7">Anti-Slavery International. n.d. Safe Migration to the Gulf. Retrieved December 10, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/what_we_do/trafficking/safe_migration_to_qatar.aspx</ref>

===What You Can Do: Grassroots Approaches===

Anti-Slavery International's bottom-up approaches include calling for individual or corporate donations for funding, advocating for individual or organizational membership, and the Fundraise for Freedom projects.<ref name="Anti-Slavery nd8">Anti-Slavery International. (n.d.). What you can do. Retrieved December 01, 2016, from http://www.antislavery.org/english/</ref>.

'''Individual or Organizational Membership'''

The movement's goals for members include:

* Expose current cases of slavery
* Campaign for the eradication of slavery
* Support the initiatives of local organisations to release people
* Press for effective implementation of international laws against slavery

'''Fundraise for Freedom'''

The Fundraise for Freedom projects are coordinated between Anti-Slavery International's local, student, and church groups to raise funds, increase awareness and educate the public through organized events including "Run for Freedom" marathons, charity parties and performances, talks and similar projects. Two important dates for these events are October 18 or Anti-Slavery Day and March 25 or the International Day of Remembrance of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Events that take place on Anti-Slavery Day are aimed at pressuring government, local authorities, public institutions and private and public companies to address the scale and scope of human trafficking. Events organized on the International Day of Remembrance focus on honoring and remembering those who suffered and died at the hands of the brutal slavery system.

==Global and Local Impacts==
Anti-Slavery International works with governmental and non-governmental actors as well as individual companies in order to create solutions on a case by case basis. As a result, the organization plays a role on both local and global levels. Raising awareness and increasing the social conscious for the prevalence of human trafficking and slavery in the modern economy, Anti-Slavery International has legitimate legislative changes based on their efforts.

'''2015'''

* Inclusion of slavery eradication in the UN Sustainable Development Goals resulting from pressure from Anti-Slavery International
* A report compiled by Anti-Slavery International lead to a high court ruling that Ireland was not fulfilling its obligations towards victims of human trafficking as set out by the EU
* In conjunction with civil society partners and parliamentarians, they created positive change to the protection of victims and transparency in supply chains in the UK Modern Slavery Act

'''Previous Notable Achievements'''

* Established an international protocol on forced labour under the International Trades Union Confederation
* First ever conviction of slavery in Nigeria, setting an historic precedent
* Increased transparency of cotton sourcing for H&M by bringing the instability of its cotton sourcing to the company's attention so it could make concrete moves to source more ethically
* The "Home Alone" campaign pushed the International Labour Organisation to adopt a Convention on Decent Work for Domestic Workers in June 2011, securing the rights of domestic workers in over 10 countries that have ratified the convention
* Facilitated a former slave in a court case in Niger that resulted in a legal precedent that makes a state responsible for protecting its citizens from slavery. This is now legally binding in all ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)

==Critiques and Weaknesses==
Organizations aimed at eradicating human trafficking in its many forms face a myriad of obstacles because of the invisible nature of its practice. It is difficult to implement effective legislation when human trafficking does not function within the formal economy. This means many cases are never brought before the court as well as making research extremely difficult to conduct, resulting in very little available, accurate or consistent data. The lack of concrete data means there is not a global awareness of the prevalence of human trafficking with many people in the Global North assuming it is a problem pertaining only to the Global South. Furthermore, there is no social outcry as it is difficult to produce reliable statistics and information about human trafficking due to it's unregulated nature.

==Discourse in the Anti-Trafficking Movement==

Current discourse surrounding the anti-trafficking movement is centred largely around perceptions of victims, conflicting or untrustworthy data, inconsistent enforcement of anti-trafficking policies, and the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).

====Victimization====

Ratna Kapur states that the anti-trafficking campaign is problematic in that it generalizes women across all cultures and “cannot accommodate a multi-layered experience."<ref name="Kapur 2002">Kapur, R. 2002. The tragedy of victimization rhetoric: Resurrecting the "native" subject in international/post-colonial feminist legal politics Harvard Law School. Harvard human rights journal.</ref> She argues that a focus on violence against woman portrays women in the developing world as “victims of their culture<ref>Ibid</ref>”, which privileges the culture of the West and reinforces views of women in the developing world as “perpetually marginalized."<ref name="Kapur 2002"/> This in turn has invited responses focused on criminal law aiming to punish violence, sometimes even used to justify restrictions on women’s rights, for their own protection. The modern-day image that Western societies have of a victimized woman in the developing world evokes colonial constructions of non-Western women as “sexually constrained, tradition-bound… illiterate, and poor."<ref name="Kapur 2002"/>.” Though the victim movement has highlighted the fact that there is violence against women that constitutes a human rights violation, these representations perpetuate cultural and gender stereotypes and lead to ineffective legal solutions that do little to actually advance women’s rights.<ref name="Kapur 2002"/>.
Similarly, Andrijasevic and Mai argue that there is a tendency to portray victims as exceptions rather than productions of neoliberal globalization, which leads to the legitimizing of Western intervention in developing countries.<ref name="Andrijasevic and Mai 2016">Andrijasevic, R. and N Mai, 2016. ‘Editorial: Trafficking (in) representations: Understanding the recurring appeal of victimhood and slavery in neoliberal times’, Anti-Trafficking Review, 7, pp. 1—10, www.antitraffickingreview.org</ref> They discuss how for many migrants, sex work can be “an income generating activity and an opportunity to achieve social mobility."<ref name="Andrijasevic and Mai 2016"/> Anti-trafficking measures can result in stricter anti-immigration measures that can actually lead to more abuse of migrants who then go through third parties for cross-border travel. Andrijasevic and Mai characterize the anti-trafficking movement as over-simplified, explaining that the criminalization of low wage and irregular work can lead to the detention and arrest of both trafficked and non-trafficked persons. This leads to the persistence of the passive “trafficking victim”, as opposed to an active migrant worker. Stereotyped representations of trafficked women also create a “false dichotomy” between “ideal and real victims,"<ref name="Andrijasevic and Mai 2016"/> excluding women who do not fit the definition of the ideal victim and proliferating differences between citizens and non-citizens.

====Anti-Trafficking Data and Enforcement====

In his study of trafficking enforcement in 168 different countries, Amahazion explains states’ tendencies to use prosecution based approaches to combat trafficking, while failing to fully implement policies on the other two areas critical to ending trafficking- prevention and protection. He argues that trafficking victims have been left unprotected amidst states’ concerns regarding “security, uncontrolled immigration, mass movements of undocumented individuals… and the integrity of borders."<ref name="Amahazion 2015">Amahazion, F. (2015). Human trafficking: The need for human rights and government effectiveness in enforcing anti-trafficking. Global Crime, 16(3), 167-196.</ref> He documents that higher numbers of INGOs, and a greater “embeddedness within world society" contributes to better enforcement of anti-trafficking policies.<ref name="Amahazion 2015"/> The study also found that government effectiveness was key to enforcement- not only must a state implement anti-trafficking policy, but it must possess the means to follow through on human rights rhetoric. Amahazion concluded that female representation in parliament and the democratic-autocratic scale were not good indicators of whether a nation had been successful in enforcing anti-trafficking, showing that “trafficking enforcement is not directly impacted by the internal structure of a state’s political system or the individuals comprising it."<ref name="Amahazion 2015"/>
Meanwhile, Weitzer criticizes academic articles that treat reports from government agencies and the United Nations as facts, when these organizations often fail to disclose their data sources and methodologies. He asserts that there is no compelling proof for the claims that human trafficking is steadily growing and that it is the second largest criminal enterprise in the world, as well highlighting noticeable divisions between anti-trafficking organizations in how they define trafficking and the prescriptions they offer to end trafficking.<ref name="Weitzer 2013">Weitzer, R. 2013. Dialect Anthropol 37: 309. doi:10.1007/s10624-013-9313-2</ref> Weitzer also questions the Trafficking Victims Protection Act, which defines anyone under the age of 18 as a trafficking victim, how underage sex workers can be legally defined as victims but treated as offenders, and whether it is fair to always classify young people as victims when arguments could be made for their individual agency.<ref name="Weitzer 2013"/>

====Role of NGOs====

Schloenhardt and Hunt-Walshe, in their analysis of anti-trafficking groups in Australia, largely praise the work of NGOs that are not faith-based and are not sex worker support groups, which they claim can skew victim-support measures.<ref name="Schloenhardt 2012">Schloenhardt, A., & Hunt-Walshe, R. 2012. The role of non-governmental organisations in Australia's anti-trafficking in persons framework Faculty of Law, University of Western Australia.University of Western Australia Law Review</ref> NGOs like the Australian Red Cross provide non-governmental facades to governmental operations, making them more approachable for trafficking victims. Frontline NGOs can also build a close relationship with communities that are impacted by human trafficking through cultural sensitivity and language proficiency that government organizations may not be able to do. NGOs can also provide a victim-oriented approach rather than one built on criminalization and victimization, as law enforcement and government approaches tend to do, as discussed above. This approach requires moving away from treating people who have been trafficked as passive objects, and instead as individuals with agency and civil liberties. Also necessary to this approach is “helping (victims) retake control of their lives, respecting their decisions and choices, and providing victim recovery services that fit with the immediate needs and rights of individuals rather than the needs of a criminal investigation."<ref name="Schloenhardt 2012"/> Schloenhardt and Hunt-Walshe conclude that NGOs can fill gaps left by government programs and provide assistance to those who are unwilling or unable to go through government channels to get help, though they acknowledge that there are still certain gaps in NGO coverage. These include lack of programs for male trafficking victims, as the vast majority of NGOs cater mainly to trafficked women, limited access to help outside of large urban centres in Western countries especially, and no national support centre for trafficked persons.

====Anti-Slavery International in Context of Discourse====

There is little consensus on the data surrounding human trafficking, and continued issues with governmental implementation and enforcement of anti-trafficking policies. Anti-Slavery International claims to work within the guidelines set out of Schloenhardt and Hunt-Walshe in its treatment of victims and goals for reaching beyond legal measures and changing perceptions of trafficking and trafficked persons, but risks neo-colonial overstep when intervening in developing countries. The lack of agreed-upon data in the anti-trafficking movement makes it difficult for any organization to accurately assess the situation, while most NGOs also have a limited ability to impact legal decisions made by governments on how to criminalize traffickers, and the enforcement of those policies. The anti-trafficking movement has struggled with the broadness of the issue, a problem that affects almost every country on earth to some degree. As a social movement, anti-trafficking has failed to coalesce into one unifying effort as others have, but with hundreds of NGOs actively working on anti-trafficking issues every day, there is an established network to continue to bring about change.

==References==
<references/>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/GRSJ306/Act Up New York

2017-05-08T22:16:39Z

MichelleHepburn:

==What is HIV/AIDS?==
Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) once contracted is a life-long condition. This virus attacks the body’s immune system. More specifically, HIV attacks CD4 cells (T-cells) that help the immune system fight off infections. If left untreated, the lack of T-cells due to this attack results in the weakening of the body’s immunal response.

Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the final stage of an HIV infection. AIDS occurs when the number of T-cells drastically drops below what is adequate to fights off infections. Within this stage the immune system is damaged enough for the body to become extremely vulnerable to opportunistic infections that result in death.

Currently, not everyone with HIV escalates in condition to AIDS. However, this is dependent on treatment and access to health care and medications. Without treatment, a person diagnosed with AIDS typically has an estimated survival of three years. A person with AIDS that has already contracted a dangerous opportunistic infection has a life expectancy of one year. It is imperative that a person with AIDS has access to medical treatment to prevent death.<ref name="AIDS.gov">AIDS.Gov HIV/AIDS Basics https://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/hiv-aids-101/what-is-hiv-aids/</ref>
[[File:HIV AIDS MAPS.jpg|x200px|thumb|World cases of Aids as diagnosed in 2014 according to Hebrew University Research.]]

==HIV/AIDS as an Epidemic==
In the early 1980s AIDS was found to be the cause of death for hundreds of people in the United States. The population mainly affected at the time were white gay men. However, as AIDS become more prolific through the 1980s, cases among minorities, especially African Americans, rapidly increased. By 1996, male-to-male sex was the most common mode of transmission among persons reported with AIDS (46%) followed by injection drug use (25%) and male-to-female sex (11%). Persons aged 20 – 49 were the largest demographic of those diagnosed with AIDS, at an estimate of 85%. The incidence of AIDS increased at a rapid rate through the 1980s and peaked in the early 1990s before declining around 1996 due to some shifts in politics and awareness due to activism, and medical discovery. From 1980-1996 there were 273, 024 known deaths in the United States due to AIDS. Current estimates for the total deaths in the United States due to AIDS are in the range of 500,000 people.<ref name="CDC 2001">CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2001. HIV and AIDS, United States 1981-2000. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5021a2.htm</ref>

==HIV/AIDS as an Endemic==
The HIV/AIDS epidemic that swept the United States can be seen as an endemic. An endemic is, “a biopolitical event of the calculated distribution of life and death capacities in the management of populations as health threats.”<ref name="Gill-Peterson 2013">Gill-Peterson, J. 2013. Haunting the Queer Spaces of AIDS Remembering ACT UP/New York and an Ethics for an Endemic. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 19(3), 279-300</ref> During the the 1980s to the late 1990s, HIV-AIDS was highly stigmatized through its representation as a ‘gay-disease’. Many people believed that extreme measures should be taken towards those with HIV/AIDS such as complete quarantine. Others believed that HIV/AIDS were the just desserts of those partaking in risky behavior, such as queer relationships and sex. People with HIV/AIDS were highly marginalized and oppressed during the time of the HIV/AIDs crisis as homophobia remained a main-stay of the U.S socio-political climate.The Reagan administration during the epidemic was a Republican party with extensive affiliation with right-wing anti-gay ‘morality’ groups. Due to the over-representation of queer persons as carriers of HIV and AIDS and the status of people with HIV/AIDS as deviant citizens and oppressed peoples, the Reagan administration largely abdicated their role in tackling the HIV-AIDS epidemic. This resulted in the rampant spread of HIV-AIDS and the continued death of hundreds of thousands of Americans before any drastic action was taken. In this way, the death of those with HIV-AIDS can be seen as a targeted result of homophobic socio-political climate instead of a sweeping epidemic, where death swoops down randomly upon a population.<ref name="Gill-Peterson 2013"/>

===Reagan's Response to HIV-AIDS (1982-1987)===

'''1982'''
* Number of known deaths in the U.S during this year: 853
* The Gay Mens Health Crisis is founded in New York City
* Reagan has not publicly mentioned the word ‘AIDS’
* Larry Speakes, press secretary for Reagan’s administration, jokes about AIDS at a press briefing
'''1983'''
* Number of known deaths in the U.S during this year: 2,304
* Reagan has not publicly mentioned the word ‘AIDS’
'''1984'''
* Number of known deaths in the U.S during this year: 4,251
* Reagan has not publicly mentioned the word ‘AIDS’
'''1985'''
* Number of known deaths in the U.S during this year: 5,636
* Reagan first mentions AIDS at a press conference in response to a question
'''1986'''
* Number of known deaths in the U.S during this year: 2,960
* Cumulative known deaths: 16, 301
* Reagan publicly mentions AIDS again in his message to the Congress on America’s Agenda for the Future on February 6, 1986
'''1987'''
* Number of known deaths in the U.S during this year: 4,135
* ''ACT UP is founded in New York City in March''
* AIDS Memorial Quilt started up in San Francisco
* Reagan makes first major speech on AIDS on April 2cnd, 1987 <ref name="timeline">A Brief Timeline of AIDS. http://www.factlv.org/timeline.htm</ref>

==Origins and Beginnings of the organization==
[[File:Silence=Death.jpg|thumb|Silence = Death Poster|Silence = Death]]

ACT UP was founded by activist and playwright Larry Kramer by conducting a meeting at the Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center in New York which called for drastic action against the US government’s inaction with regards to the AIDS pandemic. Kramer expressed a sense of panic as an overwhelmingly high number of people were dying of AIDS in such a short time.

One of their objective was to push for “the release of experimental AIDS drugs” and to put pressure on pharmaceutical companies to make these drugs more affordable to any people who were HIV+.<ref name="The Body 1998">The Body: The Complete HIV/AIDS Resource Website. 1998. ACT UP. http://www.thebody.com/content/art14001.html</ref>. ACT UP, motivated by anger, wanted to expose the bureaucracy and the profit-making garnered by pharmaceutical companies and the government. They also criticized the Centers for Disease Control’s (CDC) definition of AIDS exclusively directed only to gay men. This definition discriminated against women and thus, has prevented women whore HIV+ from getting proper AIDS treatment.<ref name="Schulman 2012">Schulman, Sarah. 2012. Changing the AIDS definition. Documentary. https://www.opendemocracy.net/transformation/ray-filar/silence-death-sarah-schulman-on-act-up-forgotten-resistance-to-aids-crisis.</ref> ACT UP’s mission statement says, “we challenge anyone who, by their actions, or inaction, hinders the fight against AIDS.”<ref name="ACT UP nd1!>ACT UP. ACT UP NYC Information, http://www.actupny.org/indexfolder/NYC.html.</ref>

ACT UP has strategically used the media in mobilizing and communicating their objectives and concerns across New York, which later on has attracted nationwide response. Their efforts have been greatly influenced by the Civil Rights movement. ACT UP followed the Civil Rights’ movement direct action strategies, “boycotts, marches, demonstrations, and nonviolent civil disobedience” in attracting more supporters and the media.<ref name="The Body 1998"/> The “Silence = Death” Poster Project has also teamed up with ACT UP through their symbolic and profoundly striking pink triangle poster with the slogan “Silence = Death”. This poster transcended the movement beyond what their original objective of their fight against AIDS towards addressing a brewing political crisis. <ref name="ACT UP 2013">ACT UP. 2013. The Silence = Death Poster, ACT UP, https://www.nypl.org/blog/2013/11/22/silence-equals-death-poster.</ref>

===Act Up Oral History Project===

ACT UP Oral History Project is a series of interviews of the surviving members of ACT UP New York. The project is principally run by Jim Hubbard and Sarah Schulman, which aims to preserve the legacy of the “forgotten resistance” and to showcase the complexity and diversity of the movement.<ref name="Schulman 2012"/> This project explores the motivations that has led to this collective action in prompting for a concrete change in the realm of the legal system, scientific and medical research, health care policies through artistic and political activism.<ref name="ACT UP Oral history">ACT UP Oral History Project. About, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/index1.html.</ref>

The interviews included key members from the early days of ACT UP such as [http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/video/kramer.html Larry Kramer] and the artist and member of the Silence = Death project [http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/video/finkelstein.html Avram Finkelstein], as well as historical and reflective accounts from the [http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/video/dorow.html women of ACT UP]. In 2012, Jim Hubbard presented the [http://www.unitedinanger.com/?page_id=158 United In Anger] which details the history of ACT UP as an emotionally-driven grassroots movement.

=Strategies and Agenda of the Movement=

==Objectives of ACT UP<ref>Act Up New York Website,New Member Packet http://www.actupny.org/documents/newmem2.html.</ref>==
Aids is identified as a political crisis by ACT UP. They are a group united in anger and committed to direct action to end the AIDS crisis. They strike the conversation about aids by meeting with government officials, distributing the latest medical information protest and demonstrate. ACT UP is in a state of constant evolution. Members skills and experiences are valuable in the fight against AIDS. They currently have one big headquarter in NYC and a smaller branch in San Francisco. In NYC, they have ACT UP MEETINGS every Monday.

===Organizational Structure<ref name="ACT UP nd2">Act Up New York Website. n.d. Actions and Zaps. http://www.actupny.org/documents/newmem2.html.</ref> ===
ACT UP don’t have a board of directors, set up intentionally so that people are given equal voice. They Have some for organization eg. Action Committee, Fundraising, Outreach, Treatment and Data Committee. ACT UP felt there was a need to make every member a leader, rather than having a few members holding the power. That is why there is no president or Board of Directors in ACT UP. It is run as openly and democratically as it is. ACT UP has no paid staff; everyone is a volunteer.

===Organization of meeting <ref name="ACT UP nd2"/>===
[[File:15086246 1169571463127621 369117084 n.jpg|thumb|ACT UP POSTER MEETINGS| Monday Meetings were regularly held at 7pm]]
Their meetings are ordered by having
* 90-second statements
announcing planning meetings, updates, and ACT UP activities.
* Life Saving Information
Critical up-to-date medical information which may impact members' medical treatment decisions.
* Actions and Zaps
A working group or individual presents an idea for an action, pertinent information, and a proposed budget. The floor can vote to endorse or reject the action. The sponsoring group will also request assistance from the general membership in making the action happen.
* Reports
on recent actions, reviews of effectiveness of these actions, and discussions of support of members who committed civil disobedience
* Operational Proposals
for modifications to the internal workings of ACT UP

==Strategies for Communication <ref name="ACT UP nd2"/>==
[[File:Act-up-haring.jpg|thumb|left|ACT uP POSTER|Act Up Media Campaign Messages focused on Anger]]
ACT UP’s slogan is “We advise and inform. We demonstrate. WE ARE NOT SILENT”. ACT UP has developed numerous tactics for communicating dissatisfaction with institutional indifference to the AIDS crisis. These tactics are divided into two categories, called actions and zaps.

===Actions <ref name="ACT UP nd2"/>===
Actions are public protests or demonstrations organized by a working group within ACT UP. They
specifically target a person or organization who is not responding effectively, or morally, to the AIDS crisis. Actions try to accomplish three goals:make specific demands for change from the target; increase public awareness, concern, and knowledge of AIDS issues; expose, through media coverage, the inaction or improper actions of the target.
Characteristics of Actions include: a planning period; an extensive promotion of the action through flyers, handouts, contacting other AIDS related groups, media large turnout of ACT UP members, coalition partners from other boroughs, cities, and states, as well as participation of other concerned people.All ACT UP actions must be approved. This approval is usually a two-week-long process. The working group for a particular action presents the target, concept, and budget for the action at one meeting. At the following meeting, questions, suggestions, alterations, discussion, and usually, approval of the action takes place. An important component of most actions can be non-violent civil disobedience. People in ACT UP who choose to participate in Civil Disobedience take responsibility for their decision to risk arrest.No one is required to risk arrest (although police behavior is not always predictable and people are occasionally arrested who are not breaking the law). Everyone who wants to risk arrest is strongly encouraged to attend a civil disobedience training prior to an action. ACT UP Civil Disobedience training includes discussion of why one might want to be arrested, what your rights are, the procedure that those arrested usually undergo, what the usual legal penalties are, etc.

[[File:Rs-183277-174013813.jpg|x200px|left|thumb|ACT UP PROTEST 2|Protest against the FDA monopoly on Drug Distribution, 1989]]

===Zaps<ref name="ACT UP nd2"/>===

Zaps are designed to address AIDS issues needing immediate action by ACT UP. Zaps are a method for ACT UP members to register their disapproval of and anger toward the zap target.Zaps usually have more specific targets than actions. Because of this focus, numerous zapping techniques have been developed.
ACT UP zaps individuals or organizations by: sending postcards or letters; invading offices and distributing fact sheets; sending (lots and lots of) faxes;picketing; outraged (and sometimes outrageous) phone calls.t The more zappers who zap the zappee the better the zap. They challenge anyone who, by their actions or inaction, hinders the fight against AIDS. This includes:
anyone responsible for inadequate funding for AIDS research, healthcare, or housing for people with AIDS, anyone who blocks the dissemination of life-saving information about safer sex, clean needles, and other AIDS prevention, and anyone who encourages discrimination against people who are living with AIDS.

==ACT UP's Accomplishments<ref name="ACT UP nd2"/>==
* a radical change in the procedures used by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the release of experimental drugs;
* developing a condom distribution plan that was approved by the NYC Board of Education in February 1991 and defending that program from subsequent attacks;
* distributing thousands of clean needles to intravenous drug users, along with information about safe injection techniques and safer sex. This program directly challenged the law that makes needle possession a criminal offense;
* forcing the Center for Disease Control to expand the definition of AIDS to include opportunistic infections common to women;
* significantly lowering the outrageous prices of pharmaceuticals through campaigns of direct action.
* Shed a lot of light to December 1st World Aids Day

==Developments <ref name="ACT UP nd2"/>==
* Anthony Fauci, Director of the National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) and the person responsible for overseeing the government's AIDS clinical trials that many of these trials are unethical, fraudulent, and misdirected.
* Mario Cuomo that inadequate funding for AIDS services is killing us and that it is unacceptable to balance the state budget with people's lives.
* Pharmaceutical industry for attempting to make profits at the expense of the lives of people with AIDS.
* AIDS framed as an issue in the 1992 Presidential elections and held President Clinton responsible for the promises he made as a candidate. We are committed to protecting the lives and well-being of people living with AIDS.

=Critical Assessment of Strategies=
The very strategies defining Act Up as a unique social movement and the center of LGBTQ activism in the 1980s arguably led to its demise and loss of momentum. Indeed, as described above, the decentralized, quasi-anarchical model of organization might have been the epitomy of democracy that Act Up prided itself upon, yet might have also in its chaos made the organization lose its sense of purpose. Several episodes addressed above historically hinted at the risk of secession, particularly women’s attempts at seceding from Act Up materialized through the overlap of AIDS with reproductive health issues. Indeed, gay women were particularly targeted by demeaning media coverage with Cosmo Magazine alleging that Women were not victims of AIDS. Additionally the Catholic Church in New York, exerted coercive, lobbying power targeting homosexuality as a whole, but also women’s access to reproductive healthcare services such as abortion or contraception, doubling the effort that gay women thus had to engage in to gain equal access and attention that their male counterparts.<ref name="ACT UP 2003">Act Up New York Website. 2003. Stop the Church, http://www.actupny.org/YELL/stopchurch99.html.</ref>
[[File:Banner Act Up.jpg|x200px|thumb|Banner Act Up|Banner inviting to use "Anger" to fight Aids at Washington D.C Protest, 1989]]
The heavy reliance in affect as an effective political tool in social movements of protest such as Act Up's might have condemned it. The main purpose of Act Up focused on reconstructing the image of the AIDS affected from a passive victim to an active protester. Nevertheless the linearity of this narrative ignored the affective ambivalence existing between gay lives and deaths at the time. Indeed, activists of Act Up managed to create an ‘‘affective network’’ which despite being its source of power, eventually had the opposite effect. Indeed, the collective network failed at providing a comprehensive discourse around pride and shame , de facto creating internal divisions, excluding and marginalizing certain groups.<ref name="Rand 2012">Rand, Erin J. 2012. Gay pride and its queer discontents: ACT UP and the political deployment of affect, Quarterly Journal of Speech, 98:1, 75-80</ref>

==Anarchical organization and Aggressive media use==

Additionally, the segmented and fractionated organization of Act Up, with small affinity groups which were units of accountability and micro-initiative, eventually erupted with de facto factionalism in cities such as Boston (1998) or San Francisco (2000), creating their own chapters, adapted to state circumstances.
The grassroots structured, qualified as “democratic to a fault” was subjected to a sometimes inefficient and hardly accountable delegation. Internal bureaucratic battles such as those for internal leadership of the movement, or r simply whether Act Up should be an independent organization as opposed to a compromising association for increased pressured of the system obstructed the struggle.

The issues of aggressivity of communication strategies was key in defining Act Up’s role in the fight for AIDS, with aggressive messages and posters aimed at forcing public attention and shifting mediatized depictions of victims, changing the public imagery of an issue otherwise misrepresented. The graphics surge was initially very raw, aiming to shock the public but eventually adapted itself to conform with more mainstream media coverage and advertising. The sexual freedom and position of LGBTQ community in the world was part of the hidden agenda behind fighting the epidemic.

"A combination of serious politics and Joyful living'" is what kept the movement alive according to activists such as Maxine Wolf.
[[File:Kissing poster.jpg|x200px|thumb|left|Kissing Poster|Kissing Doesn't Kill Campaign Poster]]

The aggressivity of the message and the distribution in key places such as churches or high schools, although effective, infuriated the general public and brought the eventual banning of certain activities of the genre as well as incarceration of protesters and police violence. Inspired by the success of peaceful protest in the Civil Rights movement, Act Up activists succeeded at overcoming the difficulties surrounding their media strategy.<ref name="Bock 1991">Paula Bock, 2001. Graphic Anti-Aids Pamphlet Disgusting, Say Teens - `We Don't Need A Four-Letter Word To Get The Point Across' At Franklin, The Seattle Times, http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19911203&slug=1320783</ref>
The documentary portraying the group’s activity and historical implications in the fight for AIDS [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MrAzU79PBVM United in Anger: a history of ACT UP] collects activists first hand witness of the difficulties involved while fighting the epidemic in New York at the time.<ref name="Hubbard 2012">Jim Hubbard, 2012, United in Anger, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MrAzU79PBVM.</ref>

The documentary depicts a general public which was characterized by homophobia and fear to the extent of arguing the need for quarantine, recognition tattoos or interning concentration camps for homosexuals.
Act Up did not follow one model of institution, it was composed of affinity groups with a separate/outside life.
This organization, described by Anna Blume was essentially:
<center>"Organic, and came out of necessity. Affinity groups were pure necessity… Act Up needed the freshness of irreverence and irreverence cannot come from consensus. Affinity groups allowed for groupings of like-minded people to do whatever they want."<ref name="Hubbard 2012"/></center>
The model, inspired by CRM and Women's emancipation movements organized support networks were everybody was familiar.

Act Up Oral History website constitutes an attempt at organizing chaotic episodes into a cohesive social narrative. The internet as tool for creation of alternative media narrative, in which the movement added emphasis throughout its activities, allows for dissemination in a no hierarchical form. Marginalized groups can access these tools and generate knowledge, epitomizing the interconnectedness created by globalization and Act Up’s communal delegative organization strategy.
Act Up birth and primary objective was heavily tied to the circulation of accurate narratives and experiences with Aids but the international characteristic of their network of activity could have potentially endangered the cohesiveness of their message. Some scholars such as Atkinson, have argued that through "constitutive rhetoric leading to a Cohesive Multiplex of Narratives (CMN) that unite and actuate a community of people who share a common identity to resist HIV/AIDS discrimination."<ref name="Atkinson 2010">Atkinson, J.D. 2010. Alternative media and politics of resistance: A communication perspective, New York: Peter Lang. http://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/5380/4211.</ref>

==Failure at Intersectionality==
During ACT UP's Demonstration at the Department of Health and Human Services, Washington D.C. Vito Russo declared:
<center>"If I’m dying from anything, I’m dying from the fact that not enough rich, white, heterosexual men have gotten AIDS for anybody to give a shit.''<ref name="Russo 1988">Russo, Vito. 1988. "Why we fight", Act Up Demonstration in Washington D.C, Video Transcript.</ref> </center>
Documents such as these gathered through Act Up Oral History project hints at a key cause for the final internal split occurring in the organization. Indeed, some activists members of affinity groups point at failed intersectionality as Act Up set its agenda of priorities. Indeed, Ming, funder of the Asian Pacific Islander Coalition on HIV/AIDS <ref name="Ming">Act Up New York Oral History, Interview 005, 2002, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/images/carlomusto.pdf.</ref> outlines a problem of language in the information the group distributed.The proper translation of the overarching message and the effectiveness of that message in particular communities that lived sexual orientation and AIDS stigmatization differently, as well as the choice of person doing the counseling for that community was crucial.
<center> "I think there was a general perception in the community that ACT UP was a white organization [and] some people of color groups (and there are different degrees, right?) are quite wary of ACT UP." <ref name="Ming"/> </center>
[[File:Act Up Badge.jpg|thumb|Act Up Pin|ACT UP Women Badge: Reproductive Health Issues]]
The fact that Act Up purposefully excluded further input from minority groups to influence the image and the message characterizing the organization to secure favorable media coverage was a source of tension between surrogate groups.
<center> "I think the actual conflicts – like I was saying – I don’t remember what that big argument was about, but generally speaking, I don’t think that issues about women and AIDS, issues about AIDS and HIV in people of color groups are really on people’s minds, other than as a – the sort of litany." <ref name="Ming"/> </center>
As Jean Carlamusto, one of the active members later stated on an interview as part of the Act Up Oral History Project:
<center> "The movement began to eat itself up from the inside[...]I thought I could get the stigma and everything that came along with it. But at that time, even then, the images you saw, or the image that was being delivered, was really specific to gay men." <ref name="JC">Act Up New York Oral History, Interview 005, 2002, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/images/carlomusto.pdf.</ref> </center>

== Internal divisions==
The 1990 Storm the NIH campaign for Inclusive clinical trial groups design revealed the internal conflict majoritarily responsible for the loss of momentum of Act Up. The debates and focus, the issues that Act Up was targeting were changing.The emergency situation (once diagnosed the death was fast approaching) led the people to turn into activists and focus narrow mindedly in one thing: what treatment they needed to survive.
From this original “getting drugs into bodies” position, Act Up had evolved to focusing on the actual bodies that these drugs were about to get into.Indeed, people were dying faster according to their socio-economic background, race or sex. The range of wider issues that Act Up was engaging in an attempt to address intersectionality and historical difference between groups affected by the disease made it lose focus.
The demographics of Act Up pushed for these transformations and eventually secede of their own initiative with the Women caucus 1989, for instance, and its redefinition of AIDS campaign before the Centre for Disease Control. The women caucus engaged in a legal strategy thus pushing for a diversification not exclusively of the issues but an adapted portfolio of strategies as well.
This internal clash between immediate concerns as opposed to bigger issues, brought disenchantment with the organization’s social action. Its punctual successes were unquestionable but people were dying still, and fell prey to despair and fear, a feeling crystallized very well by José Fidelino's interview:
<center> " I think the main one(conflict) was, there were two schools, of people who, one of them was focusing on getting the drugs through the pipeline and into bodies. And there was the other school in ACT UP that wanted to focus on getting people primary health, primary access to health care." <ref name="JF">Act Up New York Oral History, Interview 057, 2004, http://www.actuporalhistory.org/interviews/images/fidelino.pdf.</ref></center>
Additionally, with the change of the perception of AIDS and its victims, Act Up’s hidden agenda surrounded the perception of homosexual orientation too.

=Outcomes=
==Change==

ACT UP’s primary goal was to educate the general populace about the crisis about HIV/AIDS, specifically in an American context. Through this education, ACT UP changed misconceptions and stereotypes associated with the AIDS epidemic and brought attention to the treatment of people with AIDS by the American government.

ACT UP has also caused policy changes through their protest and lobbying work. A prominent example of this would be the protest of Northwest Orient Airlines, whom prevented people with AIDS to board their flights. ACT UP initiated a law suit against the airline, which they won, and forced the airline to change their discriminatory policy.

==Current Existence==
Although ACT UP chapters continue to still meet and protest, many of them are not as large as they were during the middle of the AIDS crisis. ACT UP New York and ACT UP Philadelphia are currently the most active chapters.

Because of the differences in values and internal pressure, there have also been multiple groups that have split away from ACT UP:

'''Housing Works'''

Created in 1990, Housing Works was created by members of ACT UP that fractured away from the original group because they wanted to focus on the issue of homelessness and AIDS. They argued that stable housing was crucial in the prevention of the spread of HIV and AIDS and to help those who are HIV-positive live healthy and successful lives.

'''Health GAP (Global Access Project)'''

Founded in early 1999, Health GAP is dedicated to eliminating barriers to universal access to affordable medicines for people with HIV/AIDS, in order to stop the spread of AIDS. They advocate for proper drug access and resources for everyone across the globe, particularly in the Global South.

'''Treatment Action Group'''

The Treatment Action Group broke away from ACT UP in January 1992, in order to focus on accelerating treatment research. Through advocation with multiple groups such as government scientists, drug company researchers and U.S. Food and Drug Administration officials, they sought to seek the speedy development of new HIV therapies and drugs.

==International Collaboration==

Although ACT UP originally started in New York, it has now expanded to all over the globe with the universal goal of ending the AIDS pandemic.

ACT UP has also collaborated with allies in the Global South in order to push for full access to AIDS medications.

=Works Cited=
<references/>

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T21:44:24Z

MichelleHepburn: /* Framing the Problem */

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref> <ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover.<ref name="ETTF">European Timber Trade Federation. Country Profile: Brazil. http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref> <ref name="ITTO 2011">International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 2011. Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO Technical Series No 38.</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref> Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised.<ref name="FLI 2014">Forest Legality Initiative. 2014. Brazil. http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing.<ref name="Brito">Brito B. and Barreto P. 2011. Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref> Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation.<ref name="FAO 2005">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy.</ref> Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan.<ref name="chatham"/>

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon.<ref name="Fonseca et al. 2015">Fonseca, A., Justino, M., Souza Jr., C. & Veríssimo, A. 2015. Deforestation report for the Brazilian Amazon (November 2015) SAD (p. 10). Belém: Imazon. http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016a">Monga Bay. 2016a. Environmental official murdered in Brazilian Amazon. 17 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref> A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016b">Monga Bay. 2016b. Violence against indigenous people high, as land conflicts heat up. 18 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref> Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany.<ref name="Greenpeace 2001">Greenpeace. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref> <ref name="Chatham 2001">Chatham House. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime. http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref> Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref name="Greenpeace 2005">Greenpeace. 2005. Logging in the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law.<ref name="Chatham nd">Chatham House. n.d. Major Impacts: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany.<ref name="Bickett 2015">Bickett, Dawn. 2015. How loggers are destroying the Amazon — and getting away with it. Greenpeace Blog. 9 June. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref> As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso. <ref name="Watts and Vidal 2014">Watts, Jonathan and John Vidal. 2014. Brazil laundering timber on a 'massive and growing scale,' The Guardian. 15 May. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale</ref>

==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref name="Greenpeace 2003">Greenpeace. 2003. People of the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/</ref>.

=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/> Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref name=FLEGT nd">EU FLEGT. n.d. VPA countries. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries</ref> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T21:42:41Z

MichelleHepburn: /* Initiatives to combat illegal logging */

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref> <ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover.<ref name="ETTF">European Timber Trade Federation. Country Profile: Brazil. http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref> <ref name="ITTO 2011">International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 2011. Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO Technical Series No 38.</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref> Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised.<ref name="FLI 2014">Forest Legality Initiative. 2014. Brazil. http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing.<ref name="Brito">Brito B. and Barreto P. 2011. Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref> Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation.<ref name="FAO 2005">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy.</ref> Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan.<ref name="chatham">

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon.<ref name="Fonseca et al. 2015">Fonseca, A., Justino, M., Souza Jr., C. & Veríssimo, A. 2015. Deforestation report for the Brazilian Amazon (November 2015) SAD (p. 10). Belém: Imazon. http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016a">Monga Bay. 2016a. Environmental official murdered in Brazilian Amazon. 17 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref> A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016b">Monga Bay. 2016b. Violence against indigenous people high, as land conflicts heat up. 18 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref> Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany.<ref name="Greenpeace 2001">Greenpeace. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref> <ref name="Chatham 2001">Chatham House. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime. http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref> Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref name="Greenpeace 2005">Greenpeace. 2005. Logging in the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law.<ref name="Chatham nd">Chatham House. n.d. Major Impacts: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany.<ref name="Bickett 2015">Bickett, Dawn. 2015. How loggers are destroying the Amazon — and getting away with it. Greenpeace Blog. 9 June. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref> As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso. <ref name="Watts and Vidal 2014">Watts, Jonathan and John Vidal. 2014. Brazil laundering timber on a 'massive and growing scale,' The Guardian. 15 May. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale</ref>

==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref name="Greenpeace 2003">Greenpeace. 2003. People of the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/</ref>.

=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/> Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref name=FLEGT nd">EU FLEGT. n.d. VPA countries. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries</ref> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T21:42:13Z

MichelleHepburn: /* Social and Cultural */

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref> <ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover.<ref name="ETTF">European Timber Trade Federation. Country Profile: Brazil. http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref> <ref name="ITTO 2011">International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 2011. Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO Technical Series No 38.</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref> Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised.<ref name="FLI 2014">Forest Legality Initiative. 2014. Brazil. http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing.<ref name="Brito">Brito B. and Barreto P. 2011. Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref> Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation.<ref name="FAO 2005">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy.</ref> Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan.<ref name="chatham">

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon.<ref name="Fonseca et al. 2015">Fonseca, A., Justino, M., Souza Jr., C. & Veríssimo, A. 2015. Deforestation report for the Brazilian Amazon (November 2015) SAD (p. 10). Belém: Imazon. http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016a">Monga Bay. 2016a. Environmental official murdered in Brazilian Amazon. 17 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref> A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016b">Monga Bay. 2016b. Violence against indigenous people high, as land conflicts heat up. 18 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref> Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany.<ref name="Greenpeace 2001">Greenpeace. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref> <ref name="Chatham 2001">Chatham House. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime. http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref> Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref name="Greenpeace 2005">Greenpeace. 2005. Logging in the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law.<ref name="Chatham nd">Chatham House. n.d. Major Impacts: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany.<ref name="Bickett 2015">Bickett, Dawn. 2015. How loggers are destroying the Amazon — and getting away with it. Greenpeace Blog. 9 June. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref> As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso. <ref name="Watts and Vidal 2014">Watts, Jonathan and John Vidal. 2014. Brazil laundering timber on a 'massive and growing scale,' The Guardian. 15 May. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale</ref>

==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref name="Greenpeace 2003">Greenpeace. 2003. People of the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/</ref>.

=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/> Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref name=FLEGT nd">EU FLEGT. VPA countries. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries</ref> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years. <ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T21:41:16Z

MichelleHepburn:

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref> <ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover.<ref name="ETTF">European Timber Trade Federation. Country Profile: Brazil. http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref> <ref name="ITTO 2011">International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 2011. Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO Technical Series No 38.</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref> Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised.<ref name="FLI 2014">Forest Legality Initiative. 2014. Brazil. http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing.<ref name="Brito">Brito B. and Barreto P. 2011. Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref> Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation.<ref name="FAO 2005">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy.</ref> Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan.<ref name="chatham">

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon.<ref name="Fonseca et al. 2015">Fonseca, A., Justino, M., Souza Jr., C. & Veríssimo, A. 2015. Deforestation report for the Brazilian Amazon (November 2015) SAD (p. 10). Belém: Imazon. http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016a">Monga Bay. 2016a. Environmental official murdered in Brazilian Amazon. 17 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref> A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016b">Monga Bay. 2016b. Violence against indigenous people high, as land conflicts heat up. 18 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref> Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany.<ref name="Greenpeace 2001">Greenpeace. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref> <ref name="Chatham 2001">Chatham House. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime. http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref> Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref name="Greenpeace 2005">Greenpeace. 2005. Logging in the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law.<ref name="Chatham nd">Chatham House. n.d. Major Impacts: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany.<ref name="Bickett 2015">Bickett, Dawn. 2015. How loggers are destroying the Amazon — and getting away with it. Greenpeace Blog. 9 June. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref> As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso. <ref name="Watts and Vidal 2014">Watts, Jonathan and John Vidal. 2014. Brazil laundering timber on a 'massive and growing scale,' The Guardian. 15 May. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale</ref>

==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref name="Greenpeace 2003"/>Greenpeace. 2003. People of the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/</ref>.

=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/> Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref name=FLEGT nd">EU FLEGT. VPA countries. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries</ref> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years. <ref name="Greenpeace 2013"/>

=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T21:38:54Z

MichelleHepburn:

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref> <ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover.<ref name="ETTF">European Timber Trade Federation. Country Profile: Brazil. http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref> <ref name="ITTO 2011">International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 2011. Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO Technical Series No 38.</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref> Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised.<ref name="FLI 2014">Forest Legality Initiative. 2014. Brazil. http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing.<ref name="Brito">Brito B. and Barreto P. 2011. Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref> Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation.<ref name="FAO 2005">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy.</ref> Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan.<ref name="chatham">

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon.<ref name="Fonseca et al. 2015">Fonseca, A., Justino, M., Souza Jr., C. & Veríssimo, A. 2015. Deforestation report for the Brazilian Amazon (November 2015) SAD (p. 10). Belém: Imazon. http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016a">Monga Bay. 2016a. Environmental official murdered in Brazilian Amazon. 17 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref> A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016b">Monga Bay. 2016b. Violence against indigenous people high, as land conflicts heat up. 18 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref> Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany.<ref name="Greenpeace 2001">Greenpeace. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref> <ref name="Chatham 2001">Chatham House. 2001. Partners in mahogany crime. http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref> Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref name="Greenpeace 2005">Greenpeace. 2005. Logging in the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law.<ref name="Chatham nd">Chatham House. n.d. Major Impacts: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany.<ref name="Bickett 2015">Bickett, Dawn. 2015. How loggers are destroying the Amazon — and getting away with it. Greenpeace Blog. 9 June. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref> As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso. <ref name="Watts and Vidal 2014">Watts, Jonathan and John Vidal. 2014. Brazil laundering timber on a 'massive and growing scale,' The Guardian. 15 May. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale<ref/>

==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref name="Greenpeace 2003">Greenpeace. 2003. People of the Amazon: Background. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/<ref/>.

=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"> Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref name=FLEGT nd">EU FLEGT. VPA countries. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries<ref/> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years. <ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref>

=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T18:07:01Z

MichelleHepburn:

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref> <ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover.<ref name="ETTF">European Timber Trade Federation. Country Profile: Brazil. http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref> <ref name="ITTO 2011">International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 2011. Status of Tropical Forest Management. ITTO Technical Series No 38.</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref> Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised.<ref name="FLI 2014">Forest Legality Initiative. 2014. Brazil. http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing.<ref name="Brito">Brito B. and Barreto P. 2011. Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref> Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation.<ref name="FAO 2005">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy.</ref> Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan.<ref name="chatham">

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon.<ref name="Fonseca et al. 2015">Fonseca, A., Justino, M., Souza Jr., C. & Veríssimo, A. 2015. Deforestation report for the Brazilian Amazon (November 2015) SAD (p. 10). Belém: Imazon. http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016a">Monga Bay. 2016a. Environmental official murdered in Brazilian Amazon. 17 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref> A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people.<ref name="Monga Bay 2016b">Monga Bay. 2016b. Violence against indigenous people high, as land conflicts heat up. 18 October. https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref> Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany<ref>Greenpeace (2001). Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref><ref>http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref>. Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref>http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law<ref>http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany<ref>http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref>.As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale</ref>
==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref>http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/</ref>.
=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user. <ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">
=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref>http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries</ref> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years <ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref>.
=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Amazon-Brazil

2017-05-08T17:46:23Z

MichelleHepburn:

By: '''JOSEPH MUMUNI'''

== Illegal Logging in the Brazil Amazon: From past to present, What are the actions and realities? ==

=== Introduction ===
[[File:Behind the scenes of illegal logging.jpg|400px|thumb|right|An illegal timber site, [https://www.flickr.com/photos/31679815@N04/3211170718/ Flickr photo] by Joelle Hernandez, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]. Photo taken while in a vehicle indicating illegal logging which destroys forests and has other negative repercussions]]

There is no one definition for illegal logging. However, different definitions have been identified from research organizations and other groups working on illegal logging:
*The European Union Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) defines Illegal logging as situations where timber is harvested, processed, transported, bought or sold in contravention of national and international laws and which has devastating impacts on forests and forest dependent peoples.<ref name="EU FLEGT 2014a">EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade (EU FLEGT). 2014. Illegal Logging. http://www.euflegt.efi.int/illegal-logging</ref>

An assessment by Greenpeace International in the Amazon adds that timber may be illegal because it comes from land on a private estate that has been clear-felled without a deforestation authorization permit, or logged without a logging authorization - Autorização de Exploração Florestal (AUTEF); because it has been harvested in excess of the maximum authorized for a given area; or because it has been taken without permission from public land, or even from areas protected for wildlife or indigenous peoples and other communities.<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">Greenpeace. 2013. The Amazon's Silent Crisis. http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/sites/files/gpuk/SilentCrisis_LowRes_Pages.pdf</ref>

Brazil is one of the countries with extensive tropical forests and home to 60% of the Amazon rainforest. The country has 27 states with a total land cover of 850 million hectares, where 463 million hectares are estimated to be forested. In addition, natural forests account for the vast majority and plantations account for less than 2%<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L. 2014. Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref><ref name="Brazilian Forest Service">Brazilian Forest Service. Map of Federal Public Forests of Brazil. http://www.florestal.gov.br/documentos/publicacoes/institucionais/2034-brazilian-forest-service/file</ref>

==== Forest Ownership and Management ====
Different sources have provided estimates of forest ownership in Brazil as between 68% and 81% to be publicly owned and this includes indigenous lands where the remaining part is owned by communities. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 2011 presented the status of Brazilian Amazon forest to have over 60% being Permanent Forest Estates (PFE), i.e. land, whether public or private, that is secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover. <ref>http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/brazil/</ref><ref>International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)(2011). Status of Tropical Forest Management.ITTO Technical Series No 38</ref>. Only Brazilian-based community associations, cooperatives and companies can hold forest concession licences. IBAMA (Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) is the Brazilian environment agency and has general authority over forestry licences but in 2006, new forestry legislation passed much of the responsibility for the logging industry to the State Environmental Secretariat - SEMA<ref name="launder"></ref>. Forest Managers and harvesting companies harvesting native species from planted forests must inform IBAMA or the state environment agency about their commercial activities. Also, forest managers and companies harvesting exotic species from planted forests need planting licences before a planted forest is raised<ref>http://www.forestlegality.org/risk-tool/country/brazil</ref>

== Framing the Problem ==
There is no doubt that illegal logging is a pervasive problem, causing enormous damage to forests, to forest peoples and to the economies of producer countries. After concerns and clear evidence of illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon, the Brazilian Environmental Crime Law was enacted in 1998 with increased governmental efforts. Enforcement against illegal logging has improved but deforestation is still increasing<ref name="brit">Brito B. and Barreto P. (2011). Enforcement against Illegal Logging in the Brazilian Amazon. In Paddock L.(Ed), Compliance and Enforcement in Environmental Law. Towards more effective Implementation (pp.297-310), Edward Elgard Publishing</ref>. Brazil was recorded as the world leader in forest loss from 2000 to 2005 through illegal logging and deforestation<ref>Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2005). Global Forest Resources Assessment, Rome, Italy</ref>. Brazil is a leading producer, processor and consumer of wood-based products for which the majority of the country's log production comes from the less than 2% area of forest lands and as well account for nearly all the country's exports to the EU, China, US and Japan<ref name="chatham">Wellesley L.(2014).Illegal Logging and Related Trade:The Response in Brazil, A Chatham House Assessment, London</ref>.

There are many factors to be assessed when considering illegal logging: increasing national population, indigenous peoples' property rights, industrialization around the world as well as reports on increasing forest degradation among states in the Amazon<ref>http://imazon.org.br/publicacoes/deforestation-report-for-the-brazilian-amazon-november-2015-sad/?lang=en</ref> There is the need to delve into these realities in assessing efforts to combat illegal logging. Investigative research has to ascertain whether or not there are underground activities fueling cash, crime and contravention of laws. For example, an environmental official, who assisted illegal logging investigations by providing information for the arrest of some culprits and who was well-known for his aggressive enforcement of deforestation laws was shot dead in October, 2016 in the Brazilian Amazon. That execution gives evidence of danger for land defenders in this region<ref>https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/government-environmental-official-murdered-in-brazilian-amazon/</ref>. A major report released in September by the Indigenous Missionary Council (CIMI) indicates that there were 137 killings of indigenous people in Brazil in 2015, with the state of Mato Grosso do Sul recording the highest number (25 for the year). Much of the violence is due to land conflicts exacerbated by the government’s failure to demarcate indigenous lands, resulting in conflicts between large-scale farmers and indigenous people. Other reports indicate that there are 96 indigenous lands in Brazil, but only four have been demarcated and approved so far. Another 68 are classified with the status of "no action" according to CIMI. A high number of indigenous people also took their own lives, with 87 registered cases of suicide in 2015 by indigenous people<ref>https://news.mongabay.com/2016/10/violence-against-indigenous-people-high-as-land-conflicts-heat-up/</ref>. Though actions to curb illegal logging of mahogany are in place, a new species, Ipê (Handroanthus spp.) is highly sought after and thus drives loggers deeper in search of it. Also, exploring the progress made with tackling illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon particularly from different sources show that there are realities rather than reported<ref name="Greenpeace 2013"></ref>
=== Historical Context ===
Different tree species might have been illegally logged and traded but investigations by Greenpeace International and also reported by Chatham House assessments mention a prominent species, mahogany (''Swietenia macrophylla'') as the 'Amazon green gold'. Records for deforestation were higher in the 1990's, attributed to the international demand for mahogany<ref>Greenpeace (2001). Partners in mahogany crime; Amazon at the mercy of gentlemen's agreements, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</ref><ref>http://www.illegal-logging.info/content/partners-mahogany-crime</ref>. Working in remote forest areas, the loggers often use false permits, ignore limitations of legal permits, cut species protected by law and steal from protected areas and indigenous lands. These are often small or medium scale operations that are able to avoid detection because of the remoteness of the logging locations, the weak presence of the federal environmental agency, IBAMA, and a complex chain-of-custody in the cutting, hauling and transporting of the logs. Also, legally approved forest operations in the Brazilian Amazon commonly provide cover for illegal logging. Logs are frequently cut illegally up river, outside of approved operations and clandestinely floated downstream. Once past an approved operation, they are "legalised" with forged documents claiming that the logs were cut on the property of the forestry operation.

There are vast areas of the Amazon rainforest still intact. However, there are about 7,595 companies registered in the Brazilian Amazon and deforestation rates are growing at an alarming rate. This region that supplied 12 percent of the Brazilian log production in 1970, now produces some 30 million cubic meters of logs a year, or 90 percent of Brazil's total tropical timber production<ref>http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/logging-in-the-amazon/</ref>

== Implications ==
[[File:Replacing trees with grass.jpg|400px||left|thumb|Cutting trees illegally will gradually produce tight feedback loops on the environment and human well-being globally. [https://www.flickr.com/photos/tybeeney/5923096636/ Fallen Giant], Flickr Photo by Tyler Beeney, licensed [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/ CC BY-NC 2.0]]]
Illegal logging has significant impacts in various dimensions, including environmental, social, cultural and economic impacts. These impacts can lead to loss or degradation of forests and as illegal logging tends to be associated with poor forest management, it can result in the loss of habitats and biodiversity. It can also result in loss of significant government revenue and subsequently undermines efforts to place the forest sector on a more sustainable footing, as lost revenue cannot be reinvested in the sector. Another critical view is the fact that it distorts global markets and undermines incentives for sustainable forest management, as illegal timber is often cheaper than legal timber. Socially and culturally, it leads to corruption, conflicts with local communities and contravention of the rule of law<ref>http://www.illegal-logging.info/topics/major-impacts</ref>
=== Environmental ===
The Amazon rainforest is the largest on earth. Its biodiversity is unparalleled, it is crucial to the stability of the global climate, and it is home to many indigenous peoples. But in spite of its immense size and importance, the Amazon is also incredibly vulnerable. In the past three decades alone, human activity has destroyed an area of the Brazilian Amazon roughly the size of Germany<ref>http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-in-brazil-amazon/blog/53180/</ref>.As climate change impacts are felt, there are concerns that the Amazon forest may reach a ‘tipping point’ in which it undergoes a rapid transition to savannah. The 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reported that the probability of reaching this tipping point was increased by the combination of climate change and fragmentation acting together. Such a dramatic change would in turn lead to disastrous losses both of biodiversity and of vital ecosystem services currently provided by the forest, such as provision of clean water and climate regulation<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">
=== Economic ===
In 2014, Greenpeace uncovered that illegally logged timber in Brazil is being laundered on a massive and growing scale and then sold on to unwitting buyers in the UK, US, Europe and China. Far more than half of the wood from the two biggest timber producing regions of Brazil probably comes from illegal sources, it claimed, citing figures from the Brazilian environmental research NGO, Imazon, that 78% of the wood shipped from the vast Amazonian state of Pará was illegally felled, while the corresponding figure was 54% in Mato Grosso<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/may/15/brazil-laundering-illegal-timber-on-a-massive-and-growing-scale</ref>
==== The 'new mahogany'-Brazilian walnut or Ipê ====
Greenpeace Brazil in 2014, exposed how the logging company -- Agropecuaria Santa Efigenia Ltd -- logged, laundered, and sold over $7 million of illegal timber. The company filed fraudulent paperwork to claim ridiculously high quantities of valuable ipè timber from areas it could legally log. Then it used that documentation to launder illegal wood from other areas of the Amazon. Ipê is the most valuable Brazilian tropical timber species, and among the most expensive globally. While the volumes of Ipê harvested and exported have declined in recent years, the price continues to increase – driving loggers ever deeper into the forest in search of it. Much light is thrown here with emphasis on current prices; Unsawn log price (domestic): US$169.5 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (domestic): US$859 per cubic metre, Sawn timber price (export, FOB Belem/Paranagua Ports): US$1,294 per cubic metre, Added value product– decking boards (FOB Belém/Paranaguá): US$ 2,330 per cubic metre. Now, almost a year later, Brazilian authorities have finally confirmed that Santa Efigenia engaged in large-scale fraud and have imposed sanctions on the company<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">

=== Social and Cultural===
The Brazilian Amazon alone is home to about 20 million people, including 400 different indigenous groups, and the future of the Amazon depends on the future of those that call the forest home. These people rely on the forest for their way of life. It provides almost everything from food and shelter to tools and medicines, as well as playing a crucial role in people's spiritual and cultural life. For example, the Waimiri Atroari of the Brazilian Amazon use 32 plant species in the construction of hunting equipment alone. Each plant has a specific role according to its physical and chemical properties. Yet the traditional way of life for indigenous Amazon cultures is being threatened. As logging companies move in, indigenous people are losing their traditional territory. Some indigenous people, such as the Deni living in a remote area of Brazil's Amazonas state, are working not only to protect their culture, but the forest and the diversity of life upon which they depend<ref>http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/amazon/people-of-the-amazon/</ref>.
=== Political ===
As long as nation states remain powerful actors in natural resources allocation, regulation and management, political interference is an anticipated factor in any region and with consequent implications. The Brazilian Amazon is no exception in terms of forest management and timber production from states such as Para and Mato Grosso which have a dual system of timber industry governance consisting of a regulatory system that oversees the management of estates and the harvesting of timber and a chain-of-custody system intended to ensure trace-ability of timber from forest to user<ref name="launder">Greenpeace (2014). The Amazon's silent crises; The regulation of the Brazilian Amazon logging industry, Butanta-Sao Paulo, Brazil</ref>. Information gathered indicates that the governance system in public areas, indigenous lands and other protected and community lands is a major driver for illegal logging and markets can be flooded with illegal timber. Large amounts of illegal timber enter national and international timber markets after being laundered, using genuine documents obtained through fraudulent processes<ref name="Greenpeace 2013">
=== Initiatives to combat illegal logging ===
As a result of concerns about rapid deforestation and forest degradation around the world, there have been measures put in place to curb the process worldwide with the EU FLEGT as a specific example. Brazil is currently not identified among the negotiating or implementing VPA countries of the EU FLEGT<ref>http://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa-countries</ref> In the Brazilian Amazon, IBAMA continues to conduct inspections of logging operations and timber consignments through monitoring of Sustainable Forest Management Plans. In Pará and Mato Grosso, the oversight of timber harvesting is exercised by the SEMA through the Integrated System for Environmental Monitoring and Licensing (Sistema Integrado de Monitoramento e Licenciamento Ambiental – SIMLAM), a computerised system by means of which estates are registered and monitored, and licences issued for their activities, including logging. To harvest timber, the landowner/operator must have a Logging Authorisation (Autorização de Exploração Florestal – AUTEF), issued by the SEMA via SIMLAM and valid for one year, with renewal possible for another year. This document generates credits for timber transactions within a chain-of-custody system and there must be an AUTEF associated with all timber sold or transported.In the Amazon. Harvesting is currently limited to 30m3 of timber which is equivalent to two to five trees, depending on species and size per hectare every 35 years <ref name="launder"></ref>.
=== Observations and Recommendations ===
At the start of this study, I nearly concluded that all is well in the Brazilian Amazon in terms of illegal logging at present due to law enforcement all over as well as publications indicating a decline in deforestation. However, referring to the definition of illegal logging provided above, much has been discovered, contrary to my earlier thoughts. I therefore argue that there is more to what has been provided about illegal logging in this region based on the following;
* ''Bureaucratic management of forests and issue of licences''. It appears that the state has more power over the overall management and use of forest resources in this region but with a complex system of engaging different stakeholders.
*''Forest tenure and strands of secure property rights''; the information I have been able to gather so far shows that a greater percentage of the forests is publicly owned and includes indigenous lands, with the rest being owned by communities. However, one can infer from this that there is a high probability of conflict of interest between the state management and indigenous people due to their different objectives and uses. For example, Greenpeace's research with indigenous communities has presented cases where some tribes have had land conflicts with some states in the Brazilian Amazon. Also, the idea of PFE mentioned above draws attention to a situation where underground activities may be carried out by some individuals at the expense of others.
*Another controversial finding is the obvious high production and use of wood nationally and internationally, claiming to be originating from plantations which constitute only a small portion -- about two percent of the forested area of the region.

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Mozambique

2017-05-08T17:30:34Z

MichelleHepburn:

Illegal Logging: Detrimental to Mozambique's economy, environment and society
[[File:Abel.jpg|thumb| The effect of illegal logging in Mozambique by Environmental Investigation Agency]]
[[File:Map-mozambique.png|thumbnail|The Map of Mozambique]]
== 1.1 Introduction ==
The Republic of Mozambique is a country in the southeast of Africa bordered by the Indian ocean to the east, Tanzania to the North, Malawi and Zambia to the Northwest, Zimbabwe to the West and Swaziland and South Africa to the Southwest. Although one of the world’s poorest countries, Mozambique has tremendous potential for eco-tourism with its beautiful beaches, safari life and Lake Malawi diving opportunities.<ref name="Monga Bay 2006">Monga Bay. 2006. Tropical Rainforests: Mozambique. http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20mozambique.htm</ref> Mozambique endured sixteen years of brutal civil war and now finds itself at a crossroads between conservation and development. This case study will examine the various ways that development and conservation can co-exist in Mozambique, showing that, when done properly, both are possible.<ref name="Monga Bay 2006"/>

About 50% of Mozambique's land area is forested, however none of the country’s primary forest remains.<ref name="FAO 2015">FAO. 2015. Global Forest Resources Assessment.</ref> Mozambique's forests are state-owned, and about half of the area is allocated for production.<ref name="FAO 2015"/> The annual rate of deforestation for the period of 2010-2015 was 0.5%.<ref name ="FAO 2015"/>
There is widespread illegal logging in the country. In 2013, it was estimated that nearly half of the country’s timber export to China was illegal.<ref name="EIA 2013">Environmental Investigation Agency. 2013. Mozambique loses a fortune to illegal timber exports. https://eia-international.org/mozambique-loses-a-fortune-to-illegal-timber-exports</ref> The cross-border smuggling of illegal timber to Tanzania is also a problem.<ref name="Chatham House 2017">Chatham House. 2017. Mozambique: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/regions/mozambique</ref> In 2012 the two countries signed a memorandum of understanding aimed at improving management of forest and wildlife resources through improved cooperation with law enforcement to reduce the trade of illegal timber.<ref name="Chatham House 2017"/>

== 2.1 Framing the Problem: A Forestry Perspective ==
[[File:MOZAMBIQUE.jpg|thumbnail|Government officials in Mozambique measuring illegal timber seized in the Gila National Reserve]]

Despite the low rate of deforestation reported above, Mozambique is currently experiencing a high rate of illegal logging. The increased rate of illegal logging is being accelerated by the demand for hardwoods in China.<ref name="EIA 2014">Environmental Investigation Agency. 2014. China's illegal timber imports ransack Mozambique's forests. https://eia-international.org/chinas-illegal-timber-imports-ransack-mozambiques-forests</ref> Insatiable Chinese demand for timber is driving an unsustainable illegal logging and timber smuggling crisis which threatens to undermine Mozambique’s forest resources.<ref name="EIA 2014"/> Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) revealed that a staggering 93 per cent of logging in Mozambique during 2013 was illegal.<ref name="EIA 2014"/> Research, undercover investigation and analysis conducted by EIA 2013-2014 demonstrated that that the key driver of forest crime in Mozambique was the ongoing demand for hardwoods in China.<ref name="EIA 2014"/>

Many Mozambicans are implicated in illegal logging for Chinese companies; by lending capital for equipment such as chainsaws, Chinese companies locked loggers into dependency, leaving them no choice but to continue logging to pay off their debts.<ref name="Dijkstra 2015">Dijkstra, Andrea. 2015. Mozambique will be stripped of its forests 'in just a few years,' Mail & Guardian. 20 March. http://mg.co.za/article/2015-03-19-moz-will-be-stripped-of-its-forests-in-just-a-few-years</ref> By buying from individual Mozambicans, the Chinese avoid the high costs of obtaining a logging licence and obligation to replant the trees.<ref name="Dijkstra 2015"/>

Corruption has also contributed to the increased rate of illegal logging. One Chinese business person reported that, “whenever they [got] pulled over by police, they [gave] them some money so they [could] continue with their journey.”<ref name="Dijkstra 2015"/> Many logging companies also move timber at night when there are no inspectors on the road.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006">Catherine Mackenzie. 2006. Forest Governance in Zambézia, Mozambique: Chinese Takeaway! Final Report for Fongza. https://www.open.ac.uk/technology/mozambique/sites/www.open.ac.uk.technology.mozambique/files/pics/d72272.pdf</ref> It is reported that there is extensive corruption, especially in the provincial forest services, police and customs.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/> For instance, many of the small Mozambican operators are forced to pay bribes as high as US $400 to forestry officials, simply to obtain a licence.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/> They harvest more than they are legally allowed to do, and pay bribes to the police at check points.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/> As a result of this widespread corruption, several Mozambican politicians and officials are quickly becoming rich while the inhabitants of the forest remain desperately poor.<ref name="Dijkstra 2015"/> According to the Mozambican law, local communities should receive 20% of taxes charged on timber harvesting but this money does not flow back to them at all.<ref name="Dijkstra 2015"/>

This veritable epidemic of crime and environmental mismanagement has deprived the world’s second least developed country of US $146 million in lost tax revenue since 2007. Without major reforms, Mozambique’s forest and forest economy are staring down the barrel of very a bleak future.<ref name="EIA 2014"/>

== 2.2 Framing the Problem: Layering Perspectives ==

The description above describes illegal logging in Mozambique from the perspective of a forestry student. In this section we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:

# How do scholars and professionals outside of forestry conceptualize the practice of illegal logging in Mozambique?
# What are other possible ways of framing this problem?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us understand this phenomenon better?

== 3.1 Implications: A Forestry Perpective ==
Corruption, at many levels, is a significant factor in the mismanagement of Mozambique's forests; the benefits received by governmental staff, as well as public and private elites, contributes to inconsistent and sub-standard enforcement of regulations. The excessive harvesting and exporting that results, enables foreign buyers to maximize their profits on Mozambican timber.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/> Thus, government failure to enforce their own laws leads to many economic, social, and cultural problems.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/>
=== 3.1.1 Economic Impact ===
There are several economic problems associated with the issue of illegal logging including, loss of revenue and opportunities, loss of opportunities for employment, skills acquisition, and industrial development, loss of opportunities for rural communities to manage and benefit from their own resources, loss of tax and other government revenues as a consequence of the export of raw rather than processed materials, and unrecorded illegal harvest and export. Proper management of the logging industry in Mozambique could mean that these profits could have been captured and used to help alleviate poverty in the country.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/>
=== 3.1.2 Social Impact ===
The exploitation of hardwoods has many significantly and negatively affects local communities. Loggers entering the communities cause social disruption, division and inequities by bribing local leaders in order to get their consent<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/>, undermining local governance systems as well as the rule of law. This corruption militates against future development efforts in the community.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/> Lastly, most of the Mozambicans live in rural-based communities, practicing a subsistence form of agriculture;<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/> deforestation fundamentally affects local ecosystems as well as native community ties to the land by disrupting this relationship.<ref name="Mackenzie 2006"/>
=== 3.1.3 Cultural Impact ===
Communities are both formal and informal stakeholders in the forest sector.<ref name="Petition">Online Petition. 2013. Bring an end to the illegal Mozambique timber trade. https://forcechange.com/58243/bring-an-end-to-the-illegal-mozambique-timber-trade/</ref> Formally they provide labour to concession holders and simple licence operators. But jobs are few (in relation to the number of community members), seasonal and often pay below the minimum wage.<ref name="Petition"/> Women rarely receive employment and are typically disadvantaged by loss of their spouses' labour in agriculture and lack of control over the wages earned.<ref name="Petition"/> Moreover, Mozambicans have deep historical, cultural and social ties to the land. With the current rate of deforestation, however, many Mozambicans may see their livelihood and ancestral claims vanish within a few generations.<ref name="Petition"/>

== 3.2 Implications: Layering Perspectives ==

The description above describes the implications from illegal logging in Mozambique from the perspective of a forestry student. In this section we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:
# How could someone from a different discipline or profession add to the implications above?
# What other implications become apparent when illegal logging is viewed through the lens of other disciplines and professions?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us better understand the implications associated with illegal logging in Mozambique?

== 4.1 Current Initiatives to Combat Illegal Logging ==
Due to the high rate of illegal logging in Mozambique, the government has entered into a regional agreement to combat illegal logging with Tanzania, Madagascar, Uganda and Kenya.<ref name="Monga Bay 2015">Monga Bay. 2015. 5 African countries agree to combat illegal timber trade. 10 September. https://news.mongabay.com/2015/09/5-african-countries-agree-to-combat-illegal-timber-trade/</ref> The declaration was signed on 10 September 2015 at the XIV World Forestry Congress in Durban, South Africa. It takes aim at the burgeoning trade of illegal timber in the region.<ref name="Monga Bay 2015"/> Madagascar and Central African countries are generally the source of illicit timber, while Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania are major transit points through which it is sent to overseas markets.<ref name="Monga Bay 2015"/> Mozambique is both a source and transit country. The declaration asked member states to develop monitoring and reporting systems for their respective timber industries as well as implement bans on log exports.<ref name="Monga Bay 2015"/>

== 5.1 Recommendations: A Forestry Perspective ==
# Mozambique should immediately impose an embargo on log exports to China and investigate the Environmental Investigation Agency's account of internal corruption among Mozambique’s high-ranking officials.<ref name="Petition"/>
# Chief consumer countries including China, India, European and the Middle East should be pressured to consider the issue of illegal timber exports to their countries as a priority agenda item.<ref name="Monga Bay 2015"/>
# Government should introduce community-based forest management practices that directly involve communities in the management of forests. This is due to the fact that Mozambicans have deep historic, cultural and social ties to the land and with the current rate of deforestation, many Mozambicans may see their livelihood and ancestral claims vanish within a few generations.<ref name="Petition"/>
== 5.2 Recommendations: Layering Perspectives ==
What recommendations might someone from another discipline or profession make to combat the issue of illegal logging in Mozambique?
Examples might include:
* Law
* Geography
* Environmental Science
* Social Justice
* Economics
* History
* Anthropology
* Philosophy

== 6.1 References ==

<References/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Mozambique

2017-05-08T17:16:31Z

MichelleHepburn:

Illegal Logging: Detrimental to Mozambique's economy, environment and society
[[File:Abel.jpg|thumb| The effect of illegal logging in Mozambique by Environmental Investigation Agency]]
[[File:Map-mozambique.png|thumbnail|The Map of Mozambique]]
== 1.1 Introduction ==
The Republic of Mozambique is a country in the southeast of Africa bordered by the Indian ocean to the east, Tanzania to the North, Malawi and Zambia to the Northwest, Zimbabwe to the West and Swaziland and South Africa to the Southwest. Although one of the world’s poorest countries, Mozambique has tremendous potential for eco-tourism with its beautiful beaches, safari life and Lake Malawi diving opportunities.<ref name="Monga Bay 2006">Monga Bay. 2006. Tropical Rainforests: Mozambique. http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20mozambique.htm</ref> Mozambique endured sixteen years of brutal civil war and now finds itself at a crossroads between conservation and development. This case study will examine the various ways that development and conservation can co-exist in Mozambique, showing that, when done properly, both are possible.<ref name="Monga Bay 2006"/>

About 50% of Mozambique's land area is forested, however none of the country’s primary forest remains.<ref name="FAO 2015">FAO. 2015. Global Forest Resources Assessment.</ref> Mozambique's forests are state-owned, and about half of the area is allocated for production.<ref name="FAO 2015"/> The annual rate of deforestation for the period of 2010-2015 was 0.5%.<ref name ="FAO 2015"/>
There is widespread illegal logging in the country. In 2013, it was estimated that nearly half of the country’s timber export to China was illegal.<ref name="EIA 2013">Environmental Investigation Agency. 2013. Mozambique loses a fortune to illegal timber exports. https://eia-international.org/mozambique-loses-a-fortune-to-illegal-timber-exports</ref> The cross-border smuggling of illegal timber to Tanzania is also a problem.<ref name="Chatham House 2017">Chatham House. 2017. Mozambique: Illegal Logging. http://www.illegal-logging.info/regions/mozambique</ref> In 2012 the two countries signed a memorandum of understanding aimed at improving management of forest and wildlife resources through improved cooperation with law enforcement to reduce the trade of illegal timber.<ref name="Chatham House 2017"/>

== 2.1 Framing the Problem: A Forestry Perspective ==
[[File:MOZAMBIQUE.jpg|thumbnail|Government officials in Mozambique measuring illegal timber seized in the Gila National Reserve]]

Despite the low rate of deforestation reported above, Mozambique is currently experiencing a high rate of illegal logging. The increased rate of illegal logging is being accelerated by the demand for hardwoods in China.<ref name="EIA 2014">Environmental Investigation Agency. 2014. China's illegal timber imports ransack Mozambique's forests. https://eia-international.org/chinas-illegal-timber-imports-ransack-mozambiques-forests</ref> Insatiable Chinese demand for timber is driving an unsustainable illegal logging and timber smuggling crisis which threatens to undermine Mozambique’s forest resources.<ref name="EIA 2014"/> Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) revealed that a staggering 93 per cent of logging in Mozambique during 2013 was illegal.<ref name="EIA 2014"/> Research, undercover investigation and analysis conducted by EIA 2013-2014 demonstrated that that the key driver of forest crime in Mozambique was the ongoing demand for hardwoods in China.<ref name="EIA 2014"/>

Many Mozambicans are implicated in illegal logging for Chinese companies; by lending capital for equipment such as chainsaws, Chinese companies locked loggers into dependency, leaving them no choice but to continue logging to pay off their debts.<ref name="cite6">http://mg.co.za/article/2015-03-19-moz-will-be-stripped-of-its-forests-in-just-a-few-years</ref> By buying from individual Mozambicans, the Chinese avoid the high costs of obtaining a logging licence and obligation to replant the trees.<ref name="cite6"/>

Corruption has also contributed to the increased rate of illegal logging. One Chinese business person reported that, “whenever they [got] pulled over by police, they [gave] them some money so they [could] continue with their journey.”<ref name="cite6"/> Many logging companies also move timber at night when there are no inspectors on the road.<ref name="cite7">Catherine Mackenzie, (2006). Forest Governance in Zambezia, Mozambique: Chinese Takeaway.</ref> It is reported that there is extensive corruption, especially in the provincial forest services, police and customs.<ref name="cite7"/> For instance, many of the small Mozambican operators are forced to pay bribes as high as US $400 to forestry officials, simply to obtain a licence.<ref name="cite7"/> They harvest more than they are legally allowed to do, and pay bribes to the police at check points.<ref name="cite7"/> As a result of this widespread corruption, several Mozambican politicians and officials are quickly becoming rich while the inhabitants of the forest remain desperately poor.<ref name="cite6"/> According to the Mozambican law, local communities should receive 20% of taxes charged on timber harvesting but this money does not flow back to them at all.<ref name="cite6"/>

This veritable epidemic of crime and environmental mismanagement has deprived the world’s second least developed country of US $146 million in lost tax revenue since 2007. Without major reforms, Mozambique’s forest and forest economy are staring down the barrel of very a bleak future.<ref name="EIA 2014"/>

== 2.2 Framing the Problem: Layering Perspectives ==

The description above describes illegal logging in Mozambique from the perspective of a forestry student. In this section we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:

# How do scholars and professionals outside of forestry conceptualize the practice of illegal logging in Mozambique?
# What are other possible ways of framing this problem?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us understand this phenomenon better?

== 3.1 Implications: A Forestry Perpective ==
Corruption, at many levels, is a significant factor in the mismanagement of Mozambique's forests; the benefits received by governmental staff, as well as public and private elites, contributes to inconsistent and sub-standard enforcement of regulations. The excessive harvesting and exporting that results, enables foreign buyers to maximize their profits on Mozambican timber.<ref name="cite7"/> Thus, government failure to enforce their own laws leads to many economic, social, and cultural problems.<ref name="cite7"/>
=== 3.1.1 Economic Impact ===
There are several economic problems associated with the issue of illegal logging including, loss of revenue and opportunities, loss of opportunities for employment, skills acquisition, and industrial development, loss of opportunities for rural communities to manage and benefit from their own resources, loss of tax and other government revenues as a consequence of the export of raw rather than processed materials, and unrecorded illegal harvest and export. Proper management of the logging industry in Mozambique could mean that these profits could have been captured and used to help alleviate poverty in the country.<ref name="cite7"/>
=== 3.1.2 Social Impact ===
The exploitation of hardwoods has many significantly and negatively affects local communities. Loggers entering the communities cause social disruption, division and inequities by bribing local leaders in order to get their consent<ref name="cite7"/>, undermining local governance systems as well as the rule of law. This corruption militates against future development efforts in the community.<ref name="cite7"/> Lastly, most of the Mozambicans live in rural-based communities, practicing a subsistence form of agriculture;<ref name="cite7"/> deforestation fundamentally affects local ecosystems as well as native community ties to the land by disrupting this relationship.<ref name="cite7"/>
=== 3.1.3 Cultural Impact ===
Communities are both formal and informal stakeholders in the forest sector.<ref name="cite13">https://forcechange.com/58243/bring-an-end-to-the-illegal-mozambique-timber-trade/</ref> Formally they provide labour to concession holders and simple licence operators. But jobs are few (in relation to the number of community members), seasonal and often pay below the minimum wage.<ref name="cite13"/> Women rarely receive employment and are typically disadvantaged by loss of their spouses' labour in agriculture and lack of control over the wages earned.<ref name="cite13"/> Moreover, Mozambicans have deep historical, cultural and social ties to the land. With the current rate of deforestation, however, many Mozambicans may see their livelihood and ancestral claims vanish within a few generations.<ref name="cite13"/>

== 3.2 Implications: Layering Perspectives ==

The description above describes the implications from illegal logging in Mozambique from the perspective of a forestry student. In this section we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:
# How could someone from a different discipline or profession add to the implications above?
# What other implications become apparent when illegal logging is viewed through the lens of other disciplines and professions?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us better understand the implications associated with illegal logging in Mozambique?

== 4.1 Current Initiatives to Combat Illegal Logging ==
Due to the high rate of illegal logging in Mozambique, the government has entered into a regional agreement to combat illegal logging with Tanzania, Madagascar, Uganda and Kenya.<ref name="cite14">https://news.mongabay.com/2015/09/5-african-countries-agree-to-combat-illegal-timber-trade/</ref> The declaration was signed on 10 September 2015 at the XIV World Forestry Congress in Durban, South Africa. It takes aim at the burgeoning trade of illegal timber in the region.<ref name="cite14"/> Madagascar and Central African countries are generally the source of illicit timber, while Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania are major transit points through which it is sent to overseas markets.<ref name="cite14"/> Mozambique is both a source and transit country. The declaration asked member states to develop monitoring and reporting systems for their respective timber industries as well as implement bans on log exports.<ref name="cite14"/>

== 5.1 Recommendations: A Forestry Perspective ==
# Mozambique should immediately impose an embargo on log exports to China and investigate the Environmental Investigation Agency's account of internal corruption among Mozambique’s high-ranking officials.<ref name="cite15">https://forcechange.com/58243/bring-an-end-to-the-illegal-mozambique-timber-trade/</ref>
# Chief consumer countries including China, India, European and the Middle East should be pressured to consider the issue of illegal timber exports to their countries as a priority agenda item.<ref name="cite14"/>
# Government should introduce community-based forest management practices that directly involve communities in the management of forests. This is due to the fact that Mozambicans have deep historic, cultural and social ties to the land and with the current rate of deforestation, many Mozambicans may see their livelihood and ancestral claims vanish within a few generations.<ref name="cite15"/>
== 5.2 Recommendations: Layering Perspectives ==
What recommendations might someone from another discipline or profession make to combat the issue of illegal logging in Mozambique?
Examples might include:
* Law
* Geography
* Environmental Science
* Social Justice
* Economics
* History
* Anthropology
* Philosophy

== 6.1 References ==

<References/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Open Case Studies/FRST522/Mozambique

2017-05-08T17:07:41Z

MichelleHepburn:

Illegal Logging: Detrimental to Mozambique's economy, environment and society
[[File:Abel.jpg|thumb| The effect of illegal logging in Mozambique by Environmental Investigation Agency]]
[[File:Map-mozambique.png|thumbnail|The Map of Mozambique]]
== 1.1 Introduction ==
The Republic of Mozambique is a country in the southeast of Africa bordered by the Indian ocean to the east, Tanzania to the North, Malawi and Zambia to the Northwest, Zimbabwe to the West and Swaziland and South Africa to the Southwest. Although one of the world’s poorest countries, Mozambique has tremendous potential for eco-tourism with its beautiful beaches, safari life and Lake Malawi diving opportunities.<ref name="cite1">Monga Bay, (2006). http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20mozambique.htm</ref> Mozambique endured sixteen years of brutal civil war and now finds itself at a crossroads between conservation and development. This case study will examine the various ways that development and conservation can co-exist in Mozambique, showing that, when done properly, both are possible.<ref name="cite1"/>

About 50% of Mozambique's land area is forested, however none of the country’s primary forest remains.<ref name="cite2">FAO, (2015). Global Forest Resources Assessment.</ref> Mozambique's forests are state-owned, and about half of the area is allocated for production.<ref name="cite2"/> The annual rate of deforestation for the period of 2010- 2015 was 0.5%.<ref name ="cite2"/>
There is widespread illegal logging in the country. In 2013, it was estimated that nearly half of the country’s timber export to China was illegal.<ref name="cite3">Environmental Investigation Agency, (2013). Mozambique loses a fortune to illegal timber exports. https://eia-international.org/mozambique-loses-a-fortune-to-illegal-timber-exports</ref> The cross-border smuggling of illegal timber to Tanzania is also a problem.<ref name="cite4">http://www.illegal-logging.info/regions/mozambique</ref> In 2012 the two countries signed a memorandum of understanding aimed at improving management of forest and wildlife resources through improved cooperation with law enforcement to reduce the trade of illegal timber.<ref name="cite4"/>

== 2.1 Framing the Problem: A Forestry Perspective ==
[[File:MOZAMBIQUE.jpg|thumbnail|Government officials in Mozambique measuring illegal timber seized in the Gila National Reserve]]

Despite the low rate of deforestation reported above, Mozambique is currently experiencing a high rate of illegal logging. The increased rate of illegal logging is being accelerated by the demand for hardwoods in China.<ref name="cite5">Environmental Investigation Agency, (2014). China's illegal timber imports ransack Mozambique's forests. https://eia-international.org/chinas-illegal-timber-imports-ransack-mozambiques-forests</ref> Insatiable Chinese demand for timber is driving an unsustainable illegal logging and timber smuggling crisis which threatens to undermine Mozambique’s forest resources.<ref name="cite5"/> Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) revealed that a staggering 93 per cent of logging in Mozambique during 2013 was illegal.<ref name="cite5"/> Research, undercover investigation and analysis conducted by EIA 2013-2014 demonstrated that that the key driver of forest crime in Mozambique was the ongoing demand for hardwoods in China.<ref name="cite5"/>

Many Mozambicans are implicated in illegal logging for Chinese companies; by lending capital for equipment such as chainsaws, Chinese companies locked loggers into dependency, leaving them no choice but to continue logging to pay off their debts.<ref name="cite6">http://mg.co.za/article/2015-03-19-moz-will-be-stripped-of-its-forests-in-just-a-few-years</ref> By buying from individual Mozambicans, the Chinese avoid the high costs of obtaining a logging licence and obligation to replant the trees.<ref name="cite6"/>

Corruption has also contributed to the increased rate of illegal logging. One Chinese business person reported that, “whenever they [got] pulled over by police, they [gave] them some money so they [could] continue with their journey.”<ref name="cite6"/> Many logging companies also move timber at night when there are no inspectors on the road.<ref name="cite7">Catherine Mackenzie, (2006). Forest Governance in Zambezia, Mozambique: Chinese Takeaway.</ref> It is reported that there is extensive corruption, especially in the provincial forest services, police and customs.<ref name="cite7"/> For instance, many of the small Mozambican operators are forced to pay bribes as high as US $400 to forestry officials, simply to obtain a licence.<ref name="cite7"/> They harvest more than they are legally allowed to do, and pay bribes to the police at check points.<ref name="cite7"/> As a result of this widespread corruption, several Mozambican politicians and officials are quickly becoming rich while the inhabitants of the forest remain desperately poor.<ref name="cite6"/> According to the Mozambican law, local communities should receive 20% of taxes charged on timber harvesting but this money does not flow back to them at all.<ref name="cite6"/>

This veritable epidemic of crime and environmental mismanagement has deprived the world’s second least developed country of US $146 million in lost tax revenue since 2007. Without major reforms, Mozambique’s forest and forest economy are staring down the barrel of very a bleak future.<ref name="cite5"/>

== 2.2 Framing the Problem: Layering Perspectives ==

The description above describes illegal logging in Mozambique from the perspective of a forestry student. In this section we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:

# How do scholars and professionals outside of forestry conceptualize the practice of illegal logging in Mozambique?
# What are other possible ways of framing this problem?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us understand this phenomenon better?

== 3.1 Implications: A Forestry Perpective ==
Corruption, at many levels, is a significant factor in the mismanagement of Mozambique's forests; the benefits received by governmental staff, as well as public and private elites, contributes to inconsistent and sub-standard enforcement of regulations. The excessive harvesting and exporting that results, enables foreign buyers to maximize their profits on Mozambican timber.<ref name="cite7"/> Thus, government failure to enforce their own laws leads to many economic, social, and cultural problems.<ref name="cite7"/>
=== 3.1.1 Economic Impact ===
There are several economic problems associated with the issue of illegal logging including, loss of revenue and opportunities, loss of opportunities for employment, skills acquisition, and industrial development, loss of opportunities for rural communities to manage and benefit from their own resources, loss of tax and other government revenues as a consequence of the export of raw rather than processed materials, and unrecorded illegal harvest and export. Proper management of the logging industry in Mozambique could mean that these profits could have been captured and used to help alleviate poverty in the country.<ref name="cite7"/>
=== 3.1.2 Social Impact ===
The exploitation of hardwoods has many significantly and negatively affects local communities. Loggers entering the communities cause social disruption, division and inequities by bribing local leaders in order to get their consent<ref name="cite7"/>, undermining local governance systems as well as the rule of law. This corruption militates against future development efforts in the community.<ref name="cite7"/> Lastly, most of the Mozambicans live in rural-based communities, practicing a subsistence form of agriculture;<ref name="cite7"/> deforestation fundamentally affects local ecosystems as well as native community ties to the land by disrupting this relationship.<ref name="cite7"/>
=== 3.1.3 Cultural Impact ===
Communities are both formal and informal stakeholders in the forest sector.<ref name="cite13">https://forcechange.com/58243/bring-an-end-to-the-illegal-mozambique-timber-trade/</ref> Formally they provide labour to concession holders and simple licence operators. But jobs are few (in relation to the number of community members), seasonal and often pay below the minimum wage.<ref name="cite13"/> Women rarely receive employment and are typically disadvantaged by loss of their spouses' labour in agriculture and lack of control over the wages earned.<ref name="cite13"/> Moreover, Mozambicans have deep historical, cultural and social ties to the land. With the current rate of deforestation, however, many Mozambicans may see their livelihood and ancestral claims vanish within a few generations.<ref name="cite13"/>

== 3.2 Implications: Layering Perspectives ==

The description above describes the implications from illegal logging in Mozambique from the perspective of a forestry student. In this section we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:
# How could someone from a different discipline or profession add to the implications above?
# What other implications become apparent when illegal logging is viewed through the lens of other disciplines and professions?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us better understand the implications associated with illegal logging in Mozambique?

== 4.1 Current Initiatives to Combat Illegal Logging ==
Due to the high rate of illegal logging in Mozambique, the government has entered into a regional agreement to combat illegal logging with Tanzania, Madagascar, Uganda and Kenya.<ref name="cite14">https://news.mongabay.com/2015/09/5-african-countries-agree-to-combat-illegal-timber-trade/</ref> The declaration was signed on 10 September 2015 at the XIV World Forestry Congress in Durban, South Africa. It takes aim at the burgeoning trade of illegal timber in the region.<ref name="cite14"/> Madagascar and Central African countries are generally the source of illicit timber, while Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania are major transit points through which it is sent to overseas markets.<ref name="cite14"/> Mozambique is both a source and transit country. The declaration asked member states to develop monitoring and reporting systems for their respective timber industries as well as implement bans on log exports.<ref name="cite14"/>

== 5.1 Recommendations: A Forestry Perspective ==
# Mozambique should immediately impose an embargo on log exports to China and investigate the Environmental Investigation Agency's account of internal corruption among Mozambique’s high-ranking officials.<ref name="cite15">https://forcechange.com/58243/bring-an-end-to-the-illegal-mozambique-timber-trade/</ref>
# Chief consumer countries including China, India, European and the Middle East should be pressured to consider the issue of illegal timber exports to their countries as a priority agenda item.<ref name="cite14"/>
# Government should introduce community-based forest management practices that directly involve communities in the management of forests. This is due to the fact that Mozambicans have deep historic, cultural and social ties to the land and with the current rate of deforestation, many Mozambicans may see their livelihood and ancestral claims vanish within a few generations.<ref name="cite15"/>
== 5.2 Recommendations: Layering Perspectives ==
What recommendations might someone from another discipline or profession make to combat the issue of illegal logging in Mozambique?
Examples might include:
* Law
* Geography
* Environmental Science
* Social Justice
* Economics
* History
* Anthropology
* Philosophy

== 6.1 References ==

<References/>

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry6

2017-03-09T17:53:30Z

MichelleHepburn: Undo revision 439975 by ChristinaHendricks (talk)

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Vancouver Restaurant Industry Group 6

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
Start partnerships with local farmers.
Address present suppliers about their sourcing practices.
Support other local businesses.
Communicate our business philosophy to the public.
Encourage the government to recognize our goals.
Host events for other advocacy groups.

==Implications==
The restaurant industry benefit from exploiting unsustainable farming practices. The implications of that are how those practices affect the environment. Of the pressing issues for us is sourcing products and if where we source our product has sustainable practices.

===Political===
Set an example for other businesses.
As a restaurant we feel the responsibility to support sustainable practices and encourage any legislations that align with our practices and supporting our goal.
We also encourage prospective suppliers to change their practices.

===Economic===
Locally focused
Support farmers with environmentally friendly practices. These farmers will benefit from our business and partnerships, food will only be purchased locally. By buying from local farms, we decrease the travel distance products must travel and therefore decreasing the emissions necessary to transport the food. We will utilize local micro-breweries, such as [http://33acresbrewing.com/ 33 Acres], and only pour from taps eliminate the use of cans. Avoid importing foreign products to reduce our carbon footprint.

===Social===
Supporting local farmers, like [http://solefoodfarms.com/ Sole Foods], we're indirectly supporting vulnerable individuals
Providing consumers with the choice to participate in sustainable consumption.
We envision connecting food to people and we feel as though our ethical food practices will have a positive impact on our society.

==Remaining Challenges==

Some of the challenges we will face is expense. Since most large corporation are able to supply goods at a cheaper price it'll certainly be difficult to turn down those opportunities. There's also a possibility that we will have to turn down opportunities to trade with foreign farming industries who hire their vulnerable peoples and will not be receiving our business.
It's very limiting but if we truly care about our environmental impact we will have to limit our business relations until other industries align their impact vision with ours.

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1

2017-02-20T21:42:22Z

MichelleHepburn:

BC Hydro seeks to be a leading sustainable energy company by delivering electricity in environmentally and socially responsible ways. Having said that, energy systems cause both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Thus, a comprehensive action plan is a necessity for a company like BC Hydro. This action plan forms the basis for the company's processes and decisions. The action plan is as follows:
* BC Hydro meets all the environmental requirements defined by legislation, regulation, government directives, and other environmental standards that apply to BC Hydro.
* To develop and foster an electrical energy conservation culture in British Columbia that leads to customers choosing to make a dramatic and permanent reduction in electricity consumption. It also includes a "Sustainable Communities Program". Its in-house Resource Smart program is used to identify and implement efficiency gains at existing BC Hydro facilities.
* It seeks to purchase products, services, and new supplies of energy that take into account environmental responsibility. Thus, it ensures that the production of hydro power is clean.
* Publicly reports on its own environmental performance so as to maintain transparency.

In addition to this action plan, BC Hydro is committed to the BC government's Energy Plan to achieve electric power self-sufficiency in the province by 2016, with all new generation plants having zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the same year.<ref>http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/electricity-alternative-energy/energy-efficiency-conservation/policy-regulations</ref>

BC Hydro has also entered into energy purchase contracts with a new category of company created by special legislation, Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to buy electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources, mainly from small capacity run of river hydro and more recently, wind power, wood residue energy, and energy from organic municipal waste.<ref>http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/10022_01#part1</ref>

== Introduction ==
Production of energy is the largest contributor to global warming (Approximately 35% according to IPCC from 2014). Regardless of whether energy is produced via the burning of fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—or produced via alternatives—such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric—all sources contribute climate change, though at vastly varying scales. In the case of fossil fuels, the impact is both obvious and found throughout the entire cycle: from extraction to burning the fuel. Alternative sources, however, may not have such an obvious impact on climate change. Production of solar panels, for example, requires significant amount of energy and rare earth minerals and these must be included in how we calculate the use of solar energy on climate change.

As a region with vast hydroelectric potential one of the most significant contributions we can make is to prioritize energy production through the development of hydroelectric plants. Hydroelectricity is generally thought of as clean energy and provides a number of ancillary benefits: storage of energy, inexpensive once developed, reliable (Probably some citations needed). There are a number of drawbacks, too. More research is needed into the effect the dam reservoirs have on global warming generally, alongside the elimination of forest and natural space. It is also important to consider the rights of indigenous peoples as suitable land for hydroelectric development may be located on their land. This is especially problematic in BC as there are few treaties that identify indigenous lands.

In spite of these challenges, we advocate that as a region, British Columbia can use it's natural resources responsibly and with consideration of the real environmental effects of hydroelectricity while working within the rights of indigenous peoples and their land.

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
Political implications for Hydroelectric energy in British Columbia include Aboriginal Land Rights issues, protests, and transparency issues as a crown corporation. Most large-scale hydroelectric projects require large areas of land to be re-developed and often these developments occur on traditional indigenous lands in British Columbia. - ''this needs to be finished''

Environmental advocacy groups and political parties have protested the proposed Site C Dam on the Peace River near Fort St. John. Protesters including Peace Valley farmers and First Nations representatives argue that the dam would result in large scale ecological consequences and affect their traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering sites - ''needs to be finished''

Crown Corporations - ''needs to be finished''
[[File:Keep-the-Peace-Emma-Gilchrist-DeSmog-Canada.jpg|thumbnail]]

===Economic===

In terms of the economy, investing and furthering hydroelectricity efforts in British Columbia would have multiple beneficial and negative effects on the economy. Firstly, building hydroelectric dams is a costly process. It involves a lengthy construction process that costs a fair amount of money due to the use of many resources such as concrete, and land development. During this building process, the surrounding environment may be damaged in numerous ways, which may be particularly harmful to those who live a lifestyle where their resources come from the land. Particularly, Indigenous peoples economic activities may be effected as there may be reduced fish and animal populations from hydroelectric dam construction<ref>https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/hidden-costs-hydroelectric-dams</ref>. Building dams are economically stimulating, as they require lots of special knowledge to build, incorporating engineers, architects, geologists, conservationists, and others alike. Hydroelectric production has many economic benefits, once a hydroelectric dam has been built, energy production relies on the natural movement of water, where mechanical energy is turned into energy and thereby turned into usable electricity by a hydroelectric generator. <ref>http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html</ref> Hydroelectric dams provide water for irrigation channels, and fresh water for towns and cities. Moreover, they are a reliable year-round source of electricity in British Columbia, as British Columbia has an enormous amount or rives, lakes, and streams that flow year round. Access to clean, fresh water is essential to supporting communities, and without access to clean water, the local economy cannot grow.

[[File:Hydrodam.gif|thumbnail]]

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Challenges===
There are two activities associated with dams that can produce significant amounts of GHGs. The first is a set of activities pertaining to the construction of the dam, as well as the production of material used for constructing the dam.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The second is the production of GHCs through the decay of biomass in the dam reservoir after flooding.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

In the former case, a study on cement and steel production, as well as the construction of the dam itself calculated that the total amount of GHCs produced would be 10% of the fossil fuel equivalent.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Despite the notable difference, less emitting practices are advisable for the production and construction stages.

In the latter case, there is significant potential for GHG emissions, especially methane, which is 24 times as potent as CO2 in climate change.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> This potential is due to the fact that after flooding of the region behind the land, the biomass of former plant and fungi life decay under water.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The more oxygenated the water is, the more CO2 relative to methane is produced.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Since BC is a colder region, the water is going to be highly oxygenated. Nonetheless, significant amounts of GHGs can be released for many years.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Clearing out a would-be reservoir of as much plant and fungi life as possible before flooding could help decrease the damage.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

===References===
<references/>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1

2017-02-20T21:40:41Z

MichelleHepburn:

BC Hydro seeks to be a leading sustainable energy company by delivering electricity in environmentally and socially responsible ways. Having said that, energy systems cause both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Thus, a comprehensive action plan is a necessity for a company like BC Hydro. This action plan forms the basis for the company's processes and decisions. The action plan is as follows:
* BC Hydro meets all the environmental requirements defined by legislation, regulation, government directives, and other environmental standards that apply to BC Hydro.
* To develop and foster an electrical energy conservation culture in British Columbia that leads to customers choosing to make a dramatic and permanent reduction in electricity consumption. It also includes a "Sustainable Communities Program". Its in-house Resource Smart program is used to identify and implement efficiency gains at existing BC Hydro facilities.
* It seeks to purchase products, services, and new supplies of energy that take into account environmental responsibility. Thus, it ensures that the production of hydro power is clean.
* Publicly reports on its own environmental performance so as to maintain transparency.

In addition to this action plan, BC Hydro is committed to the BC government's Energy Plan to achieve electric power self-sufficiency in the province by 2016, with all new generation plants having zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the same year.<ref>http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/electricity-alternative-energy/energy-efficiency-conservation/policy-regulations</ref>

BC Hydro has also entered into energy purchase contracts with a new category of company created by special legislation, Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to buy electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources, mainly from small capacity run of river hydro and more recently, wind power, wood residue energy, and energy from organic municipal waste.<ref>http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/10022_01#part1</ref>

== Introduction ==
Production of energy is the largest contributor to global warming (Approximately 35% according to IPCC from 2014). Regardless of whether energy is produced via the burning of fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—or produced via alternatives—such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric—all sources contribute climate change, though at vastly varying scales. In the case of fossil fuels, the impact is both obvious and found throughout the entire cycle: from extraction to burning the fuel. Alternative sources, however, may not have such an obvious impact on climate change. Production of solar panels, for example, requires significant amount of energy and rare earth minerals and these must be included in how we calculate the use of solar energy on climate change.

As a region with vast hydroelectric potential one of the most significant contributions we can make is to prioritize energy production through the development of hydroelectric plants. Hydroelectricity is generally thought of as clean energy and provides a number of ancillary benefits: storage of energy, inexpensive once developed, reliable (Probably some citations needed). There are a number of drawbacks, too. More research is needed into the effect the dam reservoirs have on global warming generally, alongside the elimination of forest and natural space. It is also important to consider the rights of indigenous peoples as suitable land for hydroelectric development may be located on their land. This is especially problematic in BC as there are few treaties that identify indigenous lands.

In spite of these challenges, we advocate that as a region, British Columbia can use it's natural resources responsibly and with consideration of the real environmental effects of hydroelectricity while working within the rights of indigenous peoples and their land.

==Implications==

===Political===
Political implications for Hydroelectric energy in British Columbia include Aboriginal Land Rights issues, protests, and transparency issues as a crown corporation. Most large-scale hydroelectric projects require large areas of land to be re-developed and often these developments occur on traditional indigenous lands in British Columbia. - this needs to be finished

Environmental advocacy groups and political parties have protested the proposed Site C Dam on the Peace River near Fort St. John. Protesters including Peace Valley farmers and First Nations representatives argue that the dam would result in large scale ecological consequences and affect their traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering sites - needs to be finished

Crown Corporations - needs to be finished
[[File:Keep-the-Peace-Emma-Gilchrist-DeSmog-Canada.jpg|thumbnail]]

===Economic===

In terms of the economy, investing and furthering hydroelectricity efforts in British Columbia would have multiple beneficial and negative effects on the economy. Firstly, building hydroelectric dams is a costly process. It involves a lengthy construction process that costs a fair amount of money due to the use of many resources such as concrete, and land development. During this building process, the surrounding environment may be damaged in numerous ways, which may be particularly harmful to those who live a lifestyle where their resources come from the land. Particularly, Indigenous peoples economic activities may be effected as there may be reduced fish and animal populations from hydroelectric dam construction<ref>https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/hidden-costs-hydroelectric-dams</ref>. Building dams are economically stimulating, as they require lots of special knowledge to build, incorporating engineers, architects, geologists, conservationists, and others alike. Hydroelectric production has many economic benefits, once a hydroelectric dam has been built, energy production relies on the natural movement of water, where mechanical energy is turned into energy and thereby turned into usable electricity by a hydroelectric generator. <ref>http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html</ref> Hydroelectric dams provide water for irrigation channels, and fresh water for towns and cities. Moreover, they are a reliable year-round source of electricity in British Columbia, as British Columbia has an enormous amount or rives, lakes, and streams that flow year round. Access to clean, fresh water is essential to supporting communities, and without access to clean water, the local economy cannot grow.

[[File:Hydrodam.gif|thumbnail]]

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Challenges===
There are two activities associated with dams that can produce significant amounts of GHGs. The first is a set of activities pertaining to the construction of the dam, as well as the production of material used for constructing the dam.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The second is the production of GHCs through the decay of biomass in the dam reservoir after flooding.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

In the former case, a study on cement and steel production, as well as the construction of the dam itself calculated that the total amount of GHCs produced would be 10% of the fossil fuel equivalent.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Despite the notable difference, less emitting practices are advisable for the production and construction stages.

In the latter case, there is significant potential for GHG emissions, especially methane, which is 24 times as potent as CO2 in climate change.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> This potential is due to the fact that after flooding of the region behind the land, the biomass of former plant and fungi life decay under water.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The more oxygenated the water is, the more CO2 relative to methane is produced.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Since BC is a colder region, the water is going to be highly oxygenated. Nonetheless, significant amounts of GHGs can be released for many years.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Clearing out a would-be reservoir of as much plant and fungi life as possible before flooding could help decrease the damage.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

===References===
<references/>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1

2017-02-20T21:39:26Z

MichelleHepburn: /* Implications */

BC Hydro seeks to be a leading sustainable energy company by delivering electricity in environmentally and socially responsible ways. Having said that, energy systems cause both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Thus, a comprehensive action plan is a necessity for a company like BC Hydro. This action plan forms the basis for the company's processes and decisions. The action plan is as follows:
* BC Hydro meets all the environmental requirements defined by legislation, regulation, government directives, and other environmental standards that apply to BC Hydro.
* To develop and foster an electrical energy conservation culture in British Columbia that leads to customers choosing to make a dramatic and permanent reduction in electricity consumption. It also includes a "Sustainable Communities Program". Its in-house Resource Smart program is used to identify and implement efficiency gains at existing BC Hydro facilities.
* It seeks to purchase products, services, and new supplies of energy that take into account environmental responsibility. Thus, it ensures that the production of hydro power is clean.
* Publicly reports on its own environmental performance so as to maintain transparency.

In addition to this action plan, BC Hydro is committed to the BC government's Energy Plan to achieve electric power self-sufficiency in the province by 2016, with all new generation plants having zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the same year.<ref>http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/electricity-alternative-energy/energy-efficiency-conservation/policy-regulations</ref>

BC Hydro has also entered into energy purchase contracts with a new category of company created by special legislation, Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to buy electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources, mainly from small capacity run of river hydro and more recently, wind power, wood residue energy, and energy from organic municipal waste.<ref>http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/10022_01#part1</ref>

== Introduction ==
Production of energy is the largest contributor to global warming (Approximately 35% according to IPCC from 2014). Regardless of whether energy is produced via the burning of fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—or produced via alternatives—such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric—all sources contribute climate change, though at vastly varying scales. In the case of fossil fuels, the impact is both obvious and found throughout the entire cycle: from extraction to burning the fuel. Alternative sources, however, may not have such an obvious impact on climate change. Production of solar panels, for example, requires significant amount of energy and rare earth minerals and these must be included in how we calculate the use of solar energy on climate change.

As a region with vast hydroelectric potential one of the most significant contributions we can make is to prioritize energy production through the development of hydroelectric plants. Hydroelectricity is generally thought of as clean energy and provides a number of ancillary benefits: storage of energy, inexpensive once developed, reliable (Probably some citations needed). There are a number of drawbacks, too. More research is needed into the effect the dam reservoirs have on global warming generally, alongside the elimination of forest and natural space. It is also important to consider the rights of indigenous peoples as suitable land for hydroelectric development may be located on their land. This is especially problematic in BC as there are few treaties that identify indigenous lands.

In spite of these challenges, we advocate that as a region, British Columbia can use it's natural resources responsibly and with consideration of the real environmental effects of hydroelectricity while working within the rights of indigenous peoples and their land.

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
Political implications for Hydroelectric energy in British Columbia include Aboriginal Land Rights issues, protests, and transparency issues as a crown corporation. Most large-scale hydroelectric projects require large areas of land to be re-developed and often these developments occur on traditional indigenous lands in British Columbia. - this needs to be finished

Environmental advocacy groups and political parties have protested the proposed Site C Dam on the Peace River near Fort St. John. Protesters including Peace Valley farmers and First Nations representatives argue that the dam would result in large scale ecological consequences and affect their traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering sites - needs to be finished

Crown Corporations - needs to be finished
[[File:Keep-the-Peace-Emma-Gilchrist-DeSmog-Canada.jpg|thumbnail]]

===Economic===

In terms of the economy, investing and furthering hydroelectricity efforts in British Columbia would have multiple beneficial and negative effects on the economy. Firstly, building hydroelectric dams is a costly process. It involves a lengthy construction process that costs a fair amount of money due to the use of many resources such as concrete, and land development. During this building process, the surrounding environment may be damaged in numerous ways, which may be particularly harmful to those who live a lifestyle where their resources come from the land. Particularly, Indigenous peoples economic activities may be effected as there may be reduced fish and animal populations from hydroelectric dam construction<ref>https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/hidden-costs-hydroelectric-dams</ref>. Building dams are economically stimulating, as they require lots of special knowledge to build, incorporating engineers, architects, geologists, conservationists, and others alike. Hydroelectric production has many economic benefits, once a hydroelectric dam has been built, energy production relies on the natural movement of water, where mechanical energy is turned into energy and thereby turned into usable electricity by a hydroelectric generator. <ref>http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html</ref> Hydroelectric dams provide water for irrigation channels, and fresh water for towns and cities. Moreover, they are a reliable year-round source of electricity in British Columbia, as British Columbia has an enormous amount or rives, lakes, and streams that flow year round. Access to clean, fresh water is essential to supporting communities, and without access to clean water, the local economy cannot grow.

[[File:Hydrodam.gif|thumbnail]]

===Social===

===Challenges===
There are two activities associated with dams that can produce significant amounts of GHGs. The first is a set of activities pertaining to the construction of the dam, as well as the production of material used for constructing the dam.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The second is the production of GHCs through the decay of biomass in the dam reservoir after flooding.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

In the former case, a study on cement and steel production, as well as the construction of the dam itself calculated that the total amount of GHCs produced would be 10% of the fossil fuel equivalent.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Despite the notable difference, less emitting practices are advisable for the production and construction stages.

In the latter case, there is significant potential for GHG emissions, especially methane, which is 24 times as potent as CO2 in climate change.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> This potential is due to the fact that after flooding of the region behind the land, the biomass of former plant and fungi life decay under water.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The more oxygenated the water is, the more CO2 relative to methane is produced.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Since BC is a colder region, the water is going to be highly oxygenated. Nonetheless, significant amounts of GHGs can be released for many years.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Clearing out a would-be reservoir of as much plant and fungi life as possible before flooding could help decrease the damage.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

===References===
<references/>

Open Case Studies/FRST522/India

2016-12-13T14:17:56Z

MichelleHepburn:

<big>'''Import of illegal logs and wood based products in India by Stephanie Lee'''</big>
==Introduction ==
Illegal logging is creating havoc in some of the remaining pristine natural forests in the world, including in Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mozambique, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is a leading cause of deforestation, loss of biodiversity, collapse of community forestry and conflicts. In simple terms, illegal logging occurs when timber is harvested, transported, processed, bought or sold in violation of national or sub-national laws.<ref name="illegal logging">Illegal logging. (2016).Retrieved from http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/deforestation/deforestation_causes/illegal_logging/</ref>The complexity of illegal logging is compounded when countries trade in illegally sourced timber in the international market. Economic data associated with illegal timber trade confirms that it is one of the most lucrative business for individuals and countries to profit from their rich natural resource base. The trade in illegal timber is estimated to be worth between USD 30 and USD 100 billion annually.<ref name="illegal logging"/>Like any other business of commodities, in the case of illegal logging there are producers, processors and consumers. Illegal logging has adverse social and economic implications for the majority of the timber producing countries, particularly the developing countries.There is loss of revenue to the exchequer as well as loss of livelihoods of forest dependent people. Illegal logging also fuels crime and promotes corruption at all levels including at government levels.<ref name="illegal logging"/>

Illegal logging exists because there is an increasing demand for timber and other wood based products including pulp and paper. As much as the producer countries are to be blamed for undermining their laws and regulations in forest resource management, the consumer countries too have a major role to play in encouraging this illegal trade by importing timber and wood products without ensuring that they are legally sourced. Until the recent development of mechanisms of certifying sustainable forestry and agreements to enforce the legality of timber sourced, there were no legal mechanisms to exclude illegal timber by importing countries although it was detected.<ref name="CIL">Brack, D., and Buckrell, J. (2011). Controlling Illegal Logging: Consumer –Country Measures.
Retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/papers/view/109642</ref>With the exception of a few tree species listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), importation of illegally sourced timber was widely seen as normative.<ref name="CIL"/>

{{#widget:YouTube|id=1mmvECRqIMA|height=315|width=420}}

==India as consumer of illegal logged timber and other wood based products==
With a rising population and increasing demand for wood and wood based products in the real estate sector, India is emerging as a major consumer of illegal timber and one of the world’s largest importers of wood-based products. A decline in domestic wood production means that India needs to meet its demands from other sources. Almost 30% of the timber demand is met by imports.<ref name ="Chatham">Lawson, S. (2014). Illegal wood import and re-export: The scale of problem and the response in Thailand, South Korea and and India. Retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/papers/view/198667</ref>. In 2012, nearly 20% of timber imports were estimated to be illegally sourced.<ref name ="Chatham"/>The timber and wood based product imports are sourced from some of the worst affected producer countries in terms of illegal logging. Although a minority of these producer countries are in the process of negotiating bilateral agreements with the European Union, however the vast volumes of timber imported from Burma (Myanmar) and Sarawak (Malaysia) are yet to come under the European Union Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA) licensing scheme. <ref name ="Chatham"/> Compared to other consumer countries, India's high risk imports consists of primary wood products (such as logs, sawn timber, plywood and veneer) with a larger share sourced directly from producer countries.<ref name ="Chatham"/>. According to a study by Chatham House on illegal wood import in consumer countries, the Government of India has very limited recognition to address or even curb this problem.<ref name ="Chatham"/>

====India as a destination for high risk imports of logs and wood based based products====
In the international market of timber and wood based products, India is becoming an attractive destination for opportunities in global wood products business.<ref name="Dubey">Dubey, P. (2009). Prospects and Challenges for the Emerging Timber Import Market in India. ''Journal of forestry'',107 (1), 23 -28</ref>
This opens up avenues for illegally sourced timber and other woods to be included in the business. Between 2002 and 2011, imports of illegally sourced timber and wood products increased from 1 million to 3.5 million cubic metres RWE (Roundwood equivalent volume).<ref name ="Chatham"></ref>. A lot of factors have led to the creation of a unique market opportunity in India. These include the ban on domestic logging, economic liberalization, demand for processed wood products such as furniture, laminates, flooring, etc., among the rising middle income class.<ref name="Dubey"/> A large volume of its estimated imports of illegally sourced logs comes from Sarawak (Malaysia) and Burma; plywood, furniture and paper from China; and pulp and paper from Indonesia.<ref name ="Chatham"></ref>. India leveraged these opportunities to import illegally logged timber so as to conserve its forest to meet its national forest cover goals<ref name="USDA">Sood, D. (2014).Wood and Wood Products in India 2014.
Retrieved from http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Wood%20and%20Wood%20Products%20in%20India%202014_New%20Delhi_India_6-24-2014.pdf</ref>and maximize revenue from value addition and re-export of secondary processing wood products<ref name="Dubey"/>

==Reasons for increasing import of logs and wood based products ==
===Forest Policy===
In 1988, the National Forest Policy brought into force certain regulations that restricted commercial harvesting of timber, liberalized the imports of of wood and recognized that forest land be used primarily by forest dependent communities for their fuel, fodder and food and small scale industries.<ref name="Dubey"/>In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that use of forest land for non forest purposes had to be approved solely by the central government. All of these policy measures had implications for timber production which gradually declined and led to sustained increase in wood imports.<ref name="USDA"/>
===Increase in demand===
Demand for timber and wood based products has accelerated in recent years due to the increasing demand for fuel wood from the rising population, demand for imported hardwood and softwood varieties in real estate development and consumer demand for interior decorating materials and furniture.<ref name="USDA"/>The total consumption is estimated to increase from 58 million cubic meters in 2005 to 153 million cubic meters in 2020. <ref name ="Chatham"/>

===Decrease in domestic supply===
Following the ban on domestic logging to allow regeneration of degraded forest, there has been a slow decline in timber production. To close the demand and supply gap, India had to rely on imports. The decline in supply is also attributed to the land laws that restrict the amount of land that private firms can own for harvesting wood and growing plantations<ref name="USDA"/> and the inefficiency of mills due to the protectionist policy adopted with respect to forestry industries<ref name="Dubey"/>
===Liberal tariff rate===
In order to facilitate increased imports of wood, India adopted a liberal import tariff policy whereby tariffs on wood and wood products were reduced. The bound tariff rate for wood products is set at 40%, while the applied rates of most wood products range from 5% to 15%. The tariff on log imports has been kept at a low 5% relative to processed wood products in order to capitalize on value addition and re-export of wood products and to reduce harvesting in India.<ref name="USDA"/>

==Indicators to assess import of illegal log and related trade in a consumer country==
A study was carried out by Chatham House in 2014 to assess illegal logging and related trade, and associated forest governance, in countries that produce, trade and consume illegally sourced timber. A set of standardized indicators was developed for this study.The indicators considered the nature and extent of the problem, the attention it receives, and the responses by both the government and the private sector. <ref name ="Chatham"/>
=== Government response===
The study by Chatham House used a structured system for assessing the existence, design and implementation of laws, policies and regulations generally considered necessary to minimize illegal logging and ensure good forest governance in high-risk countries.<ref name ="Chatham"/>
=====''High level arrangements''=====
Unlike other countries such as United Kingdom, the Government of India neither did a review of its role as a consumer of illegally sourced wood nor created an action plan to reduce this role.There is lack of awareness of the issue among government officials in the country. The forest ministry is primarily focused on domestic forestry issues, and the Customs Agencies are currently only concerned with proper taxation of imported wood.<ref name ="Chatham"/>
=====''Regulation of timber imports''=====
According to the 2014 study, India has neither analysed the potential of existing legislation to prevent imports of illegally sourced wood products nor has there been any initiative to implement additional legislation to prevent such imports.<ref name ="Chatham"/>
=====''Enforcement''=====
Currently an assessment of enforcement in India is limited to only those timber species that are listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) due to the absence of a legislative mechanism to curb illegally sourced wood imports.<ref name ="Chatham"/>Although India claimed to provide sufficient training to Customs officers to enable them to enforce CITES controls on listed timber species, the study found the implementation of CITES listings for timber species to be poor.<ref name ="Chatham"/>The poor performance of CITES control is evident in the lack of records of arrival of shipments from countries which have reported exports and re-exports of CITES-listed timber and wood products to India.<ref name ="Chatham"/>The study also found non existence of specific systems in place for receiving enforcement alerts from source countries regarding shipments of illegal timber or wood products en route.<ref name ="Chatham"/>
=====''Government Procurement''=====
The Government of India has no regulations or policies in place to mandate all government purchases of timber and wood products to be legally sourced. The government procurement regulations does not include generic requirements for legal sourcing of wood products.<ref name ="Chatham"/>
===Media Attention===
In order to analyse the attention given to the role of consumer countries as importers and consumers of illegal wood, the study by Chatham House looked into media coverage, both domestic and international, and press release and NGO reports in all these countries.<ref name ="Chatham"/> In the case of India only one media report relating to the country's role in illegally sourced wood from abroad was found.<ref name ="Chatham"/> In comparison to other consumer countries such as the United Kingdom and France, very few stories on illegal logging were reported in India.<ref name ="Chatham"/>There has been little attention paid to India's role in the illegal log trade in the international media.<ref name ="Chatham"/> India is a major importer of illegal wood from Myanmar and Sarawak. However the NGO campaigns have instead focused on China for Myanmar and Japan for Sarawak. <ref name ="Chatham"/>

===Private sector response===
The Chatham House study analysed private sector response as an indicator by looking into the voluntary sign up to verification and certification systems offered by third party systems to private companies in the consumer and processing countries. Such verification and certification systems was limited to the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification for sustainability. <ref name ="Chatham"/>
=====''Forest Stewardship Council Chain of Custody''=====
FSC certification is one of the common methods used by timber traders and wood product manufacturers to ensure the legality and sustainability of timber used. FSC certification ensures that the wood or the product is sourced from a responsibly managed forests and which have been evaluated to adhere to FSC’s stringent environmental and social standards.<ref name="FSC">FSC Certification.Retrieved from https://ca.fsc.org/en-ca/fsc-certification on 7th November 2016</ref>FSC Chain of Custody (CoC) certification obtained by companies references the extent to which the private sector is willing to curb illegally sourced wood. <ref name ="Chatham"/> India has the smallest number of FSC CoC-certified companies per million population of any consumer or processing country.<ref name ="Chatham"/>
=====''WWF Global Forest & Trade Network''=====
The WWF Global Forest & Trade Network (GFTN) is another way by which timber trading and processing companies in consumer and processing countries ensure wood is sourced legally. GFTN is an initiative to link companies, governments and communities to engage in responsible forestry and trade practices.<ref name="GFTN">Why we need the GFTN and How it works? (2016). Retrieved from http://gftn.panda.org/about_gftn/</ref>Participation in this forest and trade program by companies gives an indication of the level of interest in cleaning up supply chains by companies in consumer countries. As of May 2013, India had 10 trade members who had joined the network.<ref name ="Chatham"/>

==Example of illegal log imports: Case of international trade between Guyana and India==
The import of illegal logs involves a complex network of stakeholders along the supply chain who become a part of it either intentionally or unintentionally. In order to disentangle this web of illegal log imports, it is important to understand the entire chain of custody both at the producer and consumer end. An example of tracking and understanding what is entailed in an illegal timber import case is the export of logs from Guyana to a furniture business company called DAFFCO in India. To begin with, the illegality can be traced to the acquisition of a forest concession licence held by a company named Simon and Shock in Guyana by an Indian enterprise Vaitarna Holdings through a local subsidiary Dark Forest Company. Simon and Shock had a State Forestry Exploratory Permit (valid for up to three years) for concessions of total area c.392,000ha.<ref name="guyana"> Guyana. Retrieved from http://www.globaltimber.org.uk/guyana.htm on 31st Oct 2016</ref>Such transfer of concessions without the intermediate step of a public auction by the government is considered illegal and moreover this transfer was not made public until 2011. The allocation of concessions to enterprises like Dark Forest Company without prior international advertisement and sub-contracting of logging concessions by a concessionaire are not legal in Guyana.<ref name="guyana"/>
While allocating the concession to Simon and Shock, the Guyana Forestry Commission had carried out due diligence to establish the eligibility of the enterprise and later granted the permit on the condition that the business enterprise had to invest and establish a sawmill before logging. In the case of Dark Forest, no such due diligence was carried out and there seems to be no intent to establish a processing mill in Guyana either.<ref name="guyana"/>
Dark Forest Company is an affiliate of an Indian business group managing a chain of cafés under the brand name Coffee Day. This group intends to expand its furniture business called DAFFCO. It was floated in the stock market for private equity investments. A lot of questions arises in the private equity investments made by Standard Chartered and KKR here. Were the investments made with thorough checks on the reputation of DAFFCO or the legal source of wood that it uses to make furniture? Such investments may have been done knowingly or unknowingly which would eventually be exposed.<ref name="guyana"/>

==Recommendations to control illegal log imports in India==
{{#widget:YouTube|id=so2LIpa9DTc|height=315|width=420}}

As reiterated before, as much as producer countries are responsible for illegal logging in their home countries, the consumer countries are equally responsible in fueling such illegal acts. Consumer countries play a major role in sustaining the business of illegal imports of logs and other wood products. In recent years, some of the consumer countries such as United Kingdom, United States and the European countries have taken initiatives to check and control the wood sourced by them. This comes from good governance, strong law enforcement systems and the general recognition of the adverse impacts of exploitation of natural resources. Such recognition is lacking in many of the consumer countries such as China and India which are the largest importers of illegal timber. This is evident in the lack of legal mechanisms to exclude illegal timber from the imports.<ref name="CIL"/>There are several measures that can be adopted by India to curb and control the imports of illegally sourced timber. Some of these are -
*Encourage more private companies in timber and related business to sign up to voluntary verification and certification systems such as the Forest Stewardship Council or WWF GFTN.
*Re-assessment of India's liberal import policy on timber and wood based products with the aim to make import of illegal timber cost inefficient.
*Strict adherence to CITES rules and following its protocols of operations and reporting to the CITES authority of any discrepancies in the report.
*Encourage and support producer countries to enter into bi-lateral agreements to exclude illegal timber such as the voluntary partnership agreements (VPA) negotiated under the European Union's plan of action for Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT).<ref name="CIL"/>
*Broaden the provisions in the Forest Act to include measures to exclude illegal timber in the absence of an international agreement.<ref name="CIL"/>
*Make changes in the government procurement policy to ensure that only legal and sustainable timber products are purchased. <ref name="CIL"/>
*Establish a system of accountability and transparency at all levels of government to check on corruption
*Impose heavy fines in cases of bribery related to trade in forest products.
*Creating awareness about illegally sourced timber among government officials and those involved in CITES and Customs administration.
*Capacity building and training of Custom officers to identify illegally sourced timber and reporting the same to the relevant government authority.
Apart from these recommendations that aim at exclusion of illegally sourced timber, the government should also consider the following -
*Revision of forest policy and forest laws using a broader lens so as to improve domestic production.The last revision of forest policy was in 1988 and the forest law in 1980.<ref>Yasmi, Y. , Broadhead, J. , Enters, T. , and Genge, C. (2010). Forestry policies, legislation and institutions in Asia and the Pacific: Trends and emerging needs for 2020. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II, Working Paper Series. Working Paper No. APFSOS II/WP/2010/34.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1722e/i1722e00.pdf</ref>
*Collaboration between small farmers and private enterprises for sustainable domestic timber harvesting.
*Sensitize and encourage urban consumers to opt for certified wood products and other interior decorations and home building materials.
*Publish seizures of illegal timber to the wider public

==References==
<references/>
The words timber,logs and wood have been used interchangeably to mean the same

==External links==
*[https://ca.fsc.org/en-ca Forest Stewardship Council]
*[http://gftn.panda.org/ WWF GFTN]
*[https://www.chathamhouse.org/ The Royal Institute of International Affairs]
*[http://www.euflegt.efi.int EU FLEGT]
*[http://envfor.nic.in/legis/forest/forest4.html The Indian Forest Act 1927]
*[http://www.moef.gov.in/sites/default/files/introduction-nfp.pdf National Forest Policy 1988]

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Template

2016-10-25T04:09:42Z

MichelleHepburn: /* Student Action Plans */

=Global Climate Justice=

==Goal and Objectives==

To stimulate students to try to generate original ways to approach or frame the issue of global climate change that might provide a more productive path forward.

==Introduction==

===Framing the Problem===
What distribution of adjustment costs for climate change mitigation is fair, and should be acceptable to the most (important) countries?

Are there ways of framing the issue that could be more effective in galvanizing effective action?

Are problem-solving approaches to negotiating such environmental problems inadequate, such that more holistic ecological ethical approaches are needed? How feasible might be the adoption of such perspectives? Secondary case studies on the development of bans on killing of whales and use of animals for research might be able to show us the challenges and opportunities involved in how such changes may occur globally.

==Context and Status of Climate Change==

===Significance of the Issue===
* Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history. 
Industrialization and urbanization --> Anthropogenic GHGs emissions & Radiative forcing 

* Recent climate changes is projected to have widespread impacts on human and natural systems under various future emission scenarios. 
 

''Two perspectives:'' human's impact causing climate change & climate change's impact forcing human to adapt / make changes

'''Impacts (what is at stake?)'''

The most immediate effect of climate change is the increase of temperature, but the actual impacts of climate change stretch far beyond a “2 C° hotter summer”. 
The main impacts attributed to climate change include intensified extreme events: droughts, flooding, heat waves, cyclones & thunderstorms, and wildfires. As well as the following effects: 

1. Glacial melting & coastal erosion 

2. Water availability and distribution 

[[File:Arctic Glacial Melting and Future Projection.png|thumb|Arctic Glacial Melting and Future Projection]]

3. Disruption to ecosystem (abundance and activities) 

4. Impact on food production (a likely decrease in crop yield) 

5. Human health: pollution, spread of diseases 

{{#widget:YouTube|id=_EWOrZQ3L-c|height=315|width=420}}<ref > International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Retrieved on 05/19/2016 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_EWOrZQ3L-c&feature=youtu.be </ref> 
Source: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

* The first major conference on global climate change took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1982 and produced the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Subsequent rounds of negotiations have taken place in the form of preparatory meetings and subsequent conferences of states parties, including the 2009 Copenhagen Conference of the Parties to the Convention and the Paris Conference of 2015. 

While assessments of these negotiations vary somewhat, far and away the predominant view is that the results of these global negotiations to date fall far short of what is required to ensure the planet stays below the 2 degrees Celsius temperature rise above pre-industrial levels that had been widely accepted as the goal to avert the most disastrous impacts of climate change (note: that goal was revised to 1.5 degrees Celsius at Paris 2015; we have already hit 1 degree rise!). Contributors to this wiki are invited to post links to the most helpful concise summaries and assessments of the latest major international meetings and agreements, in this case the Paris meetings of December 2015.

==Major Events==

'''<big>1990: Kyoto Protocol</big> – more than 160 countries participated; target to reduce emission by 2012 '''

''*Side note: 55 developed countries participated; they constitute 55% of 1990’s emissions*'' 
 

'''Key control mechanisms'''
(=what international community has come up with in distributing sustainable duties) 

Primary--national measures

Additional:

* International Emission Trading 

* The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 

''Defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets'' <ref name="kyoto"> UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol Website. Retrieved on May 20th 2016 from: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php </ref> 

3. Joint Implementation
''The mechanism known as “joint implementation,” defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.
Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.''<ref name="kyoto"/>

'''<big>2012: Kyoto Protocol second commitment period -- Doha Amendment</big>'''
Essential Update: non-ratification of USA, and withdrawal of Canada 
Result: Amendment not yet in effect since 144 ratification is needed, but only has 65 so far.
<ref> UN Treaty Collection, 7 .c Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved on May 20th, 2016 from: https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-c&chapter=27&lang=en </ref> 
 

'''<big>2015: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at its 21st Session in Paris & Adoption of Paris Agreement</big>''' [http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/cp/climate/2015-paris-climate-talks/key-points-of-the-final-paris-climate-draft Key features] include: 1) National pledges of measures to curb emissions (not legally binding); 2) Goal to “reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing country parties, and to undertake rapid reductions thereafter;” 3) Review mechanism to take stock every five years; 4) Call to establish “a new collective quantified goal” of at least $100 billion a year in climate-related financing by 2020 to assist developing countries to transition to clean energy and deal climate change adaptation. 

'''<big>2016: UNFCCC 43rd Session</big>''' (Nairobi, Kenya, 11 – 13 April 2016), the IPCC Panel decided to accept the UNFCCC’s invitation to provide a special report in 2018 on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 ºC above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, and to prepare a Special Report on this topic '''in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty''' <ref> IPCC, Fifth Assessment. Retrieved on May 20th, 2016 from: http://www.ipcc.ch/report/sr15/ </ref>

==Recent Statistics on International Emissions==

[[File:Global anthropogenic CO2 emissions.png|x500px|:Global anthropogenic CO2 emissions]] 

[[File:Top 10 Countries - Gross Emission.png|x500px|Top 10 Countries - Gross Emission 2011]] 

[[File:Top 10 Countries - Per Capita Emission.png|x500px|Top 10 Countries - Per Capita Emission 2011]] 

[[File:2012 Emission Related Figures (Gross, Per Capita, Intensity & Benefit).png|x500px|2012 Emission Related Figures (Gross, Per Capita, Intensity & Benefit)]] 

==Climate Change Resources and References==
<references/>

==Additional Resources: Psychological Bias and Climate Change==
* [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329820-200-understand-faulty-thinking-to-tackle-climate-change/%20 Understand Faulty Thinking to Tackle Climate Change]. : by George Marshall - leading European experts in climate change communications.
* [http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/dont-even-think-about-it-9781620401330/ Don't Even Think About It - Why Our Brains Are Wired to Ignore Climate Change]: George Marshall
* George Marshall's blog: http://climatedenial.org/
* Thinking Fast and Slow: Daniel Kahneman - Nobel Prize Winning economist looking at psychological principles in decision making: UBC Library [http://resolve.library.ubc.ca/cgi-bin/catsearch?bid=6983453 link]
* Video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fle_FkILmEQ It's The End of the World and We Know It and I feel Fine]: Daniel Gilbert - Harvard Professor of Psychology talks about . TedX Academy

=====Comics to spice things up=====

http://cascadiaworkshops.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/climate-change-of-course.jpg 

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/501799583454791488/ 

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/386605949233228852/ 

==Political Science Perspectives==

<big>'''What Would A Political Scientist Do?'''</big>

===Collective Action Problem===
1) One approach to this issue is to think of it in terms of a collective action problem. The scale of the climate change problem is such that individual and voluntary actions by citizens and corporations are not adequate to satisfactorily address the issue. Government policy is required. But governments around the world have not been able to collectively agree on who should bear what responsibilities. Without such coordination, governments are reluctant to get too far ahead of other countries insofar as they worry about being taken advantage of by other countries if they implement policy changes like regulations that are perceived as carrying a negative economic impact, or spending on programs that incur costs not born by other countries. 
Moreover, some countries may think that their own individual contribution to climate change mitigation may not make that much of a difference, and thus be reticent to implement meaningful commitments. However, if many countries think this way, then too many will seek to avoid mitigation action, and too few will contribute. Some scholars in political science are skeptical that such collective action problems can be overcome by states, believing that states will protect their individual economic interests at the expense of the collective climate good. Others point to more successful efforts such as the '''Montreal Protocol''' dealing with ozone as demonstrating that sometimes states can create international institutions that coordinate their action, provide information and other benefits to produce shared commitments. 
At the latest round of global climate change negotiations in Paris in December of 2015, countries made individual (rather than collectively agreed upon) commitments of what they are prepared to do. For up to date information on these Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), click [http://cait.wri.org/indc/ here]. So far the skeptics would seem right on this particular issue. Unless state economic interests happen to converge, or the most powerful states in the system use their influence to push through action (regarded as highly unlikely), there is not much room for optimism from this point of view, particularly since powerful corporations often have great influence on government positions, and many such corporations have tremendous investment in sustaining carbon-based economies. 

However, consider whether there is room here to explore how and why governments might act not just on short-term economic interests but on longer term interests and even other interests such as environmental ones? Some argue that the transition to a less carbon-intensive economies is technically and economically feasible.

 

===Individual Psychology and Ideology===

2) A second way of thinking about this issue focuses not on the international negotiating dynamics and state interests, but at the level of individual psychology and ideology. We know that humans have many biases when approaching complex social problems – to illustrate how they may operate importantly in this case, consider the following questions:

{| class="ambox ambox-content"
| class="mbox-image" | [[Image:Edit-copy purple.svg|40px]]
| class="mbox-text" | <div>

'''Question'''
[[File:Question mark icon creative commons.svg|50px|frameless|left]]
:: How important do you think it is that your government, along with other leading emitting countries, acts urgently to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
A. Extremely

B. Very

C. Somewhat

D. Not very

E. unimportant

</div>
|}

{| class="ambox ambox-content"
| class="mbox-image" | [[Image:Edit-copy purple.svg|40px]]
| class="mbox-text" | <div>

'''Question'''
[[File:Question mark icon creative commons.svg|50px|frameless|left]]
:: ii) Over the past 12 months, have you:

A. Attended a rally or protest about climate change

B. Written to an elected official advocating climate action

C. Signed a petition advocating political action on climate change

D. Alternative involvements such as changing your lifestyle to more sustainable practices (riding a bicycle to work / school instead of taking a car, and so on).

E. None of the above

</div>
|}

{| class="ambox ambox-content"
| class="mbox-image" | [[Image:Edit-copy purple.svg|40px]]
| class="mbox-text" | <div>

'''Also think about:'''
[[File:Question mark icon creative commons.svg|50px|frameless|left]]
:: Do your own actions really match up to the level of concern you think climate change demands?

</div>
|}

Climate change is a kind of problem that is a bad match for some of our powerful [http://www.climateconviction.org/ psychological biases]. Namely, psychologists have found that:
* We tend to have trouble imagining a future drastically different from the present.
* We tend to block out complex problems that lack simple solutions.
* We tend to dislike delayed benefits and so are reluctant to sacrifice today for future gains
* We tend to find it harder to confront problems that creep up on us than emergencies that hit quickly.

Tom Toles has a great comic comparing humankinds' approach to climate change to the famous experiment that showed while frogs will jump out of a pot of hot water if they are dropped into it, they will sit in a pot of mild water until it gets so hot it boils - we can't post it here but google it and find it!

These biases may help explain why climate change appears to have not yet aroused sufficient citizen concern in enough countries to make it impossible for governments to continue to avoid making adequate commitments for climate change mitigation. On the other hand, there are other kinds of psychological triggers that perhaps could be tapped into to garner more support – for example, ''fear'' is often a very powerful, primal motivator. But framing climate change in fearful terms (perhaps like Al Gore's well-known film [https://www.algore.com/library/an-inconvenient-truth-dvd Inconvenient Truth] - see what reaction you have to this film) may lead to avoidance of the issue – are there empowering framings that might more successfully tap into some of our psychological tendencies? ' 

''Thanks to Professor [http://liu.arts.ubc.ca/profile/george-hoberg/ George Hoberg] of the Liu Institute from whose lectures some of this material is drawn.'' 

===Political Philosophy===
3) A final way of approaching this issue that will be considered here has been to think more like a political philosopher and identify what the most just or fair approach to this issue might be that all or most could agree to in terms of who has the '''responsibility''' to do what. These approaches focus on issues such as whose practices to date have caused global climate change, whose practices now are contributing to climate change, who has benefited from the industrialization processes that have produced climate change, and who has the ability to pay. So, should the industrialized countries whose activities have caused most of climate change - US, Canada, Europe, Japan - be the ones who bear the burdens of climate change mitigation? That is what China and India, for example, have argued. Or, should China now bear an equal or greater responsibility since it is now the single biggest emitter of climate change causing emissions? A key principle in such environmental negotiations including the 2015 Paris agreement has been the notion of accepting "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities," which means that not all countries are in an equal position to address climate change. '''See what principle(s) you think you can come up with that might breakthrough the inability of the international community to produce a formulation that the key countries agree is fair and that would be more effective than current approaches.'''

A recent debate has been taking place on the desirability of focusing on issues of fairness and justice, or downplaying such concerns in favour of effectiveness. See the [http://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/09/06/keohane-on-climate-what-price-equity-and-justice/ short article] by prominent International Relations scholar Robert Keohane.

Bring your ideas to discuss in brainstorming sessions in class: Are there other ways of approaching this issue that might be more productive, or avenues within the above approaches that might be useful? Previous generations have largely failed in this monumental challenge, it is up to your generation! The class activity pushes you to consider how to translate what you may think is a fair approach into practical ethics.

==Student Action Plans==
The following are links to action plans that are created by Political Science students. They are grouped according to who is most responsible for the proposed action to address climate change.

=== Advocacy Groups/Individual action ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy1|'''1: Individuals in Developed Countries''']] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy2|'''2: Lab Meat''']] --
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===Industry/Technology/Corporations===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1|'''1: BC Hydro''']] --
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=== Local / Municipal Governments ===
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=== Regional / Provincial / State Governments ===
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=== National Governments ===
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[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National9|(Template 9)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National10|(Template 10)]]

=== International Organizations / Agreements ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International1|'''1: NGO Go-ahead''']] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International2|(Template 2)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International3|(Template 3)]] --
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[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International10|(Template 10)]]

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Template

2016-10-25T03:56:44Z

MichelleHepburn: /* Student Action Plans */

=Global Climate Justice=

==Goal and Objectives==

To stimulate students to try to generate original ways to approach or frame the issue of global climate change that might provide a more productive path forward.

==Introduction==

===Framing the Problem===
What distribution of adjustment costs for climate change mitigation is fair, and should be acceptable to the most (important) countries?

Are there ways of framing the issue that could be more effective in galvanizing effective action?

Are problem-solving approaches to negotiating such environmental problems inadequate, such that more holistic ecological ethical approaches are needed? How feasible might be the adoption of such perspectives? Secondary case studies on the development of bans on killing of whales and use of animals for research might be able to show us the challenges and opportunities involved in how such changes may occur globally.

==Context and Status of Climate Change==

===Significance of the Issue===
* Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history. 
Industrialization and urbanization --> Anthropogenic GHGs emissions & Radiative forcing 

* Recent climate changes is projected to have widespread impacts on human and natural systems under various future emission scenarios. 
 

''Two perspectives:'' human's impact causing climate change & climate change's impact forcing human to adapt / make changes

'''Impacts (what is at stake?)'''

The most immediate effect of climate change is the increase of temperature, but the actual impacts of climate change stretch far beyond a “2 C° hotter summer”. 
The main impacts attributed to climate change include intensified extreme events: droughts, flooding, heat waves, cyclones & thunderstorms, and wildfires. As well as the following effects: 

1. Glacial melting & coastal erosion 

2. Water availability and distribution 

[[File:Arctic Glacial Melting and Future Projection.png|thumb|Arctic Glacial Melting and Future Projection]]

3. Disruption to ecosystem (abundance and activities) 

4. Impact on food production (a likely decrease in crop yield) 

5. Human health: pollution, spread of diseases 

{{#widget:YouTube|id=_EWOrZQ3L-c|height=315|width=420}}<ref > International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Retrieved on 05/19/2016 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_EWOrZQ3L-c&feature=youtu.be </ref> 
Source: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

* The first major conference on global climate change took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1982 and produced the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Subsequent rounds of negotiations have taken place in the form of preparatory meetings and subsequent conferences of states parties, including the 2009 Copenhagen Conference of the Parties to the Convention and the Paris Conference of 2015. 

While assessments of these negotiations vary somewhat, far and away the predominant view is that the results of these global negotiations to date fall far short of what is required to ensure the planet stays below the 2 degrees Celsius temperature rise above pre-industrial levels that had been widely accepted as the goal to avert the most disastrous impacts of climate change (note: that goal was revised to 1.5 degrees Celsius at Paris 2015; we have already hit 1 degree rise!). Contributors to this wiki are invited to post links to the most helpful concise summaries and assessments of the latest major international meetings and agreements, in this case the Paris meetings of December 2015.

==Major Events==

'''<big>1990: Kyoto Protocol</big> – more than 160 countries participated; target to reduce emission by 2012 '''

''*Side note: 55 developed countries participated; they constitute 55% of 1990’s emissions*'' 
 

'''Key control mechanisms'''
(=what international community has come up with in distributing sustainable duties) 

Primary--national measures

Additional:

* International Emission Trading 

* The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 

''Defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets'' <ref name="kyoto"> UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol Website. Retrieved on May 20th 2016 from: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php </ref> 

3. Joint Implementation
''The mechanism known as “joint implementation,” defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.
Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.''<ref name="kyoto"/>

'''<big>2012: Kyoto Protocol second commitment period -- Doha Amendment</big>'''
Essential Update: non-ratification of USA, and withdrawal of Canada 
Result: Amendment not yet in effect since 144 ratification is needed, but only has 65 so far.
<ref> UN Treaty Collection, 7 .c Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved on May 20th, 2016 from: https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-c&chapter=27&lang=en </ref> 
 

'''<big>2015: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at its 21st Session in Paris & Adoption of Paris Agreement</big>''' [http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/cp/climate/2015-paris-climate-talks/key-points-of-the-final-paris-climate-draft Key features] include: 1) National pledges of measures to curb emissions (not legally binding); 2) Goal to “reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing country parties, and to undertake rapid reductions thereafter;” 3) Review mechanism to take stock every five years; 4) Call to establish “a new collective quantified goal” of at least $100 billion a year in climate-related financing by 2020 to assist developing countries to transition to clean energy and deal climate change adaptation. 

'''<big>2016: UNFCCC 43rd Session</big>''' (Nairobi, Kenya, 11 – 13 April 2016), the IPCC Panel decided to accept the UNFCCC’s invitation to provide a special report in 2018 on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 ºC above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, and to prepare a Special Report on this topic '''in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty''' <ref> IPCC, Fifth Assessment. Retrieved on May 20th, 2016 from: http://www.ipcc.ch/report/sr15/ </ref>

==Recent Statistics on International Emissions==

[[File:Global anthropogenic CO2 emissions.png|x500px|:Global anthropogenic CO2 emissions]] 

[[File:Top 10 Countries - Gross Emission.png|x500px|Top 10 Countries - Gross Emission 2011]] 

[[File:Top 10 Countries - Per Capita Emission.png|x500px|Top 10 Countries - Per Capita Emission 2011]] 

[[File:2012 Emission Related Figures (Gross, Per Capita, Intensity & Benefit).png|x500px|2012 Emission Related Figures (Gross, Per Capita, Intensity & Benefit)]] 

==Climate Change Resources and References==
<references/>

==Additional Resources: Psychological Bias and Climate Change==
* [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329820-200-understand-faulty-thinking-to-tackle-climate-change/%20 Understand Faulty Thinking to Tackle Climate Change]. : by George Marshall - leading European experts in climate change communications.
* [http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/dont-even-think-about-it-9781620401330/ Don't Even Think About It - Why Our Brains Are Wired to Ignore Climate Change]: George Marshall
* George Marshall's blog: http://climatedenial.org/
* Thinking Fast and Slow: Daniel Kahneman - Nobel Prize Winning economist looking at psychological principles in decision making: UBC Library [http://resolve.library.ubc.ca/cgi-bin/catsearch?bid=6983453 link]
* Video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fle_FkILmEQ It's The End of the World and We Know It and I feel Fine]: Daniel Gilbert - Harvard Professor of Psychology talks about . TedX Academy

=====Comics to spice things up=====

http://cascadiaworkshops.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/climate-change-of-course.jpg 

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/501799583454791488/ 

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/386605949233228852/ 

==Political Science Perspectives==

<big>'''What Would A Political Scientist Do?'''</big>

===Collective Action Problem===
1) One approach to this issue is to think of it in terms of a collective action problem. The scale of the climate change problem is such that individual and voluntary actions by citizens and corporations are not adequate to satisfactorily address the issue. Government policy is required. But governments around the world have not been able to collectively agree on who should bear what responsibilities. Without such coordination, governments are reluctant to get too far ahead of other countries insofar as they worry about being taken advantage of by other countries if they implement policy changes like regulations that are perceived as carrying a negative economic impact, or spending on programs that incur costs not born by other countries. 
Moreover, some countries may think that their own individual contribution to climate change mitigation may not make that much of a difference, and thus be reticent to implement meaningful commitments. However, if many countries think this way, then too many will seek to avoid mitigation action, and too few will contribute. Some scholars in political science are skeptical that such collective action problems can be overcome by states, believing that states will protect their individual economic interests at the expense of the collective climate good. Others point to more successful efforts such as the '''Montreal Protocol''' dealing with ozone as demonstrating that sometimes states can create international institutions that coordinate their action, provide information and other benefits to produce shared commitments. 
At the latest round of global climate change negotiations in Paris in December of 2015, countries made individual (rather than collectively agreed upon) commitments of what they are prepared to do. For up to date information on these Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), click [http://cait.wri.org/indc/ here]. So far the skeptics would seem right on this particular issue. Unless state economic interests happen to converge, or the most powerful states in the system use their influence to push through action (regarded as highly unlikely), there is not much room for optimism from this point of view, particularly since powerful corporations often have great influence on government positions, and many such corporations have tremendous investment in sustaining carbon-based economies. 

However, consider whether there is room here to explore how and why governments might act not just on short-term economic interests but on longer term interests and even other interests such as environmental ones? Some argue that the transition to a less carbon-intensive economies is technically and economically feasible.

 

===Individual Psychology and Ideology===

2) A second way of thinking about this issue focuses not on the international negotiating dynamics and state interests, but at the level of individual psychology and ideology. We know that humans have many biases when approaching complex social problems – to illustrate how they may operate importantly in this case, consider the following questions:

{| class="ambox ambox-content"
| class="mbox-image" | [[Image:Edit-copy purple.svg|40px]]
| class="mbox-text" | <div>

'''Question'''
[[File:Question mark icon creative commons.svg|50px|frameless|left]]
:: How important do you think it is that your government, along with other leading emitting countries, acts urgently to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
A. Extremely

B. Very

C. Somewhat

D. Not very

E. unimportant

</div>
|}

{| class="ambox ambox-content"
| class="mbox-image" | [[Image:Edit-copy purple.svg|40px]]
| class="mbox-text" | <div>

'''Question'''
[[File:Question mark icon creative commons.svg|50px|frameless|left]]
:: ii) Over the past 12 months, have you:

A. Attended a rally or protest about climate change

B. Written to an elected official advocating climate action

C. Signed a petition advocating political action on climate change

D. Alternative involvements such as changing your lifestyle to more sustainable practices (riding a bicycle to work / school instead of taking a car, and so on).

E. None of the above

</div>
|}

{| class="ambox ambox-content"
| class="mbox-image" | [[Image:Edit-copy purple.svg|40px]]
| class="mbox-text" | <div>

'''Also think about:'''
[[File:Question mark icon creative commons.svg|50px|frameless|left]]
:: Do your own actions really match up to the level of concern you think climate change demands?

</div>
|}

Climate change is a kind of problem that is a bad match for some of our powerful [http://www.climateconviction.org/ psychological biases]. Namely, psychologists have found that:
* We tend to have trouble imagining a future drastically different from the present.
* We tend to block out complex problems that lack simple solutions.
* We tend to dislike delayed benefits and so are reluctant to sacrifice today for future gains
* We tend to find it harder to confront problems that creep up on us than emergencies that hit quickly.

Tom Toles has a great comic comparing humankinds' approach to climate change to the famous experiment that showed while frogs will jump out of a pot of hot water if they are dropped into it, they will sit in a pot of mild water until it gets so hot it boils - we can't post it here but google it and find it!

These biases may help explain why climate change appears to have not yet aroused sufficient citizen concern in enough countries to make it impossible for governments to continue to avoid making adequate commitments for climate change mitigation. On the other hand, there are other kinds of psychological triggers that perhaps could be tapped into to garner more support – for example, ''fear'' is often a very powerful, primal motivator. But framing climate change in fearful terms (perhaps like Al Gore's well-known film [https://www.algore.com/library/an-inconvenient-truth-dvd Inconvenient Truth] - see what reaction you have to this film) may lead to avoidance of the issue – are there empowering framings that might more successfully tap into some of our psychological tendencies? ' 

''Thanks to Professor [http://liu.arts.ubc.ca/profile/george-hoberg/ George Hoberg] of the Liu Institute from whose lectures some of this material is drawn.'' 

===Political Philosophy===
3) A final way of approaching this issue that will be considered here has been to think more like a political philosopher and identify what the most just or fair approach to this issue might be that all or most could agree to in terms of who has the '''responsibility''' to do what. These approaches focus on issues such as whose practices to date have caused global climate change, whose practices now are contributing to climate change, who has benefited from the industrialization processes that have produced climate change, and who has the ability to pay. So, should the industrialized countries whose activities have caused most of climate change - US, Canada, Europe, Japan - be the ones who bear the burdens of climate change mitigation? That is what China and India, for example, have argued. Or, should China now bear an equal or greater responsibility since it is now the single biggest emitter of climate change causing emissions? A key principle in such environmental negotiations including the 2015 Paris agreement has been the notion of accepting "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities," which means that not all countries are in an equal position to address climate change. '''See what principle(s) you think you can come up with that might breakthrough the inability of the international community to produce a formulation that the key countries agree is fair and that would be more effective than current approaches.'''

A recent debate has been taking place on the desirability of focusing on issues of fairness and justice, or downplaying such concerns in favour of effectiveness. See the [http://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/09/06/keohane-on-climate-what-price-equity-and-justice/ short article] by prominent International Relations scholar Robert Keohane.

Bring your ideas to discuss in brainstorming sessions in class: Are there other ways of approaching this issue that might be more productive, or avenues within the above approaches that might be useful? Previous generations have largely failed in this monumental challenge, it is up to your generation! The class activity pushes you to consider how to translate what you may think is a fair approach into practical ethics.

==Student Action Plans==
The following are links to action plans that are created by Political Science students. They are grouped according to who is most responsible for the proposed action to address climate change.

=== Advocacy Groups/Individual action ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy1|Group 1]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy2|Group 2]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy3|Group 3 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy4|Group 4 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy5|Group 5 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy6|Group 6 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy7|Group 7 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy8|Group 8 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy9|Group 9 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy10|Group 10 (Template)]]

===Industry/Technology/Corporations===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1|Group 1]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry2|Group 2]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry3|Group 3 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry4|Group 4 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry5|Group 5 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry6|Group 6]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry7|Group 7 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry8|Group 8 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry9|Group 9 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry10|Group 10 (Template)]]

=== Local / Municipal Governments ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal1|Group 1]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal2|Group 2]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal3|Group 3 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal4|Group 4 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal5|Group 5 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal6|Group 6 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal7|Group 7 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal8|Group 8 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal9|Group 9 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal10|Group 10 (Template)]]

=== Regional / Provincial / State Governments ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional1|Group 1]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional2|Group 2 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional3|Group 3 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional4|Group 4 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional5|Group 5 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional6|Group 6 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional7|Group 7 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional8|Group 8 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional9|Group 9 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Regional10|Group 10: Melt Away Plastic Bags]]

=== National Governments ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National1|Group 1]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National2|Group 2]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National3|Group 3]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National4|Group 4 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National5|Group 5 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National6|Group 6 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National7|Group 7 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National8|Group 8 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National9|Group 9 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/National10|Group 10 (Template)]]

=== International Organizations / Agreements ===
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International1|NGO Go-ahead]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International2|Group 2 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International3|Group 3 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International4|Group 4 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International5|Group 5 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International6|Group 6 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International7|Group 7 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International8|Group 8 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International9|Group 9 (Template)]] --
[[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/International10|Group 10 (Template)]]

[[Category: Open Case Studies]]

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy1

2016-10-25T03:49:07Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 1

== Introduction ==

Due to the pressing nature of the issue, involvement is required at all levels, including at the individual and community level. The individual element is important because pressure from individuals will bring climate change onto the agenda for national governments to act on. A bottom up approach is important is bring widespread change that people will buy into. Pressure from individuals and advocacy groups can pressure their governments which can then involve agreements on the international level.

== Action Plan ==

In the developed countries everyone at the individual level should take steps to reduce their own carbon footprint, including any steps you can take on an individual level, such as recycling, taking public transit etc. Recognizing that not everyone has the ability to pursue luxuries such as organic or locally sourced food so we should take Singer's principles into account here. People who can take measures to reduce their footprint, without sacrificing basic goods, should act. Education is important, especially at the individual level to raise awareness about climate change and steps that can be taken to mitigate your emissions. It's important to to bring these plans to areas that are less green that Vancouver, especially in other parts of Canada. This would be a good place for advocacy groups to be involved in because their reach is vast. Individuals and advocacy groups can lobby to governments to get more laws and regulations which can then make these plans more effective. Enforcement can come from a community level where individuals can feel pressure from their peers to conform to green standards. Advocacy groups can also pressure individuals to act by forcing them to confront their non-green actions, such as not turning lights off, not composting etc. Buy in can be achieved through pressure and social norms which create a community that values green behaviour.

==Implications==

===Political===
Individuals and advocacy groups lobbying to local, regional and federal governments. Local politics will care if the community they're governing cares. Chance of success will be good if the government is democratic. Onus is on the individual mostly, to compost, take transit etc, but some enforcement has to come from the government level to ensure that people are following the standards. Governments in power for short term, so are more focussed on short term goals, such as building infrastructure, so climate change seems less important because its long term. Pressure on the government is important from individuals and advocacy groups. Government take interests of citizens and advocacy groups to heart and makes changes to support. It's also possible that governments and individuals will not buy in and therefore not make the necessary changes.

===Economic===
There are costs to government for resources such as recycling bins, bike lanes, etc., which governments will be reluctant to pay, especially because these are immediate costs where as the future benefits are harder to see because they're so far off. These new programs may be able to create jobs though which would benefit the economy.
Costs for the individual- organic/local food is more expensive, people won't want to sacrifice their luxuries
Guilt via education can help consumers make different decisions, that might be more expensive

===Social===
Through education people will care more about the environment, but still might not act to change their individual choices because its a burden for them. Trying to make that decision as easy as possible for individuals, targeting those who have the most to give. Social movements- earth hour- creates social pressure. Sign of affluence to look more green for appeal. Advocacy movements can create social communities, standards

==Remaining Challenges==
Fails to address international actors and national government policies. You might need a top-down approach to be able to make change on the level and at the speed that you need. You don't need to worry about buy-in if you have enforcement- but this will have backlash. Bottom up approach will take a long time to reach the international level. Advocacy groups could be used to create transnational advocacy campaigns which can exercise more power on the international level. Creating social media campaigns by advocacy groups can be extremely effective in creating change on a large level because it can reach such a large audience.

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy2

2016-10-25T03:48:36Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Lab Meat

== Introduction ==

This advocacy group promotes sustainable/alternative forms of food production along with the promotion of alternative food consumption. The goal is not to limit an individuals choice in food products, but to offer them alternatives to the products that they know. The focus of this group will be specifically on the red meat industry. The meat industry accounts for 18% of greenhouse gas emission, 40% of methane emission, and 65% nitrous oxide which are some of the most potent chemicals that affect climate change<ref>http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html</ref>. The meat industry also accounts for 30% of the land surface of the planet<ref>http://science.time.com/2013/12/16/the-triple-whopper-environmental-impact-of-global-meat-production/</ref>. 

'''Harms<ref>http://listverse.com/2015/11/25/10-negative-effects-the-meat-industry-has-on-the-world/</ref>:''' 

- Leading cause of deforestation 
- Takes away antibiotics (takes away 80%) 
- It's a leading cause of drought, every pound of beef uses 2,500 gallons of water 
- Misallocation of agriculture, it diverts grain resources 
- Propagates Obesity and Cancer Risk 
- Leading Cause of water pollution because of animal waste 
- Leading cause of mass extinction of all species 
- Massive contributor to Global Warming 

(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==

Our action plan can be broken up into three different strategies: Advocacy, Business Services, Grass Roots Outreach. 

'''Advocacy''' 
Our advocacy campaign will have us partnering with like minded people who want to assist us in promoting this new technology to their communities. This can mean allies within the all levels of government such as......., partnering with business people who would like to put funds towards furthering this technology, and cultural figures who support the cause. 

We have to have strong reach with major companies in the system. We want to influence and guide policy through the different levels of government (lobbying), we want to facilitate interested parties and partner them up with appropriate co-operatives, we want to establish a cohesive front for lab grown meat.

'''Business services''' 
Our consultants and specialists will aid scaling business/laboratories, allowing them to be more productive, innovative and increase potential for growth. Our goal is to provide these labs with the resources, services and funding that they need in order to compete in this market and grow. 

'''Grass Roots Outreach''' 
Our goal here is to reach and educate as many people about the benefits of using lab grown meat. This will be done through extensive media campaigns, social media presence, partnering with local businesses for pop up restaurants for promotional exposure. We will seek celebrity endorsements who support the cause, and use their cultural influence to help further the cause.

(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===

In a study published in the National Academy of Sciences, researchers at the University of Oxford have estimated the overall value of giving up meat in the economy. Overall, the researchers pointed out that the economic value of health benefits associated with more plant-based diets is comparable with, or exceeds, the value of the environmental benefits (Davis, 2016). The difficulty which attempting to measure the impact of meat reduction the economy comes with the valuation techniques used. They are subjected to uncertainties and it is important to point out that it would require a massive overhaul of dietary patterns across the globe which translates into reducing red-meat consumption by 56 percent, and increasing fruit and vegetable consumption by 25 percent (Davis, 2016). However, it is still beneficial to put a dollar value on these estimations for several reasons. First, it can guide policy as countries can compare the health and environmental costs of consuming meat and thus consider alternatives that are less costly and implement programs to increase the consumption of fruits and vegetables (Davis, 2016). Secondly, the estimations could also serve to analyze potential policies such as new taxes or changes to the regulation of food advertising. Overall, the goal of this study is to demonstrate individual action is critical and must be accompanied by population-based approaches that will affect the whole food environment.

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==

The main challenge that our action plan would face would be the overall impact of meat reduction on the fishery environment. As people stop consuming meat, they might turn to fish and other aquatic food as an alternative. However, these organisms are also at risk in terms of the pollution that arise from their over production as well as the bad fishing practices that are undergoing. It is thus important to consider how meat reduction could lead to further negative impaction the environment through the reliance on fish. Questions still need to be addressed. Does meat consumption include fish and if it does not, to what extent does eating fish as an alternative a good or bad option for individuals who seek to stop eating meat?

===References===
<references/>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy3

2016-10-25T03:48:03Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 3

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy4

2016-10-25T03:47:45Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 4

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy5

2016-10-25T03:47:26Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 5

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy6

2016-10-25T03:47:08Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 6

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy7

2016-10-25T03:46:21Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 7

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy8

2016-10-25T03:46:03Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 8

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy9

2016-10-25T03:45:43Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 9

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Advocacy10

2016-10-25T03:44:20Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Advocacy Group 10

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the group/movement you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1

2016-10-25T03:41:17Z

MichelleHepburn:

BC Hydro seeks to be a leading sustainable energy company by delivering electricity in environmentally and socially responsible ways. Having said that, energy systems cause both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Thus, a comprehensive action plan is a necessity for a company like BC Hydro. This action plan forms the basis for the company's processes and decisions. The action plan is as follows:
* BC Hydro meets all the environmental requirements defined by legislation, regulation, government directives, and other environmental standards that apply to BC Hydro.
* To develop and foster an electrical energy conservation culture in B.C. that leads to customers choosing to make a dramatic and permanent reduction in electricity consumption. It also includes a "Sustainable Communities Program". Its in-house Resource Smart program is used to identify and implement efficiency gains at existing BC Hydro facilities.
* It seeks to purchase products, services, and new supplies of energy that take into account environmental responsibility. Thus, it ensures that the production of hydropower is clean.
* Publicly reports on its own environmental performance so as to maintain transparency.

In addition to this action plan, BC Hydro is committed by the BC government's Energy Plan to achieve electric power self-sufficiency in the province by 2016, with all new generation plants having zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the same year.<ref>http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/electricity-alternative-energy/energy-efficiency-conservation/policy-regulations</ref>

BC Hydro has also entered into energy purchase contracts with a new category of company created by special legislation, Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to buy electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources, mainly from small capacity run of river hydro and more recently, wind power, wood residue energy, and energy from organic municipal waste.<ref>http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/10022_01#part1</ref>

== Introduction ==
Production of energy is the largest contributor to global warming (Approximately 35% according to IPCC from 2014). Regardless of whether energy is produced via the burning of fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—or produced via alternatives—such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric—all sources contribute climate change, though at vastly varying scales. In the case of fossil fuels, the impact is both obvious and found throughout the entire cycle: from extraction to burning the fuel. Alternative sources, however, may not have such an obvious. Production of solar panels, for example, requires significant amount of energy and rare earth minerals and these must be included in how we calculate the use of solar energy on climate change.

As a region with vast hydroelectric potential one of the most significant contributions we can make is to prioritize energy production through the development of hydroelectric plants. Hydroelectricity is generally thought of as clean energy and provides a number of ancillary benefits: storage of energy, inexpensive once developed, reliable (Probably some citations needed). There are a number of drawbacks, too. More research is needed into the effect the dam reservoirs have on global warming generally, alongside the elimination of forest and natural space. It is also important to consider the rights of indigenous peoples as suitable land for hydroelectric development may be located on their land. This is especially problematic in BC as there are few treaties that identify indigenous lands.

In spite of these challenges, we advocate that as a region, British Columbia can use it's natural resources responsibly and with consideration of the real environmental effects of hydroelectricity while working within the rights of indigenous peoples and their land.

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
Political implications for Hydroelectric energy in British Columbia include Aboriginal Land Rights issues, protests, and transparency issues as a crown corporation. Most large-scale hydroelectric projects require large areas of land to be re-developed and often these developments occur on traditional indigenous lands in British Columbia. - this needs to be finished

Environmental advocacy groups and political parties have protested the proposed Site C Dam on the Peace River near Fort St. John. Protesters including Peace Valley farmers and First Nations representatives argue that the dam would result in large scale ecological consequences and affect their traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering sites - needs to be finished

Crown Corporations - needs to be finished
[[File:Keep-the-Peace-Emma-Gilchrist-DeSmog-Canada.jpg|thumbnail]]

===Economic===

In terms of the economy, investing and furthering hydroelectricity efforts in British Columbia would have multiple beneficial and negative effects on the economy. Firstly, building hydroelectric dams is a costly process. It involves a lengthy construction process that costs a fair amount of money due to the use of many resources such as concrete, and land development. During this building process, the surrounding environment may be damaged in numerous ways, which may be particularly harmful to those who live a lifestyle where their resources come from the land. Particularly, Indigenous peoples economic activities may be effected as there may be reduced fish and animal populations from hydroelectric dam construction<ref>https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/hidden-costs-hydroelectric-dams</ref>. Building dams are economically stimulating, as they require lots of special knowledge to build, incorporating engineers, architects, geologists, conservationists, and others alike. Hydroelectric production has many economic benefits, once a hydroelectric dam has been built, energy production relies on the natural movement of water, where mechanical energy is turned into energy and thereby turned into usable electricity by a hydroelectric generator. <ref>http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html</ref> Hydroelectric dams provide water for irrigation channels, and fresh water for towns and cities. Moreover, they are a reliable year-round source of electricity in British Columbia, as British Columbia has an enormous amount or rives, lakes, and streams that flow year round. Access to clean, fresh water is essential to supporting communities, and without access to clean water, the local economy cannot grow.

[[File:Hydrodam.gif|thumbnail]]

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Challenges===
There are two activities associated with dams that can produce significant amounts of GHGs. The first is a set of activities pertaining to the construction of the dam, as well as the production of material used for constructing the dam.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The second is the production of GHCs through the decay of biomass in the dam reservoir after flooding.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

In the former case, a study on cement and steel production, as well as the construction of the dam itself calculated that the total amount of GHCs produced would be 10% of the fossil fuel equivalent.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Despite the notable difference, less emitting practices are advisable for the production and construction stages.

In the latter case, there is significant potential for GHG emissions, especially methane, which is 24 times as potent as CO2 in climate change.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> This potential is due to the fact that after flooding of the region behind the land, the biomass of former plant and fungi life decay under water.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The more oxygenated the water is, the more CO2 relative to methane is produced.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Since BC is a colder region, the water is going to be highly oxygenated. Nonetheless, significant amounts of GHGs can be released for many years.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Clearing out a would-be reservoir of as much plant and fungi life as possible before flooding could help decrease the damage.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

===References===
<references/>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1

2016-10-25T03:40:36Z

MichelleHepburn:

BC Hydro seeks to be a leading sustainable energy company by delivering electricity in environmentally and socially responsible ways. Having said that, energy systems cause both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Thus, a comprehensive action plan is a necessity for a company like BC Hydro. This action plan forms the basis for the company's processes and decisions. The action plan is as follows:
* BC Hydro meets all the environmental requirements defined by legislation, regulation, government directives, and other environmental standards that apply to BC Hydro.
* To develop and foster an electrical energy conservation culture in B.C. that leads to customers choosing to make a dramatic and permanent reduction in electricity consumption. It also includes a "Sustainable Communities Program". Its in-house Resource Smart program is used to identify and implement efficiency gains at existing BC Hydro facilities.
* It seeks to purchase products, services, and new supplies of energy that take into account environmental responsibility. Thus, it ensures that the production of hydropower is clean.
* Publicly reports on its own environmental performance so as to maintain transparency.

In addition to this action plan, BC Hydro is committed by the BC government's Energy Plan to achieve electric power self-sufficiency in the province by 2016, with all new generation plants having zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the same year.<ref>http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/electricity-alternative-energy/energy-efficiency-conservation/policy-regulations</ref>

BC Hydro has also entered into energy purchase contracts with a new category of company created by special legislation, Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to buy electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources, mainly from small capacity run of river hydro and more recently, wind power, wood residue energy, and energy from organic municipal waste.<ref>http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/10022_01#part1</ref>

== Introduction ==
Production of energy is the largest contributor to global warming (Approximately 35% according to IPCC from 2014). Regardless of whether energy is produced via the burning of fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—or produced via alternatives—such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric—all sources contribute climate change, though at vastly varying scales. In the case of fossil fuels, the impact is both obvious and found throughout the entire cycle: from extraction to burning the fuel. Alternative sources, however, may not have such an obvious. Production of solar panels, for example, requires significant amount of energy and rare earth minerals and these must be included in how we calculate the use of solar energy on climate change.

As a region with vast hydroelectric potential one of the most significant contributions we can make is to prioritize energy production through the development of hydroelectric plants. Hydroelectricity is generally thought of as clean energy and provides a number of ancillary benefits: storage of energy, inexpensive once developed, reliable (Probably some citations needed). There are a number of drawbacks, too. More research is needed into the effect the dam reservoirs have on global warming generally, alongside the elimination of forest and natural space. It is also important to consider the rights of indigenous peoples as suitable land for hydroelectric development may be located on their land. This is especially problematic in BC as there are few treaties that identify indigenous lands.

In spite of these challenges, we advocate that as a region, British Columbia can use it's natural resources responsibly and with consideration of the real environmental effects of hydroelectricity while working within the rights of indigenous peoples and their land.

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
Political implications for Hydroelectric energy in British Columbia include Aboriginal Land Rights issues, protests, and transparency issues as a crown corporation. Most large-scale hydroelectric projects require large areas of land to be re-developed and often these developments occur on traditional indigenous lands in British Columbia. - this needs to be finished

Environmental advocacy groups and political parties have protested the proposed Site C Dam on the Peace River near Fort St. John. Protesters including Peace Valley farmers and First Nations representatives argue that the dam would result in large scale ecological consequences and affect their traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering sites - needs to be finished

Crown Corporations - needs to be finished
[[File:Keep-the-Peace-Emma-Gilchrist-DeSmog-Canada.jpg|thumbnail]]

===Economic===

In terms of the economy, investing and furthering hydroelectricity efforts in British Columbia would have multiple beneficial and negative effects on the economy. Firstly, building hydroelectric dams is a costly process. It involves a lengthy construction process that costs a fair amount of money due to the use of many resources such as concrete, and land development. During this building process, the surrounding environment may be damaged in numerous ways, which may be particularly harmful to those who live a lifestyle where their resources come from the land. Particularly, Indigenous peoples economic activities may be effected as there may be reduced fish and animal populations from hydroelectric dam construction<ref>https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/hidden-costs-hydroelectric-dams</ref>. Building dams are economically stimulating, as they require lots of special knowledge to build, incorporating engineers, architects, geologists, conservationists, and others alike. Hydroelectric production has many economic benefits, once a hydroelectric dam has been built, energy production relies on the natural movement of water, where mechanical energy is turned into energy and thereby turned into usable electricity by a hydroelectric generator. <ref>http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html</ref> Hydroelectric dams provide water for irrigation channels, and fresh water for towns and cities. Moreover, they are a reliable year-round source of electricity in British Columbia, as British Columbia has an enormous amount or rives, lakes, and streams that flow year round. Access to clean, fresh water is essential to supporting communities, and without access to clean water, the local economy cannot grow.

[[File:Hydrodam.gif|thumbnail]]

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Challenges===
There are two activities associated with dams that can produce significant amounts of GHGs. The first is a set of activities pertaining to the construction of the dam, as well as the production of material used for constructing the dam.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The second is the production of GHCs through the decay of biomass in the dam reservoir after flooding.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

In the former case, a study on cement and steel production, as well as the construction of the dam itself calculated that the total amount of GHCs produced would be 10% of the fossil fuel equivalent.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Despite the notable difference, less emitting practices are advisable for the production and construction stages.

In the latter case, there is significant potential for GHG emissions, especially methane, which is 24 times as potent as CO2 in climate change.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> This potential is due to the fact that after flooding of the region behind the land, the biomass of former plant and fungi life decay under water.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The more oxygenated the water is, the more CO2 relative to methane is produced.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Since BC is a colder region, the water is going to be highly oxygenated. Nonetheless, significant amounts of GHGs can be released for many years.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Clearing out a would-be reservoir of as much plant and fungi life as possible before flooding could help decrease the damage.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

<references/>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry1

2016-10-25T03:40:06Z

MichelleHepburn:

BC Hydro seeks to be a leading sustainable energy company by delivering electricity in environmentally and socially responsible ways. Having said that, energy systems cause both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Thus, a comprehensive action plan is a necessity for a company like BC Hydro. This action plan forms the basis for the company's processes and decisions. The action plan is as follows:
* BC Hydro meets all the environmental requirements defined by legislation, regulation, government directives, and other environmental standards that apply to BC Hydro.
* To develop and foster an electrical energy conservation culture in B.C. that leads to customers choosing to make a dramatic and permanent reduction in electricity consumption. It also includes a "Sustainable Communities Program". Its in-house Resource Smart program is used to identify and implement efficiency gains at existing BC Hydro facilities.
* It seeks to purchase products, services, and new supplies of energy that take into account environmental responsibility. Thus, it ensures that the production of hydropower is clean.
* Publicly reports on its own environmental performance so as to maintain transparency.

In addition to this action plan, BC Hydro is committed by the BC government's Energy Plan to achieve electric power self-sufficiency in the province by 2016, with all new generation plants having zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the same year.<ref>http://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/electricity-alternative-energy/energy-efficiency-conservation/policy-regulations</ref>

BC Hydro has also entered into energy purchase contracts with a new category of company created by special legislation, Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to buy electricity generated from intermittent renewable sources, mainly from small capacity run of river hydro and more recently, wind power, wood residue energy, and energy from organic municipal waste.<ref>http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/10022_01#part1</ref>

== Introduction ==
Production of energy is the largest contributor to global warming (Approximately 35% according to IPCC from 2014). Regardless of whether energy is produced via the burning of fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—or produced via alternatives—such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric—all sources contribute climate change, though at vastly varying scales. In the case of fossil fuels, the impact is both obvious and found throughout the entire cycle: from extraction to burning the fuel. Alternative sources, however, may not have such an obvious. Production of solar panels, for example, requires significant amount of energy and rare earth minerals and these must be included in how we calculate the use of solar energy on climate change.

As a region with vast hydroelectric potential one of the most significant contributions we can make is to prioritize energy production through the development of hydroelectric plants. Hydroelectricity is generally thought of as clean energy and provides a number of ancillary benefits: storage of energy, inexpensive once developed, reliable (Probably some citations needed). There are a number of drawbacks, too. More research is needed into the effect the dam reservoirs have on global warming generally, alongside the elimination of forest and natural space. It is also important to consider the rights of indigenous peoples as suitable land for hydroelectric development may be located on their land. This is especially problematic in BC as there are few treaties that identify indigenous lands.

In spite of these challenges, we advocate that as a region, British Columbia can use it's natural resources responsibly and with consideration of the real environmental effects of hydroelectricity while working within the rights of indigenous peoples and their land.

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
Political implications for Hydroelectric energy in British Columbia include Aboriginal Land Rights issues, protests, and transparency issues as a crown corporation. Most large-scale hydroelectric projects require large areas of land to be re-developed and often these developments occur on traditional indigenous lands in British Columbia. - this needs to be finished

Environmental advocacy groups and political parties have protested the proposed Site C Dam on the Peace River near Fort St. John. Protesters including Peace Valley farmers and First Nations representatives argue that the dam would result in large scale ecological consequences and affect their traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering sites - needs to be finished

Crown Corporations - needs to be finished
[[File:Keep-the-Peace-Emma-Gilchrist-DeSmog-Canada.jpg|thumbnail]]

===Economic===

In terms of the economy, investing and furthering hydroelectricity efforts in British Columbia would have multiple beneficial and negative effects on the economy. Firstly, building hydroelectric dams is a costly process. It involves a lengthy construction process that costs a fair amount of money due to the use of many resources such as concrete, and land development. During this building process, the surrounding environment may be damaged in numerous ways, which may be particularly harmful to those who live a lifestyle where their resources come from the land. Particularly, Indigenous peoples economic activities may be effected as there may be reduced fish and animal populations from hydroelectric dam construction<ref>https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/hidden-costs-hydroelectric-dams</ref>. Building dams are economically stimulating, as they require lots of special knowledge to build, incorporating engineers, architects, geologists, conservationists, and others alike. Hydroelectric production has many economic benefits, once a hydroelectric dam has been built, energy production relies on the natural movement of water, where mechanical energy is turned into energy and thereby turned into usable electricity by a hydroelectric generator. <ref>http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html</ref> Hydroelectric dams provide water for irrigation channels, and fresh water for towns and cities. Moreover, they are a reliable year-round source of electricity in British Columbia, as British Columbia has an enormous amount or rives, lakes, and streams that flow year round. Access to clean, fresh water is essential to supporting communities, and without access to clean water, the local economy cannot grow.

[[File:Hydrodam.gif|thumbnail]]

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Challenges===
There are two activities associated with dams that can produce significant amounts of GHGs. The first is a set of activities pertaining to the construction of the dam, as well as the production of material used for constructing the dam.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The second is the production of GHCs through the decay of biomass in the dam reservoir after flooding.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

In the former case, a study on cement and steel production, as well as the construction of the dam itself calculated that the total amount of GHCs produced would be 10% of the fossil fuel equivalent.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Despite the notable difference, less emitting practices are advisable for the production and construction stages.

In the latter case, there is significant potential for GHG emissions, especially methane, which is 24 times as potent as CO2 in climate change.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> This potential is due to the fact that after flooding of the region behind the land, the biomass of former plant and fungi life decay under water.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> The more oxygenated the water is, the more CO2 relative to methane is produced.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Since BC is a colder region, the water is going to be highly oxygenated. Nonetheless, significant amounts of GHGs can be released for many years.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref> Clearing out a would-be reservoir of as much plant and fungi life as possible before flooding could help decrease the damage.<ref>Climate Change and Dams: An Analysis of the Linkages Between the UNFCCC Legal Regime and Dams </ref>

</references>

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry2

2016-10-25T03:39:19Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Introduction ==
Change in the oil and mining sectors, being the biggest contributors to climate change, can most effectively reduce the harmful effects it brings. Changing the practices of the corporations involved in oil and mining will lead to wide-scale global environmental change. Corporations involved in the energy sector transcend national borders and so their practices have global impacts. For example, ninety corporations caused approximately two-thirds of the man-made global emissions (The Guardian, 2016). Climate change is primarily caused by the emission of green-house gases. These effects are global, and thus the responsibility must be global as well. Corporations make a large profit through the energy industry and often disregard the negative externalities of their actions. Furthermore, often times corporations have larger revenues than the GDP of small states, giving them the economic ability and international responsibility to create a positive impact on the global environment.
- Focussing on the “polluter pays” strategy, corporations are the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, thus it is most fair for them to be held accountable for the costs.
- Corporations also have the ability to pay and so it is practical and reasonable for them to be held responsible
- https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/nov/20/90-companies-man-made-global-warming-emissions-climate-change

== Action Plan ==
Companies should be held accountable to an international standard and not solely to domestic standards since oftentimes different localities have very low standards in comparison to what needs to be acceptable in order to create environmental change. For example, when developed nations go into third world countries and pollute in ways they would not normally not at home. This is unethical because the pollution quota is being reduced in underdeveloped nations while economic benefits are going to the developed nations who have moved to areas with less-strict regulations. This international standard would require developed countries with more strict rules and regulations to keep their standards when working in other countries and if a country's standards are lower than the international standard then they must adhere to global regulations when working abroad.

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
The economic implications of such a radical proposal would be global in scale. Forcing transnational corporations to ensure their environmental standards in off-shore industries must be at a prescribed international level. This will thus decrease the short term profit or revenues received by those corporations that had once sent their industry off-shore in order to reap the benefits of what seemed to be easier environmental regulations. However, it is possible that this will force research and development to decrease the cost of production in the long run, and leave the environment better off as well.
===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==

It is extremely difficult to have enough accountability to ensure that corporations are adhering to the establishing international ethics standards. Government corruption often leads to ineffectiveness in ensuring ethical standards are met. There would need to be partnership between corporations and local governments in which the corporations cover the costs and take responsibility for the burden of ensuring that standards are met in their resource extraction processes and in their waste management.

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry3

2016-10-25T03:38:28Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 3

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry4

2016-10-25T03:38:05Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 4

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry5

2016-10-25T03:37:41Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 5

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry6

2016-10-25T03:37:19Z

MichelleHepburn:

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry7

2016-10-25T03:36:49Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 7

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry8

2016-10-25T03:36:35Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 8

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry9

2016-10-25T03:36:22Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 9

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Industry10

2016-10-25T03:36:07Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Industry Group 10

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the organization/industry/technology you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal2

2016-10-25T03:34:28Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 2: Alex Plan, Gabriela Cervantes, Susan Hou, Cullen McDorman, Ananya Sengupta, Bowen Wong

== Introduction ==
We believe that the municipal government is in the best position to address climate change due to the fact that they are able to understand and are informed on the problems that contribute to environmental damage on a local level. Climate change begins at the local level as each region is unique in terms of what strategy to tackle climate change is effective.

== Action Plan ==
Transport System:
In order to tackle this issue, it would be prudent to tackle the issue in a specific case, which would be Vancouver for this scenario. The proposal is that in order to convince the public to use transit over their personal cars, it would be beneficial to change the bus system to make it more efficient. This can be done by having fewer long busses rather than multiple small busses that fill up quickly. This would be helpful because this way the public will be aware of the fact that their chances of actually getting a bus is higher, which means they would get to their destination on time using public transport over using a car and driving to the destination.

On a larger scale, it would be useful for the provincial government to provide the local government with more authority with regards to control over the transit system in Vancouver. Redistribution of power in this case would help with regards to improving the infrastructure, which would eventually have a positive impact on climate change.

==Implications==
There are several areas to note with regards to the implications of this plan. They are as follows:

===Political===
The provincial government might want to have more voting power over the municipal government because they are also contributing to their own funds to the infrastructure. Therefore, they would likely be reluctant to redistribute the duties of the transport system.

However, if implemented, the plan would be able to contribute to the Vancouver 2020 plan where the goal is to be the "greenest" city in North America.

===Economic===
Expanding the transportation system in this manner is expensive and would require redistribution of funds which might not be feasible. This is either because they do not have the resources to do so or they might have to reallocate their resources to implement the plan.

(Developing municipal infrastructure would also lead to economic growth - Spend less on transport)

===Social===
(residents still choose to drive)
(increased accessibility to transport)
(ease of travel)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal3

2016-10-25T03:33:52Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 3

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal4

2016-10-25T03:33:35Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 4

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal5

2016-10-25T03:33:21Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 5

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal6

2016-10-25T03:33:02Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 6

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal7

2016-10-25T03:32:48Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 7

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal8

2016-10-25T03:32:33Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 8

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal9

2016-10-25T03:32:15Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 9

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)

Documentation:Open Case Studies/Political Science/Municipal10

2016-10-25T03:31:55Z

MichelleHepburn:

== Climate Change Action Plan ==
Municipal Group 10

== Introduction ==
(Erase this text: Provide a brief introduction to the municipality/municipal government you argue is the most effective way to address climate change)

== Action Plan ==
(Erase this text: here explain what your action plan is, how it will be implemented, its guiding principles, and how it will be enforced and/or achieve buy-in from appropriate stakeholders. Consider the guiding questions.)

==Implications==
(Erase this text: In this section, consider how your action plan can be framed to address the concerns of political, economic, and social groups. Your answers in these sections should consider the guiding questions on the [[Documentation:Open Case Studies/Resources/Class Activity/Student Handout|student handout page]]. Why could you anticipate your plan as having a chance of success in gaining appropriate support? What will be its impacts? Consider both negative and positive impacts.)

===Political===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Economic===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

===Social===
(Erase this text: Write your answers here)

==Remaining Challenges==
(Erase this text: What are some remaining challenges to your action plan? What does it fail to address? How can you mitigate shortcomings?)