UBC Wiki - User contributions [en]

Course:FNH200/Projects/2024/Popcorn

2024-08-08T03:40:49Z

LeanneSu: /* Chemical and Physical Properties */ cut words

== '''Introduction''' ==
Popcorn is a unique variety of corn kernel that puffs up when heated<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>, and it is one of the world's healthiest and most popular snack foods. As a whole grain, popcorn is packed with essential nutrients and offers numerous health benefits<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. By volume, popcorn is the most popular snack food in America. Around 14 billion quarts of popcorn are consumed by Americans a long every year<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>.

From a nutritional standpoint, popcorn is a powerhouse. Whole grains are an important part of a balanced diet because they provide essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Popcorn, being a whole grain, is rich in antioxidants and provides a healthy amount of fiber, promoting digestion and heart health<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. However, popcorn can sometimes be prepared with excessive amounts of fat, sugar, and salt, leading to overeating<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. Therefore, it is crucial to prepare popcorn properly. It can be either very healthy or quite unhealthy, depending on the preparation method.

== '''Production''' ==
'''<big>Cultivation</big>'''
[[File:Popcorn planting.jpg|thumb|192x192px|Popcorn planting]]
Timely planting is essential due to slow [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination germination] and seedling growth. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbed seedbed] must be carefully prepared, as small seeds require a clod-free environment<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Ziegler|first=K. E.|last2=Ashman|first2=R. B.|last3=White|first3=G. M.|last4=Wysong|first4=D. S.|last5=Hanna|first5=M. A.|date=1989|title=Popcorn production and marketing|url=https://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Management/pdfs/NCH05_CR-2104web.pdf|journal=Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service}}</ref>. Harvesting aims to minimize kernel damage, ensuring they reach the optimal moisture level (16-17%)<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Snack foods|last=Serna-Saldivar|first=Sergio O.|publisher=CRC Press|year=2022|isbn=9781003129066|location=Boca Raton|pages=201-220}}</ref> for maximum popping expansion<ref name=":2" />. Kernels are then cleaned and dried to around 13-13.5%<ref name=":1" /> moisture. Kernels must be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_drying dehydrated] slowly to prevent the formation of stress cracks and fissures but fast enough to prevent [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold mould] development<ref name=":1" />. Drying methods include slow air drying, taking 8-12 months<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/popcorn.html|url-status=live}}</ref>, or using hot air in calibrated dryers for faster results<ref>{{Cite web|title=Discover how to quickly dry corn to reduce losses|url=https://www.mecmargroup.com/en/news/discover_how_to_quickly_dry_corn_to_reduce_losses-51|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''<big>Storage</big>'''

Popcorn kernels should be free of microbial contamination, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect insects], and rodent damage, with an optimum moisture content of 11-14%<ref name=":1" />. Higher moisture increase susceptibility to microbial growth, such as ''Listeria monocytogenes''. Storage bins must be cleaned and rodent-proof<ref name=":1" />., with the surrounding areas kept free of weeds and trash. Apporced [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticide rodenticides] can further prevent rodent infestations.[[File:Popcorn in jar IMG 5074.jpg|thumb|Popcorn kernels in jar|175x175px]]

'''<big>Packaging</big>'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb|Microwave popcorn bag in microwavable bag and plastic|171x171px]]'''Kernels:'''

Popcorn kernels are often packaged in jars<ref>[[File:Popcorn in jar IMG 5074.jpg|thumb|Popcorn kernels in jar]]</ref> for easy storing and dispensing. For microwave convenience, some kernels are packaged in microwave bags with salt, soybean oil, and flavouring<ref>{{Cite web|title=HowStuffWorks Show: Episode 1: Popcorn|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q2lKV02JzPc|url-status=live}}</ref>, then wrapped in airtight plastic<ref>[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb]]
</ref>.These are then placed in cardboard boxes<ref>[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb]]
</ref>, which can provide an additional layer of protection, minimizing physical damage, contamination, and light exposure during storage and transportation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dehydration as a Food Preservation Method|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_08|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Popped popcorn:'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb|Outer cardboard box packaging of microwave popcorn|199x199px]][[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb|165x165px|Popcorn bag popped]]Commercially popped popcorn is preserved using airtight packaging and nitrogen flushing. Packaging materials include plastic bags, metallized film, and foil pouches, which prevent exposure to air and keep the popcorn from becoming stale and chewy. Nitrogen flushing replaces oxygen in the packaging with nitrogen to prevent oxidation and spoilage. This extends the shelf life and maintains the popcorn’s texture and flavour.

'''<big>Popping Methods</big>'''

At home, the predominant popping method is using prepackaged microwave bags<ref>[[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb]]
</ref>. Commercially, the wet-pop method using oil is common, as it distributes heat evenly. The moisture turns to steam, building pressure until the hull bursts, and transforms the kernel into fluffy popcorn<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Pop Science|url=https://www.cretors.com/resources/pop-science/|url-status=live}}</ref>. Alternatively, the dry-pop method uses uses hot air or an open flame without oil. For larger scale production, batch poppers and continuous hot air poppers are used. Batch poppers feature a rotating wire drum with a fine mesh to support the kernels over a heat source, while continuous hot air poppers use a horizontal rotating perforated metal cylinder for efficient popping<ref name=":4" />.

== '''Chemical and Physical Properties''' ==
'''Carbohydrates:'''
[[File:Amylose2.svg|thumb|250x250px|Structure of amylose]]
Popcorn is primarily composed of carbohydrates as 77.8 g of every 100 g of air-popped popcorn are carbohydrates<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=April 1, 2019|title=Snacks, popcorn, air-popped|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/167959/nutrients|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=FoodData Central|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref>. Most of the carbohydrates are in the form of complex carbohydrates and the remaining are in the form of simple carbohydrates.
[[File:Amylopectin from starch granule.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Amylopectin from a starch granule]]
Starch, a polysaccharide crucial to popcorn popping, exists inside the kernel as amylose and amylopectin<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=August 15, 2023|title=From Kernel to Crunch: The Science Behind Perfectly Popping Corn|url=https://www.ontariopoppingcorn.com/blogs/news/from-kernel-to-crunch-the-science-behind-perfectly-popping-corn#:~:text=When%20the%20popcorn%20kernels%20are,its%20characteristic%20nutty%2C%20toasty%20taste.&text=Not%20all%20popcorn%20kernels%20are%20created%20equal|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=Uncle Bob's Popcorn}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Judy|title=Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 02|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_02|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=UBC Wiki}}</ref>. When heated, these molecules absorb water, swell, and disrupts the bonds holding the starch together which cause the granules to rupture and become soft and pliable<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":9" />. This process is known as gelatinization.
[[File:Popcorn up close salted and air popped.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Brown pigments on popcorn produced by the Maillard reaction ]]
Dietary fiber is another type of carbohydrate in popcorn that includes various forms of polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin<ref name=":9" />. There is 14.5 g of total dietary fiber per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

Air-popped popcorn also contains small amounts of simple carbohydrates. There are 0.07 g of glucose and fructose each and 0.72 g of sucrose per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

'''Proteins:'''

Proteins contribute to the flavour and colour of popcorn through the Maillard browning reaction<ref name=":10" />. The production of brown pigments and the toasty flavour of popcorn is due to the Maillard reaction where reducing sugars react with proteins as the popcorn kernels are heated.

'''Aroma Constituents:'''

Volatile constituents, though present in low concentrations, are significant in determining the aroma of foods<ref name=":9" />. The volatile compound 2-acetylpyridine is found to enhance the aroma quality of popcorn<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Donkeun|last2=Maga|first2=Joseph. A.|date=March 12, 2013|title=Identification of key volatiles responsible for odour quality differences in popped popcorn of selected hybrids|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.08.019|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=99|issue=3|pages=538-545|doi=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Several additional compounds contribute to popcorn aroma and flavour such as pyrazines, furans, pyrroles, carbonyls, and substituted phenols<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sweley|first=Jess C.|last2=Rose|first2=Devin J.|last3=Jackson|first3=David S.|date=March 13, 2013|title=Quality Traits and Popping Performance Considerations for Popcorn (Zea mays Everta)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.714435|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=29|issue=2|pages=157-177|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>.

== '''Health Benefits and Risks''' ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nutritional Information for Various Types of Popcorn<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/pdf/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/nvscf-vnqau-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! Nutrient !! Air-popped !! Microwave, low fat and reduced salt !! Oil-popped, regular and microwaved !! Caramel-coated
|-
| Measure || 250mL || 250mL || 250mL || 250mL
|-
| Weight (g) || 8 || 8 || 12 || 37
|-
| Energy (kcal) || 32 || 34 || 58 || 160
|-
| Protein (g) || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1
|-
| Carbohydrate (g) || 7 || 6 || 7 || 29
|-
| Total Sugar (g) || tr (trace) || tr || tr || 20
|-
| Total Dietary Fibre (g) || 1.3 || 1.1 || 1.2 || 1.9
|-
| Total Fat (g) || tr || 1 || 3 || 5
|-
| Saturated Fat (g) || tr || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.3
|-
| Calcium (mg) || 1 || 1 || 1 || 2
|-
| Iron (mg) || 0.2 || 0.2 || 0.3 || 0.6
|-
| Sodium (mg) || tr || 39 || 103 || 77
|-
| Potassium (mg) || 25 || 19 || 26 || 41
|-
| Magnesium (mg) || 11 || 12 || 13 || 13
|-
| Phosphorus (mg) || 25 || 21 || 29 || 31
|-
| Vitamin A (RAE) || 1 || tr || 1 || 1
|-
| Folate (DFE) || 2 || 1 || 2 || 1
|-
|Vitamin C
|0
|0
|tr
|0
|-
|Vitamin B12
|0
|0
|0
|tr
|}
'''Health benefits of popcorn:'''

Popcorn is high in polyphenols<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646597/|url-status=live}}</ref>. These antioxidants may lower the risk of high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancers like prostate and breast cancer<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfbc.14264|url-status=live}}</ref>. Its high fiber content helps reduce the risk of heart disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23803885/}}</ref><ref name=":13" />. Eating low-calorie, high-fiber popcorn can aid in weight loss by promoting fullness as a study found that 15 calories of popcorn can be as satisfying as 150 calories of potato chips<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22978828/|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Risks of eating popcorn:'''

Popcorn can be a healthy, low-calorie, high-fiber snack, but its nutritional benefits are often compromised by excessive salt or butter. Many microwave popcorn products contain high levels of saturated fats and trans fats, which can raise LDL cholesterol and increase cardiovascular risk <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.verywellhealth.com/microwave-popcorn-and-cancer-5085309|url-status=live}}</ref> . Additionally, excessive salt can lead to water retention and high blood pressure <ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://parade.com/health/what-happens-if-you-eat-popcorn-every-day#:~:text=If%20your%20popcorn%20has%20lots,unpopped%20kernels%20can%20damage%20teeth.|url-status=live}}</ref>. Unpopped kernels may also damage teeth <ref name=":12" />. Many brands of microwave popcorn are made using hydrogenated oils, which may still contain traces of harmful partially hydrogenated oils or trans fats.<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/popcorn-nutrition-and-health#TOC_TITLE_HDR_6|url-status=live}}</ref>.

== '''Related Health Events''' ==
In the late 1990s, concerns emerged about PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), used in microwave popcorn bags, as it's linked to cancer, thyroid disease, and developmental issues in children. PFOA and its related compounds are now listed as toxic substances in Canada under CEPA 1999 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), its salts, and its precursors - information sheet|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-glance/perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-salts-precursors-public-summary.html#6|url-status=live}}</ref>.

Bacterial contamination is another concern, especially when popcorn is stored or treated improperly. For instance, in 2012, 700,000 bags of popcorn were recalled due to the potential risk of Listeria monocytogenes contamination from processing machines<ref>{{Cite web|title=700,000 bags of popcorn pulled for listeria risk|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/700-000-bags-popcorn-pulled-listeria-risk-flna6240743|url-status=live}}</ref>.

Popcorn lung is a severe and irreversible lung disease first identified among workers in microwave popcorn factories in early 1980s<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cohen|first=Sharon|date=Oct. 29, 2007|title=Popcorn workers stuck with painful legacy|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/popcorn-workers-stuck-painful-legacy-flna1C9464743|url-status=live}}</ref>. The condition is caused by inhaling diacetyl, a chemical used to give microwave popcorn its buttery flavor<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is Diacetyl|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/diacetyl-when-buttery-goodness-breaks-bad|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Everything You Need to Know About Popcorn Lung|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/popcorn-lung#What-is-popcorn-lung?|url-status=live}}</ref> lead to stricter workplace safety regulations and many manufacturers phasing out diacetyl.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn Lung Lawsuit|url=https://www.torhoermanlaw.com/diacetyl-popcorn-lung-lawsuit/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=About Flavoring-related Lung Disease|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/flavoring-related-lung-disease/about/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Airway obstruction related to diacetyl exposure at microwave popcorn production facilities|url=https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/34/1/63|url-status=live}}</ref>

== '''Regulations''' ==
Based on the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations under the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the general labelling requirements for pre-packaged popcorn, like other pre-packaged foods, include the following<ref>{{Cite web|title=Food labelling for industry|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry|url-status=live}}</ref>:

* Bilingual labelling
* Common name
* Country of origin
* Date markings and storage instructions
* Name and principal place of business
* Legibility and location
* List of ingredients and allergens
* Net quantity
* Nutrition labelling
Popcorn is categorized under S. Snacks (S.1) for nutritional labeling. The reference amount (RA) is 50g<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2022|title=Nutrition Labelling - Table of Reference Amounts for Food|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/technical-documents-labelling-requirements/table-reference-amounts-food/nutrition-labelling.html|url-status=live}}</ref>.

Additional labelling requirements may be specific to certain types of popcorn, such as those with sweeteners and additives<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=March 18, 2024|title=Retail Foods|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/retail-foods#c14|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>.

All information about popcorn advertised in any form of media is mandated by the CFIA to be truthful and accurate. The CFIA reviews all advertisements to ensure compliance with these standards<ref name=":11" />.

== '''Potential Exam Question''' ==
What is the primary benefit of choosing air-popped popcorn over traditional microwave oil-popped popcorn?

A) Increased protein content

B) Higher levels of sugar

C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

D) More sodium

Correct answer: C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

This question is a good exam question because it tests students' understanding of the impact of food preparation methods on nutritional value.

It emphasizes the importance of making healthier food choices by understanding how different preparation methods can affect the nutritional content of foods. Knowing that air-popped popcorn is lower in calories and fat compared to flavoured microwave popcorn can help students make better dietary decisions.

== '''References''' ==

Course:FNH200/Projects/2024/Popcorn

2024-08-08T03:35:14Z

LeanneSu: cut words

== '''Introduction''' ==
Popcorn is a unique variety of corn kernel that puffs up when heated<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>, and it is one of the world's healthiest and most popular snack foods. As a whole grain, popcorn is packed with essential nutrients and offers numerous health benefits<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. By volume, popcorn is the most popular snack food in America. Around 14 billion quarts of popcorn are consumed by Americans a long every year<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>.

From a nutritional standpoint, popcorn is a powerhouse. Whole grains are an important part of a balanced diet because they provide essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Popcorn, being a whole grain, is rich in antioxidants and provides a healthy amount of fiber, promoting digestion and heart health<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. However, popcorn can sometimes be prepared with excessive amounts of fat, sugar, and salt, leading to overeating<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. Therefore, it is crucial to prepare popcorn properly. It can be either very healthy or quite unhealthy, depending on the preparation method.

== '''Production''' ==
'''<big>Cultivation</big>'''
[[File:Popcorn planting.jpg|thumb|192x192px|Popcorn planting]]
Timely planting is essential due to slow [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination germination] and seedling growth. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbed seedbed] must be carefully prepared, as small seeds require a clod-free environment<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Ziegler|first=K. E.|last2=Ashman|first2=R. B.|last3=White|first3=G. M.|last4=Wysong|first4=D. S.|last5=Hanna|first5=M. A.|date=1989|title=Popcorn production and marketing|url=https://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Management/pdfs/NCH05_CR-2104web.pdf|journal=Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service}}</ref>. Harvesting aims to minimize kernel damage, ensuring they reach the optimal moisture level (16-17%)<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Snack foods|last=Serna-Saldivar|first=Sergio O.|publisher=CRC Press|year=2022|isbn=9781003129066|location=Boca Raton|pages=201-220}}</ref> for maximum popping expansion<ref name=":2" />. Kernels are then cleaned and dried to around 13-13.5%<ref name=":1" /> moisture. Kernels must be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_drying dehydrated] slowly to prevent the formation of stress cracks and fissures but fast enough to prevent [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold mould] development<ref name=":1" />. Drying methods include slow air drying, taking 8-12 months<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/popcorn.html|url-status=live}}</ref>, or using hot air in calibrated dryers for faster results<ref>{{Cite web|title=Discover how to quickly dry corn to reduce losses|url=https://www.mecmargroup.com/en/news/discover_how_to_quickly_dry_corn_to_reduce_losses-51|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''<big>Storage</big>'''

Popcorn kernels should be free of microbial contamination, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect insects], and rodent damage, with an optimum moisture content of 11-14%<ref name=":1" />. Higher moisture increase susceptibility to microbial growth, such as ''Listeria monocytogenes''. Storage bins must be cleaned and rodent-proof<ref name=":1" />., with the surrounding areas kept free of weeds and trash. Apporced [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticide rodenticides] can further prevent rodent infestations.[[File:Popcorn in jar IMG 5074.jpg|thumb|Popcorn kernels in jar|175x175px]]

'''<big>Packaging</big>'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb|Microwave popcorn bag in microwavable bag and plastic|171x171px]]'''Kernels:'''

Popcorn kernels are often packaged in jars<ref>[[File:Popcorn in jar IMG 5074.jpg|thumb|Popcorn kernels in jar]]</ref> for easy storing and dispensing. For microwave convenience, some kernels are packaged in microwave bags with salt, soybean oil, and flavouring<ref>{{Cite web|title=HowStuffWorks Show: Episode 1: Popcorn|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q2lKV02JzPc|url-status=live}}</ref>, then wrapped in airtight plastic<ref>[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb]]
</ref>.These are then placed in cardboard boxes<ref>[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb]]
</ref>, which can provide an additional layer of protection, minimizing physical damage, contamination, and light exposure during storage and transportation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dehydration as a Food Preservation Method|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_08|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Popped popcorn:'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb|Outer cardboard box packaging of microwave popcorn|199x199px]]Commercially popped popcorn is preserved using airtight packaging and nitrogen flushing. Packaging materials include plastic bags, metallized film, and foil pouches, which prevent exposure to air and keep the popcorn from becoming stale and chewy. Nitrogen flushing replaces oxygen in the packaging with nitrogen to prevent oxidation and spoilage. This extends the shelf life and maintains the popcorn’s texture and flavour.

'''<big>Popping Methods</big>'''[[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb|165x165px|Popcorn bag popped]]Today, the predominant popping method at home is the prepackaged bag in the microwave<ref>[[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb]]
</ref>. In commercial settings, the most common popping method is the wet-pop method, which uses oil to evenly distribute the heat. As the kernels heat up, the moisture turns to steam, building pressure until the hull bursts, transforming the kernel into fluffy popcorn<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Pop Science|url=https://www.cretors.com/resources/pop-science/|url-status=live}}</ref>. Alternatively, the dry-pop method employs dry heat without oil, using hot air or an open flame. Hot air circulates around the kernels, heating them evenly until the moisture turns to steam and the kernels pop<ref name=":4" />. For larger scale commercial production, batch poppers and continuous hot air poppers are used. Batch poppers feature a rotating wire drum with a fine mesh to support the kernels over a heat source, while continuous hot air poppers use a horizontal rotating perforated metal cylinder for efficient popping<ref name=":4" />.

== '''Chemical and Physical Properties''' ==
'''Carbohydrates:'''
[[File:Amylose2.svg|thumb|250x250px|Structure of amylose]]
Popcorn is primarily composed of carbohydrates as 77.8 g of every 100 g of air-popped popcorn are carbohydrates<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=April 1, 2019|title=Snacks, popcorn, air-popped|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/167959/nutrients|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=FoodData Central|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref>. Most of the carbohydrates are in the form of complex carbohydrates and the remaining are in the form of simple carbohydrates.
[[File:Amylopectin from starch granule.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Amylopectin from a starch granule]]
Starch, a polysaccharide crucial to popcorn popping, exists inside the kernel as amylose and amylopectin<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=August 15, 2023|title=From Kernel to Crunch: The Science Behind Perfectly Popping Corn|url=https://www.ontariopoppingcorn.com/blogs/news/from-kernel-to-crunch-the-science-behind-perfectly-popping-corn#:~:text=When%20the%20popcorn%20kernels%20are,its%20characteristic%20nutty%2C%20toasty%20taste.&text=Not%20all%20popcorn%20kernels%20are%20created%20equal|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=Uncle Bob's Popcorn}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Judy|title=Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 02|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_02|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=UBC Wiki}}</ref>. When heated, these molecules absorb water, swell, and disrupts the bonds holding the starch together which cause the granules to rupture and become soft and pliable<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":9" />. This process is known as gelatinization.
[[File:Popcorn up close salted and air popped.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Brown pigments on popcorn produced by the Maillard reaction ]]
Dietary fiber is another type of carbohydrate in popcorn that includes various forms of polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin<ref name=":9" />. There is 14.5 g of total dietary fiber per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

Air-popped popcorn also contains small amounts of simple carbohydrates. There are 0.07 g of glucose and fructose each and 0.72 g of sucrose per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

'''Proteins:'''

Proteins contribute to the flavour and colour of popcorn through the Maillard browning reaction<ref name=":10" />. The production of brown pigments and the toasty flavour of popcorn is due to the Maillard reaction where reducing sugars react with proteins as the popcorn kernels are heated.

'''Aroma Constituents:'''

Volatile constituents generally exist in low concentrations in foods, but play a major role in determining their aroma<ref name=":9" />. The volatile compound 2-acetylpyridine is found to enhance the overall aroma quality of popcorn<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Donkeun|last2=Maga|first2=Joseph. A.|date=March 12, 2013|title=Identification of key volatiles responsible for odour quality differences in popped popcorn of selected hybrids|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.08.019|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=99|issue=3|pages=538-545|doi=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Several additional compounds have been recognized as contributors to popcorn aroma and flavour such as pyrazines, furans, pyrroles, carbonyls, and substituted phenols<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sweley|first=Jess C.|last2=Rose|first2=Devin J.|last3=Jackson|first3=David S.|date=March 13, 2013|title=Quality Traits and Popping Performance Considerations for Popcorn (Zea mays Everta)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.714435|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=29|issue=2|pages=157-177|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>.

== '''Health Benefits and Risks''' ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nutritional Information for Various Types of Popcorn<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/pdf/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/nvscf-vnqau-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! Nutrient !! Air-popped !! Microwave, low fat and reduced salt !! Oil-popped, regular and microwaved !! Caramel-coated
|-
| Measure || 250mL || 250mL || 250mL || 250mL
|-
| Weight (g) || 8 || 8 || 12 || 37
|-
| Energy (kcal) || 32 || 34 || 58 || 160
|-
| Protein (g) || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1
|-
| Carbohydrate (g) || 7 || 6 || 7 || 29
|-
| Total Sugar (g) || tr (trace) || tr || tr || 20
|-
| Total Dietary Fibre (g) || 1.3 || 1.1 || 1.2 || 1.9
|-
| Total Fat (g) || tr || 1 || 3 || 5
|-
| Saturated Fat (g) || tr || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.3
|-
| Calcium (mg) || 1 || 1 || 1 || 2
|-
| Iron (mg) || 0.2 || 0.2 || 0.3 || 0.6
|-
| Sodium (mg) || tr || 39 || 103 || 77
|-
| Potassium (mg) || 25 || 19 || 26 || 41
|-
| Magnesium (mg) || 11 || 12 || 13 || 13
|-
| Phosphorus (mg) || 25 || 21 || 29 || 31
|-
| Vitamin A (RAE) || 1 || tr || 1 || 1
|-
| Folate (DFE) || 2 || 1 || 2 || 1
|-
|Vitamin C
|0
|0
|tr
|0
|-
|Vitamin B12
|0
|0
|0
|tr
|}
'''Health benefits of popcorn:'''

Popcorn is high in polyphenols<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646597/|url-status=live}}</ref>. These antioxidants may lower the risk of high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancers like prostate and breast cancer<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfbc.14264|url-status=live}}</ref>. Its high fiber content helps reduce the risk of heart disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23803885/}}</ref><ref name=":13" />. Eating low-calorie, high-fiber popcorn can aid in weight loss by promoting fullness as a study found that 15 calories of popcorn can be as satisfying as 150 calories of potato chips<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22978828/|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Risks of eating popcorn:'''

Popcorn can be a healthy, low-calorie, high-fiber snack, but its nutritional benefits are often compromised by excessive salt or butter. Many microwave popcorn products contain high levels of saturated fats and trans fats, which can raise LDL cholesterol and increase cardiovascular risk <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.verywellhealth.com/microwave-popcorn-and-cancer-5085309|url-status=live}}</ref> . Additionally, excessive salt can lead to water retention and high blood pressure <ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://parade.com/health/what-happens-if-you-eat-popcorn-every-day#:~:text=If%20your%20popcorn%20has%20lots,unpopped%20kernels%20can%20damage%20teeth.|url-status=live}}</ref>. Unpopped kernels may also damage teeth <ref name=":12" />. Many brands of microwave popcorn are made using hydrogenated oils, which may still contain traces of harmful partially hydrogenated oils or trans fats.<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/popcorn-nutrition-and-health#TOC_TITLE_HDR_6|url-status=live}}</ref>.

== '''Related Health Events''' ==
In the late 1990s, concerns emerged about PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), used in microwave popcorn bags, as it's linked to cancer, thyroid disease, and developmental issues in children. PFOA and its related compounds are now listed as toxic substances in Canada under CEPA 1999 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), its salts, and its precursors - information sheet|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-glance/perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-salts-precursors-public-summary.html#6|url-status=live}}</ref>.

Bacterial contamination is another concern, especially when popcorn is stored or treated improperly. For instance, in 2012, 700,000 bags of popcorn were recalled due to the potential risk of Listeria monocytogenes contamination from processing machines<ref>{{Cite web|title=700,000 bags of popcorn pulled for listeria risk|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/700-000-bags-popcorn-pulled-listeria-risk-flna6240743|url-status=live}}</ref>.

Popcorn lung is a severe and irreversible lung disease first identified among workers in microwave popcorn factories in early 1980s<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cohen|first=Sharon|date=Oct. 29, 2007|title=Popcorn workers stuck with painful legacy|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/popcorn-workers-stuck-painful-legacy-flna1C9464743|url-status=live}}</ref>. The condition is caused by inhaling diacetyl, a chemical used to give microwave popcorn its buttery flavor<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is Diacetyl|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/diacetyl-when-buttery-goodness-breaks-bad|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Everything You Need to Know About Popcorn Lung|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/popcorn-lung#What-is-popcorn-lung?|url-status=live}}</ref> lead to stricter workplace safety regulations and many manufacturers phasing out diacetyl.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn Lung Lawsuit|url=https://www.torhoermanlaw.com/diacetyl-popcorn-lung-lawsuit/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=About Flavoring-related Lung Disease|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/flavoring-related-lung-disease/about/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Airway obstruction related to diacetyl exposure at microwave popcorn production facilities|url=https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/34/1/63|url-status=live}}</ref>

== '''Regulations''' ==
Based on the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations under the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the general labelling requirements for pre-packaged popcorn, like other pre-packaged foods, include the following<ref>{{Cite web|title=Food labelling for industry|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry|url-status=live}}</ref>:

* Bilingual labelling
* Common name
* Country of origin
* Date markings and storage instructions
* Name and principal place of business
* Legibility and location
* List of ingredients and allergens
* Net quantity
* Nutrition labelling
Popcorn is categorized under S. Snacks (S.1) for nutritional labeling. The reference amount (RA) is 50g<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2022|title=Nutrition Labelling - Table of Reference Amounts for Food|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/technical-documents-labelling-requirements/table-reference-amounts-food/nutrition-labelling.html|url-status=live}}</ref>.

Additional labelling requirements may be specific to certain types of popcorn, such as those with sweeteners and additives<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=March 18, 2024|title=Retail Foods|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/retail-foods#c14|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>.

All information about popcorn advertised in any form of media is mandated by the CFIA to be truthful and accurate. The CFIA reviews all advertisements to ensure compliance with these standards<ref name=":11" />.

== '''Potential Exam Question''' ==
What is the primary benefit of choosing air-popped popcorn over microwave popcorn with added flavours?

A) Increased protein content

B) Higher levels of sugar

C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

D) More sodium

Correct answer: C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

This question is a good exam question because it tests students' understanding of the impact of food preparation methods on nutritional value.

It emphasizes the importance of making healthier food choices by understanding how different preparation methods can affect the nutritional content of foods. Knowing that air-popped popcorn is lower in calories and fat compared to flavoured microwave popcorn can help students make better dietary decisions.

== '''References''' ==

Course:FNH200/Projects/2024/Popcorn

2024-08-06T23:57:12Z

LeanneSu: added pictures

This is a blank page for you to document and present your research project for FNH 200.

In addition to the traditional introduction, body of research, and references, don't forget to include a fact that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the question, correct answers, distractors, as well as a quick explanation why your fellow students should know about this.

Your team reflection, one submission per team, should be submitted on Canvas.

== '''Introduction''' ==
Popcorn is a unique variety of corn kernel that puffs up when heated<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>, and it is one of the world's healthiest and most popular snack foods. As a whole grain, popcorn is packed with essential nutrients and offers numerous health benefits<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. By volume, popcorn is the most popular snack food in America. Around 14 billion quarts of popcorn are consumed by Americans a long every year[7].

From a nutritional standpoint, popcorn is a powerhouse. Whole grains are an important part of a balanced diet because they provide essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Popcorn, being a whole grain, is rich in antioxidants and provides a healthy amount of fiber, promoting digestion and heart health<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. However, popcorn can sometimes be prepared with excessive amounts of fat, sugar, and salt, leading to overeating<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. Therefore, it is crucial to prepare popcorn properly. It can be either very healthy or quite unhealthy, depending on the preparation method.

== '''History''' ==

=== Once upon a corn ===
In 1519, the Imperial agent Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico. What he first encountered there wasn’t the legendary gold, but golden corn.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An introduction to Hernándo Cortés: Five Letters 1519-1526|url=https://www.enotes.com/topics/hernan-cortes/criticism/criticism/j-bayard-morris-essay-date-1928|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 16th century, corn hadn’t undergone modern breeding, so it was often a hard, spiky variety that wasn’t easy to eat or digest. Consequently, the Aztecs had two main ways of processing corn: one was grinding it into flour to make tortillas and porridge, and the other was roasting it over a fire until it popped, creating an early form of popcorn.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|date=26 February 2014|title=Aztec Civilization|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Aztec_Civilization/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:8-7mtH7r7ezew2Nk3.png|thumb|200x200px|popcorn on the cob]]
This early popcorn, with its snowy white appearance, was not only a common food but also offered by local fishermen to the water god Tlaloc, resembling hailstones.<ref name=":3" /> However, due to the corn's low oil and sugar content and the challenge of preventing a burnt taste, popcorn did not become a widespread delicacy at that time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=The History of Popcorn: How One Grain Became a Staple Snack|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/popcorn-history-movie-theaters|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern Popcorn Machine ===
Fast forward three centuries, and popcorn found its savior in Charles Cretors, a candy store owner. In 1885, Cretors invented the world's first steam-powered, mobile popcorn machine.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Our History|url=https://www.cretors.com/an-age-of-invention/|url-status=live}}</ref> This machine allowed precise control of temperature, ensuring every kernel popped into a crispy, flavorful treat. When combined with a butter-sugar mix, the result was the 2.0 version of popcorn: caramel popcorn with a rich, tawny glaze.<ref name=":5" />

In 1893, Cretors displayed his popcorn machine at the Chicago World's Fair. The enticing aroma attracted large crowds, and his caramel popcorn sold out completely. Following the fair, Scientific American magazine praised the machine, noting its portability and potential for high sales at various events, from picnics to fairs and political rallies.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Jan 16, 2024|title=World's First Mobile Popcorn Machine, world record in Chicago, Illinois|url=https://www.worldrecordacademy.org/2024/1/worlds-first-mobile-popcorn-machine-world-record-in-chicago-illinois-424125|url-status=live}}</ref>

This commercial prophecy quickly became a reality. The portable popcorn machine's advent meant that popcorn could be sold on every street corner. With its delightful aroma, popcorn rapidly became a roadside Stapley in the early 20th century around markets, circuses, dance halls, and other entertainment venues. popcorn stalls were ubiquitous, including outside cinemas.<ref name=":5" />

=== The Golden Age of Cinema Popcorn ===
In 1900s, cinemas were quite basic, often small converted theaters with a screen hung on the wall, a projector on the floor, and scattered chairs. Entry cost only a nickel, hence the nickname “nickelodeons.” For working-class Americans of the time, earning a mere $20 a week, this was an affordable entertainment option. People would bring popcorn, peanuts, and candy to watch movies. <ref>{{Cite web|title=How Popcorn Went From Banned to Saving Movies|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLbQ5sPrybU|url-status=live}}</ref>Cinema owners loved the steady stream of nickels, and with the high return on investment, a wave of nickelodeons spread across America. By 1906, there were a few hundred, but this number surged to nearly 10,000 by 1908.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Oct 11, 2023|title=Why is popcorn a movie snack: From Humble Origins to Hollywood Staple|url=https://alamocitypopcorn.com/blogs/blogs/why-is-popcorn-a-movie-snack|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn as An Iconic Movie Snack|url=https://seatup.com/blog/history-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The prosperity of nickelodeons boosted popcorn sales outside cinemas, only hinting at the long-lasting bond between popcorn and movie theaters. During World War II, due to sugar shortages, candy and chocolate, popcorn's competitors, became more expensive, skyrocketing popcorn's popularity. <ref name=":6" />Its sales tripled and it dominated concessions stands. By 1945, more than 50% of the popcorn consumed in the U.S. was eaten in cinemas.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=POPCORN {{!}} The History of the World's Most Popular Snack Food|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSu7arF9tqI|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cinemas, driven by huge profits, eagerly promoted their concession stands, even inserting ads before and during movies to urge viewers to buy snacks. The most famous of these was the 1957 ad, “Let’s All Go to the Lobby.”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kubincanek|first=Emily|date=June 20th, 2017|title=‘Let’s All Go to the Lobby’ Tells the History of the Movie Theater Experience|url=https://filmschoolrejects.com/lets-all-go-to-lobby-history/|url-status=live}}</ref>

For cinemas everywhere, popcorn remains timeless. The golden, affordable treat is an ever-present part of the movie-going experience.

=== Food Health and Crisis ===
PFOA and PFAS: in the late 1990s and early 2000s, concerns arose about PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), a substance used in the inner lining of microwave popcorn bags. Studies have linked prolonged exposure to PFOA to health issues such as cancer, thyroid disease, and developmental problems in children. PFOA, its salts and its precursors were added to Schedule 1 to CEPA 1999, also called the List of Toxic Substances by the government of Canada along with other preventive actions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), its salts, and its precursors - information sheet|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-glance/perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-salts-precursors-public-summary.html#6|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bacterial contamination is another concern, especially when popcorn is stored or treated improperly. For instance, in 2012, 700,000 bags of popcorn were recalled due to the potential risk of Listeria monocytogenes contamination from processing machines.<ref>{{Cite web|title=700,000 bags of popcorn pulled for listeria risk|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/700-000-bags-popcorn-pulled-listeria-risk-flna6240743|url-status=live}}</ref>

Popcorn lung is a severe and irreversible lung disease first identified among workers in microwave popcorn factories. The condition is caused by inhaling diacetyl, a chemical used to give microwave popcorn its buttery flavor, and is officially known as bronchiolitis obliterans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Everything You Need to Know About Popcorn Lung|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/popcorn-lung#What-is-popcorn-lung?|url-status=live}}</ref> While not specifically a consumption-related food health crisis, this issue led to a reevaluation of workplace safety regulations concerning artificial flavorings and prompted many manufacturers to replace diacetyl in their products.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Flavoring-related Lung Disease|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/flavoring-related-lung-disease/about/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Airway obstruction related to diacetyl exposure at microwave popcorn production facilities|url=https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/34/1/63|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn Lung Lawsuit|url=https://www.torhoermanlaw.com/diacetyl-popcorn-lung-lawsuit/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== '''Production''' ==

'''<big>Cultivation</big>'''

Timely planting is essential due to slow [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination germination] and seedling growth. Careful [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbed seedbed] preparation is necessary because the small seed size requires a clod-free seedbed with good tilth<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Ziegler|first=K. E.|last2=Ashman|first2=R. B.|last3=White|first3=G. M.|last4=Wysong|first4=D. S.|last5=Hanna|first5=M. A.|date=1989|title=Popcorn production and marketing|url=https://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Management/pdfs/NCH05_CR-2104web.pdf|journal=Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service}}</ref>. When planting, ensure coverage of the seed 1-2 inches deep in moist soil<ref name=":2" />. The harvesting operation aims to minimize kernel damage, and kernels must reach harvest maturity for maximum popping expansion<ref name=":2" />. Popcorn quality is optimally preserved if harvested at the correct moisture (16-17%) using a properly adjusted combine<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Snack foods|last=Serna-Saldivar|first=Sergio O.|publisher=CRC Press|year=2022|isbn=9781003129066|location=Boca Raton|pages=201-220}}</ref>. The harvested kernels are then cleaned and dried to lower the moisture content to around 13-13.5%<ref name=":1" />. Kernels must be dehydrated slowly to prevent the formation of stress cracks and fissures but fast enough to prevent [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold mould] development<ref name=":1" />.

'''<big>Storage</big>'''

Popcorn kernels must be free of microbial [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination contamination], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect insects], and rodent damage, and should have the best popping expansion. The optimum moisture content of the kernels should range from 11-14%<ref name=":1" />. Before storing, bins should be thoroughly cleaned to remove insects, dust, and other foreign material<ref name=":1" />. Additionally, storage cribs and bins should be rodent-proof, and the surrounding areas must be kept free of weeds and trash that could attract rodents. The use of approved [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticide rodenticides] can further prevent rodent infestations in storage facilities.

'''<big>Packaging</big>'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Popcorn bag in plastic|155x155px]]'''Kernels:'''

Popcorn kernels are often packaged in jars for easy storing and dispensing (image __). For microwave convenience, some kernels are packaged in paper bags wrapped in airtight plastic (Image 1), which are then placed in cardboard boxes containing multiple servings (Image 2). The boxes can provide an additional layer of protection, minimizing physical damage, contamination, and light exposure during storage and transportation.

'''Popped popcorn:'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Popcorn box|199x199px]]To preserve the freshness of commercially popped popcorn, airtight packaging and nitrogen flushing are key practices. Common packaging materials include plastic bags, metallized film, and foil pouches, which prevent exposure to air and keep the popcorn from becoming stale and chewy (Image 3). Nitrogen flushing replaces oxygen in the packaging with nitrogen to prevent oxidation and spoilage. This extends the shelf life and maintains the popcorn’s texture and flavour.

[[File:2020-07-19 11 22 31 A bag of Skinny Pop Popcorn in the Dulles section of Sterling, Loudoun County, Virginia.jpg|thumb|145x145px|Image 3: Popped popcorn ]]
'''<big>Popping Methods</big>'''

Today, the predominant popping method at home is the prepackaged bag in the microwave (Image 4). In commercial settings, the most common popping method is the wet-pop method, which uses oil to evenly distribute the heat. As the kernels heat up, the moisture turns to steam, building pressure until the hull bursts, transforming the kernel into fluffy popcorn<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Pop Science|url=https://www.cretors.com/resources/pop-science/|url-status=live}}</ref>. Alternatively, the dry-pop method employs dry heat without oil, using hot air or an open flame. Hot air circulates around the kernels, heating them evenly until the moisture turns to steam and the kernels pop<ref name=":4" />. For larger scale commercial production, batch poppers and continuous hot air poppers are used. Batch poppers feature a rotating wire drum with a fine mesh to support the kernels over a heat source, while continuous hot air poppers use a horizontal rotating perforated metal cylinder for efficient popping<ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb|165x165px|Image 4: Popcorn bag popped]]

== '''Chemical and Physical Properties''' ==
'''Carbohydrates:'''
[[File:Amylose2.svg|thumb|250x250px|Structure of amylose]]
Popcorn is primarily composed of carbohydrates as 77.8 g of every 100 g of air-popped popcorn are carbohydrates<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=April 1, 2019|title=Snacks, popcorn, air-popped|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/167959/nutrients|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=FoodData Central|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref>. Most of the carbohydrates in popcorn are in the form of complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) and the remaining are in the form of simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides.
[[File:Amylopectin from starch granule.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Amylopectin from a starch granule]]
Starch is a polysaccharide (polymer of glucose) and is crucial in the process of popcorn popping<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Judy|title=Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 02|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_02|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=UBC Wiki}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=August 15, 2023|title=From Kernel to Crunch: The Science Behind Perfectly Popping Corn|url=https://www.ontariopoppingcorn.com/blogs/news/from-kernel-to-crunch-the-science-behind-perfectly-popping-corn#:~:text=When%20the%20popcorn%20kernels%20are,its%20characteristic%20nutty%2C%20toasty%20taste.&text=Not%20all%20popcorn%20kernels%20are%20created%20equal|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=Uncle Bob's Popcorn}}</ref>. Inside the popcorn kernel, starch exists in granules made of two types: amylose and amylopectin<ref name=":10" />. Amylose is a linear chain starch molecule whereas amylopectin is a branched molecule<ref name=":9" />. When the two molecules are exposed to heat, they absorb water and swell as the water disrupts the bonds holding the starch together<ref name=":9" />. As a result, the granules rupture and become soft and pliable<ref name=":10" />. This process is known as gelatinization.
[[File:Popcorn up close salted and air popped.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Brown pigments on popcorn produced by the Maillard reaction ]]
Dietary fiber is another type of carbohydrate in popcorn that includes various forms of polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, which are indigestible to humans<ref name=":9" />. In particular, there is 14.5 g of total dietary fiber per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

Air-popped popcorn also contains small amounts of simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides). In air-popped popcorn, the monosaccharides present are glucose and fructose while the disaccharide sucrose, formed by the linkage of glucose and fructose, is also found<ref name=":8" />. Specifically in air-popped popcorn, there are 0.07 g of glucose and fructose each and 0.72 g of sucrose per 100 g of popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

'''Proteins:'''

Proteins mainly contribute to the flavour and colour of popcorn through the Maillard browning reaction<ref name=":10" />. The production of brown pigments and the toasty flavour of popcorn is due to the Maillard reaction where reducing sugars react with proteins as the popcorn kernels are heated.

'''Aroma Constituents:'''

Volatile constituents generally exist in low concentrations in foods, but play a major role in determining their aroma<ref name=":9" />. The volatile compound 2-acetylpyridine is found to enhance the overall aroma quality of popcorn<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Donkeun|last2=Maga|first2=Joseph. A.|date=March 12, 2013|title=Identification of key volatiles responsible for odour quality differences in popped popcorn of selected hybrids|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.08.019|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=99|issue=3|pages=538-545|doi=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Several additional compounds have been recognized as contributors to popcorn aroma and flavour such as pyrazines, furans, pyrroles, carbonyls, and substituted phenols<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sweley|first=Jess C.|last2=Rose|first2=Devin J.|last3=Jackson|first3=David S.|date=March 13, 2013|title=Quality Traits and Popping Performance Considerations for Popcorn (Zea mays Everta)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.714435|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=29|issue=2|pages=157-177|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>.

== '''Health Benefits and Risks''' ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nutritional Information for Various Types of Popcorn
|-
! Food Name
! Measure
! Weight (g)
! Energy (kcal)
! Protein (g)
! Carbohydrate (g)
! Total Sugar (g)
! Total Dietary Fibre (g)
! Total Fat (g)
! Saturated Fat (g)
! Calcium (mg)
! Iron (mg)
! Sodium (mg)
! Potassium (mg)
! Magnesium (mg)
! Phosphorus (mg)
! Vitamin A (RAE)
! Folate (DFE)
|-
| Air-popped || 250mL || 8 || 32 || 1 || 7 || tr || 1.3 || tr || tr || 1 || 0.2 || tr || 25 || 11 || 25 || 1 || 2
|-
| Microwave, low fat and reduced salt || 250mL || 8 || 34 || 1 || 6 || tr || 1.1 || 1 || 0.1 || 1 || 0.2 || 39 || 19 || 12 || 21 || tr || 1
|-
| Oil-popped, regular and microwaved || 250mL || 12 || 58 || 1 || 7 || tr || 1.2 || 3 || 0.6 || 1 || 0.3 || 103 || 26 || 13 || 29 || 1 || 2
|}

Got this table from Canada website <ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/pdf/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/nvscf-vnqau-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Health Benefits of Air-popped popcorn:'''

Popcorn contains polyphenols an antioxidant that protects cells from damage<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646597/|url-status=live}}</ref>. These antioxidants can enhance blood circulation, support digestive health, and lower the chances of developing conditions like high blood pressure and diabetes. Additionally, they might reduce the risk of cancers, including prostate and breast cancer<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfbc.14264|url-status=live}}</ref>.

As mentioned above, popcorn's nutrition profile is that its rich in dietary fibre. This helps lower the risk of heart disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23803885/}}</ref>.

With its high fibre content, low calories, and low energy density, popcorn can aid in weight loss by promoting feelings of fullness. A study compared feelings of fullness after eating popcorn and potato chips. They found that 15 calories of popcorn were as filling as 150 calories of potato chips <ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22978828/|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Risks of eating Microwave popcorn:'''

Microwave popcorn often has high levels of saturated fat, especially when it comes with buttery flavors that many people enjoy<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.verywellhealth.com/microwave-popcorn-and-cancer-5085309|url-status=live}}</ref>. For example, Orville Redenbacher's Butter Microwave Popcorn has 6 grams of saturated fat per serving, which is 30% of the recommended daily limit. The high saturated fat content in such popcorn is mainly due to the use of palm oil<ref name=":0" />. Studies have shown that palm oil increases LDL cholesterol, which is linked to a higher risk of heart disease and stroke<ref name=":0" />.

In addition to saturated fat, buttery microwave popcorn also tends to be high in sodium<ref name=":0" />. Jolly Time Blast O' Butter popcorn, for instance, contains 340 mg of sodium per serving. Consuming large amounts, like a big tub of movie theater popcorn, can result in an intake of 1,090 calories and 2,650 mg of sodium<ref name=":0" />. High sodium intake can raise blood pressure by causing the body to retain water, which increases blood volume and, subsequently, blood pressure<ref name=":0" />. Over time, this can lead to hardened and narrowed arteries, heightening the risk of heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease<ref name=":0" />.

== '''Regulations''' ==
Based on the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations under the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the general labelling requirements for pre-packaged popcorn, like other pre-packaged foods, include the following:

* Bilingual labelling

* Common name
* Country of origin
* Date markings and storage instructions
* Name and principal place of business
* Legibility and location
* List of ingredients and allergens
* Net quantity
* Nutrition labelling

Additional labelling requirements may be specific to certain types of popcorn, such as those with sweeteners and additives<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=March 18, 2024|title=Retail Foods|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/retail-foods#c14|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>.

All information about popcorn advertised in any form of media is mandated by the CFIA to be truthful and accurate. The CFIA reviews all advertisements to ensure compliance with these standards<ref name=":11" />.

== '''Potential Exam Question''' ==
What is the primary benefit of choosing air-popped popcorn over microwave popcorn with added flavors?

A) Increased protein content

B) Higher levels of sugar

C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

D) More sodium

Correct answer: C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

This question is a good exam question because it tests students' understanding of the impact of food preparation methods on nutritional value.

It emphasizes the importance of making healthier food choices by understanding how different preparation methods can affect the nutritional content of foods. Knowing that air-popped popcorn is lower in calories and fat compared to flavoured microwave popcorn can help students make better dietary decisions.this question also hight lights how additives like butter, sugar, and salt can significantly alter the health benefits of a food.

== '''References''' ==

Course:FNH200/Projects/2024/Popcorn

2024-08-06T19:39:11Z

LeanneSu: /* Chemical and Physical Properties? */

This is a blank page for you to document and present your research project for FNH 200.

In addition to the traditional introduction, body of research, and references, don't forget to include a fact that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the question, correct answers, distractors, as well as a quick explanation why your fellow students should know about this.

Your team reflection, one submission per team, should be submitted on Canvas.

== '''Introduction''' ==
Popcorn is a unique variety of corn kernel that puffs up when heated<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>, and it is one of the world's healthiest and most popular snack foods. As a whole grain, popcorn is packed with essential nutrients and offers numerous health benefits<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. By volume, popcorn is the most popular snack food in America. Around 14 billion quarts of popcorn are consumed by Americans a long every year[7].

From a nutritional standpoint, popcorn is a powerhouse. Whole grains are an important part of a balanced diet because they provide essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Popcorn, being a whole grain, is rich in antioxidants and provides a healthy amount of fiber, promoting digestion and heart health<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. However, popcorn can sometimes be prepared with excessive amounts of fat, sugar, and salt, leading to overeating<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. Therefore, it is crucial to prepare popcorn properly. It can be either very healthy or quite unhealthy, depending on the preparation method.

== '''History''' ==

=== Once upon a corn ===
In 1519, the Imperial agent Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico. What he first encountered there wasn’t the legendary gold, but golden corn.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An introduction to Hernándo Cortés: Five Letters 1519-1526|url=https://www.enotes.com/topics/hernan-cortes/criticism/criticism/j-bayard-morris-essay-date-1928|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 16th century, corn hadn’t undergone modern breeding, so it was often a hard, spiky variety that wasn’t easy to eat or digest. Consequently, the Aztecs had two main ways of processing corn: one was grinding it into flour to make tortillas and porridge, and the other was roasting it over a fire until it popped, creating an early form of popcorn.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|date=26 February 2014|title=Aztec Civilization|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Aztec_Civilization/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:8-7mtH7r7ezew2Nk3.png|thumb|200x200px|popcorn on the cob]]
This early popcorn, with its snowy white appearance, was not only a common food but also offered by local fishermen to the water god Tlaloc, resembling hailstones.<ref name=":3" /> However, due to the corn's low oil and sugar content and the challenge of preventing a burnt taste, popcorn did not become a widespread delicacy at that time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=The History of Popcorn: How One Grain Became a Staple Snack|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/popcorn-history-movie-theaters|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern Popcorn Machine ===
Fast forward three centuries, and popcorn found its savior in Charles Cretors, a candy store owner. In 1885, Cretors invented the world's first steam-powered, mobile popcorn machine.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Our History|url=https://www.cretors.com/an-age-of-invention/|url-status=live}}</ref> This machine allowed precise control of temperature, ensuring every kernel popped into a crispy, flavorful treat. When combined with a butter-sugar mix, the result was the 2.0 version of popcorn: caramel popcorn with a rich, tawny glaze.<ref name=":5" />

In 1893, Cretors displayed his popcorn machine at the Chicago World's Fair. The enticing aroma attracted large crowds, and his caramel popcorn sold out completely. Following the fair, Scientific American magazine praised the machine, noting its portability and potential for high sales at various events, from picnics to fairs and political rallies.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Jan 16, 2024|title=World's First Mobile Popcorn Machine, world record in Chicago, Illinois|url=https://www.worldrecordacademy.org/2024/1/worlds-first-mobile-popcorn-machine-world-record-in-chicago-illinois-424125|url-status=live}}</ref>

This commercial prophecy quickly became a reality. The portable popcorn machine's advent meant that popcorn could be sold on every street corner. With its delightful aroma, popcorn rapidly became a roadside Stapley in the early 20th century around markets, circuses, dance halls, and other entertainment venues. popcorn stalls were ubiquitous, including outside cinemas.<ref name=":5" />

=== The Golden Age of Cinema Popcorn ===
In 1900s, cinemas were quite basic, often small converted theaters with a screen hung on the wall, a projector on the floor, and scattered chairs. Entry cost only a nickel, hence the nickname “nickelodeons.” For working-class Americans of the time, earning a mere $20 a week, this was an affordable entertainment option. People would bring popcorn, peanuts, and candy to watch movies. <ref>{{Cite web|title=How Popcorn Went From Banned to Saving Movies|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLbQ5sPrybU|url-status=live}}</ref>Cinema owners loved the steady stream of nickels, and with the high return on investment, a wave of nickelodeons spread across America. By 1906, there were a few hundred, but this number surged to nearly 10,000 by 1908.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Oct 11, 2023|title=Why is popcorn a movie snack: From Humble Origins to Hollywood Staple|url=https://alamocitypopcorn.com/blogs/blogs/why-is-popcorn-a-movie-snack|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn as An Iconic Movie Snack|url=https://seatup.com/blog/history-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The prosperity of nickelodeons boosted popcorn sales outside cinemas, only hinting at the long-lasting bond between popcorn and movie theaters. During World War II, due to sugar shortages, candy and chocolate, popcorn's competitors, became more expensive, skyrocketing popcorn's popularity. <ref name=":6" />Its sales tripled and it dominated concessions stands. By 1945, more than 50% of the popcorn consumed in the U.S. was eaten in cinemas.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=POPCORN {{!}} The History of the World's Most Popular Snack Food|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSu7arF9tqI|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cinemas, driven by huge profits, eagerly promoted their concession stands, even inserting ads before and during movies to urge viewers to buy snacks. The most famous of these was the 1957 ad, “Let’s All Go to the Lobby.”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kubincanek|first=Emily|date=June 20th, 2017|title=‘Let’s All Go to the Lobby’ Tells the History of the Movie Theater Experience|url=https://filmschoolrejects.com/lets-all-go-to-lobby-history/|url-status=live}}</ref>

For cinemas everywhere, popcorn remains timeless. The golden, affordable treat is an ever-present part of the movie-going experience.

=== Food Health and Crisis ===
PFOA and PFAS: in the late 1990s and early 2000s, concerns arose about PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), a substance used in the inner lining of microwave popcorn bags. Studies have linked prolonged exposure to PFOA to health issues such as cancer, thyroid disease, and developmental problems in children. PFOA, its salts and its precursors were added to Schedule 1 to CEPA 1999, also called the List of Toxic Substances by the government of Canada along with other preventive actions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), its salts, and its precursors - information sheet|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-glance/perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-salts-precursors-public-summary.html#6|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bacterial contamination is another concern, especially when popcorn is stored or treated improperly. For instance, in 2012, 700,000 bags of popcorn were recalled due to the potential risk of Listeria monocytogenes contamination from processing machines.<ref>{{Cite web|title=700,000 bags of popcorn pulled for listeria risk|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/700-000-bags-popcorn-pulled-listeria-risk-flna6240743|url-status=live}}</ref>

Popcorn lung is a severe and irreversible lung disease first identified among workers in microwave popcorn factories. The condition is caused by inhaling diacetyl, a chemical used to give microwave popcorn its buttery flavor, and is officially known as bronchiolitis obliterans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Everything You Need to Know About Popcorn Lung|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/popcorn-lung#What-is-popcorn-lung?|url-status=live}}</ref> While not specifically a consumption-related food health crisis, this issue led to a reevaluation of workplace safety regulations concerning artificial flavorings and prompted many manufacturers to replace diacetyl in their products.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Flavoring-related Lung Disease|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/flavoring-related-lung-disease/about/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Airway obstruction related to diacetyl exposure at microwave popcorn production facilities|url=https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/34/1/63|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn Lung Lawsuit|url=https://www.torhoermanlaw.com/diacetyl-popcorn-lung-lawsuit/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== '''Production''' ==

'''<big>Cultivation</big>'''

Timely planting is essential due to slow [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination germination] and seedling growth. Careful [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbed seedbed] preparation is necessary because the small seed size requires a clod-free seedbed with good tilth<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Ziegler|first=K. E.|last2=Ashman|first2=R. B.|last3=White|first3=G. M.|last4=Wysong|first4=D. S.|last5=Hanna|first5=M. A.|date=1989|title=Popcorn production and marketing|url=https://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Management/pdfs/NCH05_CR-2104web.pdf|journal=Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service}}</ref>. When planting, ensure coverage of the seed 1-2 inches deep in moist soil<ref name=":2" />. The harvesting operation aims to minimize kernel damage, and kernels must reach harvest maturity for maximum popping expansion<ref name=":2" />. Popcorn quality is optimally preserved if harvested at the correct moisture (16-17%) using a properly adjusted combine<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Snack foods|last=Serna-Saldivar|first=Sergio O.|publisher=CRC Press|year=2022|isbn=9781003129066|location=Boca Raton|pages=201-220}}</ref>. The harvested kernels are then cleaned and dried to lower the moisture content to around 13-13.5%<ref name=":1" />. Kernels must be dehydrated slowly to prevent the formation of stress cracks and fissures but fast enough to prevent [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold mould] development<ref name=":1" />.

'''<big>Storage</big>'''

Popcorn kernels must be free of microbial [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination contamination], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect insects], and rodent damage, and should have the best popping expansion. The optimum moisture content of the kernels should range from 11-14%<ref name=":1" />. Before storing, bins should be thoroughly cleaned to remove insects, dust, and other foreign material<ref name=":1" />. Additionally, storage cribs and bins should be rodent-proof, and the surrounding areas must be kept free of weeds and trash that could attract rodents. The use of approved [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticide rodenticides] can further prevent rodent infestations in storage facilities.

'''<big>Packaging</big>'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Popcorn bag in plastic|155x155px]]'''Kernels:'''

Popcorn kernels are often packaged in jars for easy storing and dispensing (image __). For microwave convenience, some kernels are packaged in paper bags wrapped in airtight plastic (Image 1), which are then placed in cardboard boxes containing multiple servings (Image 2). The boxes can provide an additional layer of protection, minimizing physical damage, contamination, and light exposure during storage and transportation.

'''Popped popcorn:'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Popcorn box|199x199px]]To preserve the freshness of commercially popped popcorn, airtight packaging and nitrogen flushing are key practices. Common packaging materials include plastic bags, metallized film, and foil pouches, which prevent exposure to air and keep the popcorn from becoming stale and chewy (Image 3). Nitrogen flushing replaces oxygen in the packaging with nitrogen to prevent oxidation and spoilage. This extends the shelf life and maintains the popcorn’s texture and flavour.

[[File:2020-07-19 11 22 31 A bag of Skinny Pop Popcorn in the Dulles section of Sterling, Loudoun County, Virginia.jpg|thumb|145x145px|Image 3: Popped popcorn ]]
'''<big>Popping Methods</big>'''
[[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb|165x165px|Image 4: Popcorn bag popped]]
Today, the predominant popping method at home is the prepackaged bag in the microwave (Image 4). In commercial settings, the most common popping method is the wet-pop method, which uses oil to evenly distribute the heat. As the kernels heat up, the moisture turns to steam, building pressure until the hull bursts, transforming the kernel into fluffy popcorn<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Pop Science|url=https://www.cretors.com/resources/pop-science/|url-status=live}}</ref>. Alternatively, the dry-pop method employs dry heat without oil, using hot air or an open flame. Hot air circulates around the kernels, heating them evenly until the moisture turns to steam and the kernels pop<ref name=":4" />. For larger scale commercial production, batch poppers and continuous hot air poppers are used. Batch poppers feature a rotating wire drum with a fine mesh to support the kernels over a heat source, while continuous hot air poppers use a horizontal rotating perforated metal cylinder for efficient popping<ref name=":4" />.

== '''Chemical and Physical Properties''' ==
'''Carbohydrates:'''

Popcorn is primarily composed of carbohydrates as 77.8 g of every 100 g of air-popped popcorn are carbohydrates<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=April 1, 2019|title=Snacks, popcorn, air-popped|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/167959/nutrients|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=FoodData Central|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref>. Most of the carbohydrates in popcorn are in the form of complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) and the remaining are in the form of simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides.

Starch is a polysaccharide (polymer of glucose) and is crucial in the process of popcorn popping<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Judy|title=Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 02|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_02|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=UBC Wiki}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=August 15, 2023|title=From Kernel to Crunch: The Science Behind Perfectly Popping Corn|url=https://www.ontariopoppingcorn.com/blogs/news/from-kernel-to-crunch-the-science-behind-perfectly-popping-corn#:~:text=When%20the%20popcorn%20kernels%20are,its%20characteristic%20nutty%2C%20toasty%20taste.&text=Not%20all%20popcorn%20kernels%20are%20created%20equal|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=Uncle Bob's Popcorn}}</ref>. Inside the popcorn kernel, starch exists in granules made of two types: amylose and amylopectin<ref name=":10" />. Amylose is a linear chain starch molecule whereas amylopectin is a branched molecule<ref name=":9" />. When the two molecules are exposed to heat, they absorb water and swell as the water disrupts the bonds holding the starch together<ref name=":9" />. As a result, the granules rupture and become soft and pliable<ref name=":10" />. This process is known as gelatinization.

Dietary fiber is another type of carbohydrate in popcorn that includes various forms of polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, which are indigestible to humans<ref name=":9" />. In particular, there is 14.5 g of total dietary fiber per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

Air-popped popcorn also contains small amounts of simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides). In air-popped popcorn, the monosaccharides present are glucose and fructose while the disaccharide sucrose, formed by the linkage of glucose and fructose, is also found<ref name=":8" />. Specifically in air-popped popcorn, there are 0.07 g of glucose and fructose each and 0.72 g of sucrose per 100 g of popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

'''Proteins:'''

Proteins mainly contribute to the flavour and colour of popcorn through the Maillard browning reaction<ref name=":10" />. The production of brown pigments and the toasty flavour of popcorn is due to the Maillard reaction where reducing sugars react with proteins as the popcorn kernels are heated.

'''Aroma Constituents:'''

Volatile constituents generally exist in low concentrations in foods, but play a major role in determining their aroma<ref name=":9" />. The volatile compound 2-acetylpyridine is found to enhance the overall aroma quality of popcorn<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Donkeun|last2=Maga|first2=Joseph. A.|date=March 12, 2013|title=Identification of key volatiles responsible for odour quality differences in popped popcorn of selected hybrids|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.08.019|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=99|issue=3|pages=538-545|doi=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Several additional compounds have been recognized as contributors to popcorn aroma and flavour such as pyrazines, furans, pyrroles, carbonyls, and substituted phenols<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sweley|first=Jess C.|last2=Rose|first2=Devin J.|last3=Jackson|first3=David S.|date=March 13, 2013|title=Quality Traits and Popping Performance Considerations for Popcorn (Zea mays Everta)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.714435|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=29|issue=2|pages=157-177|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>.

== '''Health Benefits and Risks''' ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nutritional Information for Various Types of Popcorn
|-
! Food Name
! Measure
! Weight (g)
! Energy (kcal)
! Protein (g)
! Carbohydrate (g)
! Total Sugar (g)
! Total Dietary Fibre (g)
! Total Fat (g)
! Saturated Fat (g)
! Calcium (mg)
! Iron (mg)
! Sodium (mg)
! Potassium (mg)
! Magnesium (mg)
! Phosphorus (mg)
! Vitamin A (RAE)
! Folate (DFE)
|-
| Air-popped || 250mL || 8 || 32 || 1 || 7 || tr || 1.3 || tr || tr || 1 || 0.2 || tr || 25 || 11 || 25 || 1 || 2
|-
| Microwave, low fat and reduced salt || 250mL || 8 || 34 || 1 || 6 || tr || 1.1 || 1 || 0.1 || 1 || 0.2 || 39 || 19 || 12 || 21 || tr || 1
|-
| Oil-popped, regular and microwaved || 250mL || 12 || 58 || 1 || 7 || tr || 1.2 || 3 || 0.6 || 1 || 0.3 || 103 || 26 || 13 || 29 || 1 || 2
|}

Got this table from Canada website <ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/pdf/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/nvscf-vnqau-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Health Benefits of Air-popped popcorn:'''

Popcorn contains polyphenols an antioxidant that protects cells from damage<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646597/|url-status=live}}</ref>. These antioxidants can enhance blood circulation, support digestive health, and lower the chances of developing conditions like high blood pressure and diabetes. Additionally, they might reduce the risk of cancers, including prostate and breast cancer<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfbc.14264|url-status=live}}</ref>.

As mentioned above, popcorn's nutrition profile is that its rich in dietary fibre. This helps lower the risk of heart disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23803885/}}</ref>.

With its high fibre content, low calories, and low energy density, popcorn can aid in weight loss by promoting feelings of fullness. A study compared feelings of fullness after eating popcorn and potato chips. They found that 15 calories of popcorn were as filling as 150 calories of potato chips <ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22978828/|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Risks of eating Microwave popcorn:'''

Microwave popcorn often has high levels of saturated fat, especially when it comes with buttery flavors that many people enjoy<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.verywellhealth.com/microwave-popcorn-and-cancer-5085309|url-status=live}}</ref>. For example, Orville Redenbacher's Butter Microwave Popcorn has 6 grams of saturated fat per serving, which is 30% of the recommended daily limit. The high saturated fat content in such popcorn is mainly due to the use of palm oil<ref name=":0" />. Studies have shown that palm oil increases LDL cholesterol, which is linked to a higher risk of heart disease and stroke<ref name=":0" />.

In addition to saturated fat, buttery microwave popcorn also tends to be high in sodium<ref name=":0" />. Jolly Time Blast O' Butter popcorn, for instance, contains 340 mg of sodium per serving. Consuming large amounts, like a big tub of movie theater popcorn, can result in an intake of 1,090 calories and 2,650 mg of sodium<ref name=":0" />. High sodium intake can raise blood pressure by causing the body to retain water, which increases blood volume and, subsequently, blood pressure<ref name=":0" />. Over time, this can lead to hardened and narrowed arteries, heightening the risk of heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease<ref name=":0" />.

== '''Regulations''' ==
Based on the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations under the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the general labelling requirements for pre-packaged popcorn, like other pre-packaged foods, include the following:

* Bilingual labelling

* Common name
* Country of origin
* Date markings and storage instructions
* Name and principal place of business
* Legibility and location
* List of ingredients and allergens
* Net quantity
* Nutrition labelling

Additional labelling requirements may be specific to certain types of popcorn, such as those with sweeteners and additives<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=March 18, 2024|title=Retail Foods|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/retail-foods#c14|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>.

All information about popcorn advertised in any form of media is mandated by the CFIA to be truthful and accurate. The CFIA reviews all advertisements to ensure compliance with these standards<ref name=":11" />.

== '''Trends?''' ==
...

== '''Potential Exam Questions''' ==
What is the primary benefit of choosing air-popped popcorn over microwave popcorn with added flavors?

A) Increased protein content

B) Higher levels of sugar

C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

D) More sodium

Correct answer: C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

This question is a good exam question because it tests students' understanding of the impact of food preparation methods on nutritional value.

It emphasizes the importance of making healthier food choices by understanding how different preparation methods can affect the nutritional content of foods. Knowing that air-popped popcorn is lower in calories and fat compared to flavoured microwave popcorn can help students make better dietary decisions.this question also hight lights how additives like butter, sugar, and salt can significantly alter the health benefits of a food.

== '''References''' ==

Course:FNH200/Projects/2024/Popcorn

2024-08-06T19:38:48Z

LeanneSu: added Chemical and Physical Properties + Regulations

This is a blank page for you to document and present your research project for FNH 200.

In addition to the traditional introduction, body of research, and references, don't forget to include a fact that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the question, correct answers, distractors, as well as a quick explanation why your fellow students should know about this.

Your team reflection, one submission per team, should be submitted on Canvas.

== '''Introduction''' ==
Popcorn is a unique variety of corn kernel that puffs up when heated<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>, and it is one of the world's healthiest and most popular snack foods. As a whole grain, popcorn is packed with essential nutrients and offers numerous health benefits<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. By volume, popcorn is the most popular snack food in America. Around 14 billion quarts of popcorn are consumed by Americans a long every year[7].

From a nutritional standpoint, popcorn is a powerhouse. Whole grains are an important part of a balanced diet because they provide essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Popcorn, being a whole grain, is rich in antioxidants and provides a healthy amount of fiber, promoting digestion and heart health<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Science of Popcorn|url=https://knowledge.carolina.com/discipline/physical-science/the-science-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>. However, popcorn can sometimes be prepared with excessive amounts of fat, sugar, and salt, leading to overeating<ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>. Therefore, it is crucial to prepare popcorn properly. It can be either very healthy or quite unhealthy, depending on the preparation method.

== '''History''' ==

=== Once upon a corn ===
In 1519, the Imperial agent Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico. What he first encountered there wasn’t the legendary gold, but golden corn.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An introduction to Hernándo Cortés: Five Letters 1519-1526|url=https://www.enotes.com/topics/hernan-cortes/criticism/criticism/j-bayard-morris-essay-date-1928|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 16th century, corn hadn’t undergone modern breeding, so it was often a hard, spiky variety that wasn’t easy to eat or digest. Consequently, the Aztecs had two main ways of processing corn: one was grinding it into flour to make tortillas and porridge, and the other was roasting it over a fire until it popped, creating an early form of popcorn.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|date=26 February 2014|title=Aztec Civilization|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Aztec_Civilization/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn|url=https://www.popcorn.org/All-About-Popcorn/History-of-Popcorn|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:8-7mtH7r7ezew2Nk3.png|thumb|200x200px|popcorn on the cob]]
This early popcorn, with its snowy white appearance, was not only a common food but also offered by local fishermen to the water god Tlaloc, resembling hailstones.<ref name=":3" /> However, due to the corn's low oil and sugar content and the challenge of preventing a burnt taste, popcorn did not become a widespread delicacy at that time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=The History of Popcorn: How One Grain Became a Staple Snack|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/popcorn-history-movie-theaters|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern Popcorn Machine ===
Fast forward three centuries, and popcorn found its savior in Charles Cretors, a candy store owner. In 1885, Cretors invented the world's first steam-powered, mobile popcorn machine.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Our History|url=https://www.cretors.com/an-age-of-invention/|url-status=live}}</ref> This machine allowed precise control of temperature, ensuring every kernel popped into a crispy, flavorful treat. When combined with a butter-sugar mix, the result was the 2.0 version of popcorn: caramel popcorn with a rich, tawny glaze.<ref name=":5" />

In 1893, Cretors displayed his popcorn machine at the Chicago World's Fair. The enticing aroma attracted large crowds, and his caramel popcorn sold out completely. Following the fair, Scientific American magazine praised the machine, noting its portability and potential for high sales at various events, from picnics to fairs and political rallies.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Jan 16, 2024|title=World's First Mobile Popcorn Machine, world record in Chicago, Illinois|url=https://www.worldrecordacademy.org/2024/1/worlds-first-mobile-popcorn-machine-world-record-in-chicago-illinois-424125|url-status=live}}</ref>

This commercial prophecy quickly became a reality. The portable popcorn machine's advent meant that popcorn could be sold on every street corner. With its delightful aroma, popcorn rapidly became a roadside Stapley in the early 20th century around markets, circuses, dance halls, and other entertainment venues. popcorn stalls were ubiquitous, including outside cinemas.<ref name=":5" />

=== The Golden Age of Cinema Popcorn ===
In 1900s, cinemas were quite basic, often small converted theaters with a screen hung on the wall, a projector on the floor, and scattered chairs. Entry cost only a nickel, hence the nickname “nickelodeons.” For working-class Americans of the time, earning a mere $20 a week, this was an affordable entertainment option. People would bring popcorn, peanuts, and candy to watch movies. <ref>{{Cite web|title=How Popcorn Went From Banned to Saving Movies|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLbQ5sPrybU|url-status=live}}</ref>Cinema owners loved the steady stream of nickels, and with the high return on investment, a wave of nickelodeons spread across America. By 1906, there were a few hundred, but this number surged to nearly 10,000 by 1908.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Oct 11, 2023|title=Why is popcorn a movie snack: From Humble Origins to Hollywood Staple|url=https://alamocitypopcorn.com/blogs/blogs/why-is-popcorn-a-movie-snack|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=History of Popcorn as An Iconic Movie Snack|url=https://seatup.com/blog/history-of-popcorn/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The prosperity of nickelodeons boosted popcorn sales outside cinemas, only hinting at the long-lasting bond between popcorn and movie theaters. During World War II, due to sugar shortages, candy and chocolate, popcorn's competitors, became more expensive, skyrocketing popcorn's popularity. <ref name=":6" />Its sales tripled and it dominated concessions stands. By 1945, more than 50% of the popcorn consumed in the U.S. was eaten in cinemas.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=POPCORN {{!}} The History of the World's Most Popular Snack Food|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSu7arF9tqI|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cinemas, driven by huge profits, eagerly promoted their concession stands, even inserting ads before and during movies to urge viewers to buy snacks. The most famous of these was the 1957 ad, “Let’s All Go to the Lobby.”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kubincanek|first=Emily|date=June 20th, 2017|title=‘Let’s All Go to the Lobby’ Tells the History of the Movie Theater Experience|url=https://filmschoolrejects.com/lets-all-go-to-lobby-history/|url-status=live}}</ref>

For cinemas everywhere, popcorn remains timeless. The golden, affordable treat is an ever-present part of the movie-going experience.

=== Food Health and Crisis ===
PFOA and PFAS: in the late 1990s and early 2000s, concerns arose about PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), a substance used in the inner lining of microwave popcorn bags. Studies have linked prolonged exposure to PFOA to health issues such as cancer, thyroid disease, and developmental problems in children. PFOA, its salts and its precursors were added to Schedule 1 to CEPA 1999, also called the List of Toxic Substances by the government of Canada along with other preventive actions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), its salts, and its precursors - information sheet|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-glance/perfluorooctanoic-acid-pfoa-salts-precursors-public-summary.html#6|url-status=live}}</ref>

Bacterial contamination is another concern, especially when popcorn is stored or treated improperly. For instance, in 2012, 700,000 bags of popcorn were recalled due to the potential risk of Listeria monocytogenes contamination from processing machines.<ref>{{Cite web|title=700,000 bags of popcorn pulled for listeria risk|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/700-000-bags-popcorn-pulled-listeria-risk-flna6240743|url-status=live}}</ref>

Popcorn lung is a severe and irreversible lung disease first identified among workers in microwave popcorn factories. The condition is caused by inhaling diacetyl, a chemical used to give microwave popcorn its buttery flavor, and is officially known as bronchiolitis obliterans.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Everything You Need to Know About Popcorn Lung|url=https://www.healthline.com/health/popcorn-lung#What-is-popcorn-lung?|url-status=live}}</ref> While not specifically a consumption-related food health crisis, this issue led to a reevaluation of workplace safety regulations concerning artificial flavorings and prompted many manufacturers to replace diacetyl in their products.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Flavoring-related Lung Disease|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/flavoring-related-lung-disease/about/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Airway obstruction related to diacetyl exposure at microwave popcorn production facilities|url=https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/34/1/63|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Popcorn Lung Lawsuit|url=https://www.torhoermanlaw.com/diacetyl-popcorn-lung-lawsuit/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== '''Production''' ==

'''<big>Cultivation</big>'''

Timely planting is essential due to slow [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination germination] and seedling growth. Careful [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbed seedbed] preparation is necessary because the small seed size requires a clod-free seedbed with good tilth<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Ziegler|first=K. E.|last2=Ashman|first2=R. B.|last3=White|first3=G. M.|last4=Wysong|first4=D. S.|last5=Hanna|first5=M. A.|date=1989|title=Popcorn production and marketing|url=https://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Management/pdfs/NCH05_CR-2104web.pdf|journal=Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service}}</ref>. When planting, ensure coverage of the seed 1-2 inches deep in moist soil<ref name=":2" />. The harvesting operation aims to minimize kernel damage, and kernels must reach harvest maturity for maximum popping expansion<ref name=":2" />. Popcorn quality is optimally preserved if harvested at the correct moisture (16-17%) using a properly adjusted combine<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Snack foods|last=Serna-Saldivar|first=Sergio O.|publisher=CRC Press|year=2022|isbn=9781003129066|location=Boca Raton|pages=201-220}}</ref>. The harvested kernels are then cleaned and dried to lower the moisture content to around 13-13.5%<ref name=":1" />. Kernels must be dehydrated slowly to prevent the formation of stress cracks and fissures but fast enough to prevent [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold mould] development<ref name=":1" />.

'''<big>Storage</big>'''

Popcorn kernels must be free of microbial [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination contamination], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect insects], and rodent damage, and should have the best popping expansion. The optimum moisture content of the kernels should range from 11-14%<ref name=":1" />. Before storing, bins should be thoroughly cleaned to remove insects, dust, and other foreign material<ref name=":1" />. Additionally, storage cribs and bins should be rodent-proof, and the surrounding areas must be kept free of weeds and trash that could attract rodents. The use of approved [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticide rodenticides] can further prevent rodent infestations in storage facilities.

'''<big>Packaging</big>'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 5.07.57 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Popcorn bag in plastic|155x155px]]'''Kernels:'''

Popcorn kernels are often packaged in jars for easy storing and dispensing (image __). For microwave convenience, some kernels are packaged in paper bags wrapped in airtight plastic (Image 1), which are then placed in cardboard boxes containing multiple servings (Image 2). The boxes can provide an additional layer of protection, minimizing physical damage, contamination, and light exposure during storage and transportation.

'''Popped popcorn:'''[[File:Screenshot 2024-08-05 at 4.05.10 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Popcorn box|199x199px]]To preserve the freshness of commercially popped popcorn, airtight packaging and nitrogen flushing are key practices. Common packaging materials include plastic bags, metallized film, and foil pouches, which prevent exposure to air and keep the popcorn from becoming stale and chewy (Image 3). Nitrogen flushing replaces oxygen in the packaging with nitrogen to prevent oxidation and spoilage. This extends the shelf life and maintains the popcorn’s texture and flavour.

[[File:2020-07-19 11 22 31 A bag of Skinny Pop Popcorn in the Dulles section of Sterling, Loudoun County, Virginia.jpg|thumb|145x145px|Image 3: Popped popcorn ]]
'''<big>Popping Methods</big>'''
[[File:Microwave popcorn ACT II.jpg|thumb|165x165px|Image 4: Popcorn bag popped]]
Today, the predominant popping method at home is the prepackaged bag in the microwave (Image 4). In commercial settings, the most common popping method is the wet-pop method, which uses oil to evenly distribute the heat. As the kernels heat up, the moisture turns to steam, building pressure until the hull bursts, transforming the kernel into fluffy popcorn<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Pop Science|url=https://www.cretors.com/resources/pop-science/|url-status=live}}</ref>. Alternatively, the dry-pop method employs dry heat without oil, using hot air or an open flame. Hot air circulates around the kernels, heating them evenly until the moisture turns to steam and the kernels pop<ref name=":4" />. For larger scale commercial production, batch poppers and continuous hot air poppers are used. Batch poppers feature a rotating wire drum with a fine mesh to support the kernels over a heat source, while continuous hot air poppers use a horizontal rotating perforated metal cylinder for efficient popping<ref name=":4" />.

== '''Chemical and Physical Properties?''' ==
'''Carbohydrates:'''

Popcorn is primarily composed of carbohydrates as 77.8 g of every 100 g of air-popped popcorn are carbohydrates<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=April 1, 2019|title=Snacks, popcorn, air-popped|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/167959/nutrients|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=FoodData Central|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref>. Most of the carbohydrates in popcorn are in the form of complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) and the remaining are in the form of simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides.

Starch is a polysaccharide (polymer of glucose) and is crucial in the process of popcorn popping<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Judy|title=Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 02|url=https://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson_02|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=UBC Wiki}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|date=August 15, 2023|title=From Kernel to Crunch: The Science Behind Perfectly Popping Corn|url=https://www.ontariopoppingcorn.com/blogs/news/from-kernel-to-crunch-the-science-behind-perfectly-popping-corn#:~:text=When%20the%20popcorn%20kernels%20are,its%20characteristic%20nutty%2C%20toasty%20taste.&text=Not%20all%20popcorn%20kernels%20are%20created%20equal|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|website=Uncle Bob's Popcorn}}</ref>. Inside the popcorn kernel, starch exists in granules made of two types: amylose and amylopectin<ref name=":10" />. Amylose is a linear chain starch molecule whereas amylopectin is a branched molecule<ref name=":9" />. When the two molecules are exposed to heat, they absorb water and swell as the water disrupts the bonds holding the starch together<ref name=":9" />. As a result, the granules rupture and become soft and pliable<ref name=":10" />. This process is known as gelatinization.

Dietary fiber is another type of carbohydrate in popcorn that includes various forms of polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, which are indigestible to humans<ref name=":9" />. In particular, there is 14.5 g of total dietary fiber per 100 g of air-popped popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

Air-popped popcorn also contains small amounts of simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides). In air-popped popcorn, the monosaccharides present are glucose and fructose while the disaccharide sucrose, formed by the linkage of glucose and fructose, is also found<ref name=":8" />. Specifically in air-popped popcorn, there are 0.07 g of glucose and fructose each and 0.72 g of sucrose per 100 g of popcorn<ref name=":8" />.

'''Proteins:'''

Proteins mainly contribute to the flavour and colour of popcorn through the Maillard browning reaction<ref name=":10" />. The production of brown pigments and the toasty flavour of popcorn is due to the Maillard reaction where reducing sugars react with proteins as the popcorn kernels are heated.

'''Aroma Constituents:'''

Volatile constituents generally exist in low concentrations in foods, but play a major role in determining their aroma<ref name=":9" />. The volatile compound 2-acetylpyridine is found to enhance the overall aroma quality of popcorn<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Donkeun|last2=Maga|first2=Joseph. A.|date=March 12, 2013|title=Identification of key volatiles responsible for odour quality differences in popped popcorn of selected hybrids|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.08.019|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=99|issue=3|pages=538-545|doi=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Several additional compounds have been recognized as contributors to popcorn aroma and flavour such as pyrazines, furans, pyrroles, carbonyls, and substituted phenols<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sweley|first=Jess C.|last2=Rose|first2=Devin J.|last3=Jackson|first3=David S.|date=March 13, 2013|title=Quality Traits and Popping Performance Considerations for Popcorn (Zea mays Everta)|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.714435|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=29|issue=2|pages=157-177|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>.

== '''Health Benefits and Risks''' ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nutritional Information for Various Types of Popcorn
|-
! Food Name
! Measure
! Weight (g)
! Energy (kcal)
! Protein (g)
! Carbohydrate (g)
! Total Sugar (g)
! Total Dietary Fibre (g)
! Total Fat (g)
! Saturated Fat (g)
! Calcium (mg)
! Iron (mg)
! Sodium (mg)
! Potassium (mg)
! Magnesium (mg)
! Phosphorus (mg)
! Vitamin A (RAE)
! Folate (DFE)
|-
| Air-popped || 250mL || 8 || 32 || 1 || 7 || tr || 1.3 || tr || tr || 1 || 0.2 || tr || 25 || 11 || 25 || 1 || 2
|-
| Microwave, low fat and reduced salt || 250mL || 8 || 34 || 1 || 6 || tr || 1.1 || 1 || 0.1 || 1 || 0.2 || 39 || 19 || 12 || 21 || tr || 1
|-
| Oil-popped, regular and microwaved || 250mL || 12 || 58 || 1 || 7 || tr || 1.2 || 3 || 0.6 || 1 || 0.3 || 103 || 26 || 13 || 29 || 1 || 2
|}

Got this table from Canada website <ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/pdf/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/nvscf-vnqau-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Health Benefits of Air-popped popcorn:'''

Popcorn contains polyphenols an antioxidant that protects cells from damage<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30646597/|url-status=live}}</ref>. These antioxidants can enhance blood circulation, support digestive health, and lower the chances of developing conditions like high blood pressure and diabetes. Additionally, they might reduce the risk of cancers, including prostate and breast cancer<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfbc.14264|url-status=live}}</ref>.

As mentioned above, popcorn's nutrition profile is that its rich in dietary fibre. This helps lower the risk of heart disease, obesity, and type 2 diabetes<ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23803885/}}</ref>.

With its high fibre content, low calories, and low energy density, popcorn can aid in weight loss by promoting feelings of fullness. A study compared feelings of fullness after eating popcorn and potato chips. They found that 15 calories of popcorn were as filling as 150 calories of potato chips <ref>{{Cite web|title=|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22978828/|url-status=live}}</ref>.

'''Risks of eating Microwave popcorn:'''

Microwave popcorn often has high levels of saturated fat, especially when it comes with buttery flavors that many people enjoy<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=|url=https://www.verywellhealth.com/microwave-popcorn-and-cancer-5085309|url-status=live}}</ref>. For example, Orville Redenbacher's Butter Microwave Popcorn has 6 grams of saturated fat per serving, which is 30% of the recommended daily limit. The high saturated fat content in such popcorn is mainly due to the use of palm oil<ref name=":0" />. Studies have shown that palm oil increases LDL cholesterol, which is linked to a higher risk of heart disease and stroke<ref name=":0" />.

In addition to saturated fat, buttery microwave popcorn also tends to be high in sodium<ref name=":0" />. Jolly Time Blast O' Butter popcorn, for instance, contains 340 mg of sodium per serving. Consuming large amounts, like a big tub of movie theater popcorn, can result in an intake of 1,090 calories and 2,650 mg of sodium<ref name=":0" />. High sodium intake can raise blood pressure by causing the body to retain water, which increases blood volume and, subsequently, blood pressure<ref name=":0" />. Over time, this can lead to hardened and narrowed arteries, heightening the risk of heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease<ref name=":0" />.

== '''Regulations''' ==
Based on the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations under the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the general labelling requirements for pre-packaged popcorn, like other pre-packaged foods, include the following:

* Bilingual labelling

* Common name
* Country of origin
* Date markings and storage instructions
* Name and principal place of business
* Legibility and location
* List of ingredients and allergens
* Net quantity
* Nutrition labelling

Additional labelling requirements may be specific to certain types of popcorn, such as those with sweeteners and additives<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|date=March 18, 2024|title=Retail Foods|url=https://www.inspection.gc.ca/en/food-labels/labelling/industry/retail-foods#c14|url-status=live|access-date=August 2, 2024|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>.

All information about popcorn advertised in any form of media is mandated by the CFIA to be truthful and accurate. The CFIA reviews all advertisements to ensure compliance with these standards<ref name=":11" />.

== '''Trends?''' ==
...

== '''Potential Exam Questions''' ==
What is the primary benefit of choosing air-popped popcorn over microwave popcorn with added flavors?

A) Increased protein content

B) Higher levels of sugar

C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

D) More sodium

Correct answer: C) Lower calorie content and reduced fat

This question is a good exam question because it tests students' understanding of the impact of food preparation methods on nutritional value.

It emphasizes the importance of making healthier food choices by understanding how different preparation methods can affect the nutritional content of foods. Knowing that air-popped popcorn is lower in calories and fat compared to flavoured microwave popcorn can help students make better dietary decisions.this question also hight lights how additives like butter, sugar, and salt can significantly alter the health benefits of a food.

== '''References''' ==

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2023/Heinz Tomato Ketchup

2024-07-13T04:22:35Z

LeanneSu: LeanneSu moved page Course:FNH200/Assignments/2023/Heinz Tomato Ketchup to Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

#REDIRECT [[Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-13T04:22:35Z

LeanneSu: LeanneSu moved page Course:FNH200/Assignments/2023/Heinz Tomato Ketchup to Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no-sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake.

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
[[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists</big>==
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|Fat substitutes
|None
|None
|-
|Sugar substitutes
|None
|Sucralose
|-
|Other additives
|None
|None
|}

'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

In the Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added:

'''Sucralose''': As an artificial sweetener, sucralose is used to provide sweetness without the caloric contribution of regular sugar. This helps in creating a product suitable for individuals who are looking to reduce their sugar intake or manage their calorie consumption.

The primary roles of this sugar substitute are to ensure that the product maintains a similar taste, texture, and overall sensory experience compared to the standard version of the ketchup, while reducing sugar. Additional ingredients, such as Torula yeast, helps to maintain the savoury and umami flavour profile of the ketchup despite the reduction in sugar content.

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added contains Sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement<ref>{{Cite web|title=Torula yeast|url=https://www.cspinet.org/article/torula-yeast|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=|date=January 31, 2022|website=Center for Science in the Public Interest}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Laura|title=Why You Should Reconsider Garlic Powder—and All the Ways to Use the Much-Maligned Ingredient|url=https://www.marthastewart.com/garlic-powder-8363435|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=|date=October 18, 2023|website=Martha Stewart|last=Manzano}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guo|first=Polly|date=March 26, 2024|title=The quick seasoning secret of onion powder in fast food making|url=https://medium.com/@pollyfitaky/the-quick-seasoning-secret-of-onion-powder-in-fast-food-making-57583f7a73f6|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|website=Medium}}</ref>. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.
==<big>Labels</big> ==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sucralose
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
<references />
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-13T04:19:35Z

LeanneSu:

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-13T04:19:12Z

LeanneSu: edited references

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake!

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
[[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists</big>==
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|Fat substitutes
|None
|None
|-
|Sugar substitutes
|None
|Sucralose
|-
|Other additives
|None
|None
|}

'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

In the Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added:

'''Sucralose''': As an artificial sweetener, sucralose is used to provide sweetness without the caloric contribution of regular sugar. This helps in creating a product suitable for individuals who are looking to reduce their sugar intake or manage their calorie consumption.

The primary roles of this sugar substitute are to ensure that the product maintains a similar taste, texture, and overall sensory experience compared to the standard version of the ketchup, while reducing sugar. Additional ingredients, such as Torula yeast, helps to maintain the savoury and umami flavour profile of the ketchup despite the reduction in sugar content.

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added contains Sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement<ref>{{Cite web|title=Torula yeast|url=https://www.cspinet.org/article/torula-yeast|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=|date=January 31, 2022|website=Center for Science in the Public Interest}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Laura|title=Why You Should Reconsider Garlic Powder—and All the Ways to Use the Much-Maligned Ingredient|url=https://www.marthastewart.com/garlic-powder-8363435|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=|date=October 18, 2023|website=Martha Stewart|last=Manzano}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guo|first=Polly|date=March 26, 2024|title=The quick seasoning secret of onion powder in fast food making|url=https://medium.com/@pollyfitaky/the-quick-seasoning-secret-of-onion-powder-in-fast-food-making-57583f7a73f6|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|website=Medium}}</ref>. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.
==<big>Labels</big> ==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sucralose
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
<references />
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-13T03:22:46Z

LeanneSu:

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake!

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
[[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists</big>==
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|Fat substitutes
|None
|None
|-
|Sugar substitutes
|None
|Sucralose
|-
|Other additives
|None
|None
|}

'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

In the Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added:

'''Sucralose''': As an artificial sweetener, sucralose is used to provide sweetness without the caloric contribution of regular sugar. This helps in creating a product suitable for individuals who are looking to reduce their sugar intake or manage their calorie consumption.

The primary roles of the additives are to ensure that the product maintains a similar taste, texture, and overall sensory experience compared to the standard version of the ketchup, while reducing sugar. Additional ingredients, such as Torula Yeast, helps to maintain the savoury and umami flavour profile of the ketchup despite the reduction in sugar content.

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added contains sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement<ref>{{Cite web|title=Torula|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Torula&oldid=1194841820|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Wikipedia contributors|title=Garlic powder|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garlic_powder&oldid=1232705094|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guo|first=Polly|date=March 26, 2024|title=The quick seasoning secret of onion powder in fast food making|url=https://medium.com/@pollyfitaky/the-quick-seasoning-secret-of-onion-powder-in-fast-food-making-57583f7a73f6|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|website=Medium}}</ref>. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.
==<big>Labels</big> ==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sucralose
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
<references />
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-13T03:07:03Z

LeanneSu:

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake!

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
[[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists (4 points)</big>==
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added
|-
|fat substitutes
|
|
|-
|sugar substitutes
|
|Sucralose
|-
|Other additives
|
|Torula Yeast
|}

'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

In the Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added:

'''Sucralose''': As an artificial sweetener, sucralose is used to provide sweetness without the caloric contribution of regular sugar. This helps in creating a product suitable for individuals who are looking to reduce their sugar intake or manage their calorie consumption.

'''Torula Yeast:''' This additive serves as a natural flavor enhancer. It helps to maintain the savory and umami flavor profile of the ketchup despite the reduction in sugar content. It can also contribute to the overall mouthfeel and depth of flavor, making the product more appealing.

The primary roles of these substitutes and additives are to ensure that the product maintains a similar taste, texture, and overall sensory experience compared to the standard version of the ketchup, while meeting different dietary needs (e.g., lower sugar content).

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added contains sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement<ref>{{Cite web|title=Torula|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Torula&oldid=1194841820|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Wikipedia contributors|title=Garlic powder|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garlic_powder&oldid=1232705094|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guo|first=Polly|date=March 26, 2024|title=The quick seasoning secret of onion powder in fast food making|url=https://medium.com/@pollyfitaky/the-quick-seasoning-secret-of-onion-powder-in-fast-food-making-57583f7a73f6|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|website=Medium}}</ref>. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.
==<big>Labels</big> ==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label'''

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sucralose
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
<references />
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-13T00:24:49Z

LeanneSu: added references

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake!

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
Include photos of the two products of your choice, clearly showing the ingredient lists and the overall labels - mandatory, if you don't show it, the TA's can't mark the rest.

Instructions on how to add photos and images to UBC Wiki can be found here: [[Help:Adding Media/Images and Pictures|https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists (4 points)</big>==
#Type out the lists of ingredients
#Identify fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used, if there is any
#Explain the roles of fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used in terms of the functional properties they contribute to the product
#Compare and contrast the lists of the two products and explain differences
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

* Sucralose is a sugar substitute used in Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added 
'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added contains sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement<ref>{{Cite web|title=Torula|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Torula&oldid=1194841820|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Wikipedia contributors|title=Garlic powder|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garlic_powder&oldid=1232705094|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|publisher=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guo|first=Polly|date=March 26, 2024|title=The quick seasoning secret of onion powder in fast food making|url=https://medium.com/@pollyfitaky/the-quick-seasoning-secret-of-onion-powder-in-fast-food-making-57583f7a73f6|url-status=live|access-date=July 12, 2024|website=Medium}}</ref>. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.
==<big>Labels</big> ==
#Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels
#Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label'''

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sucralose
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
<references />
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-12T08:25:59Z

LeanneSu: /* Ingredient lists (4 points) */

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake!

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
Include photos of the two products of your choice, clearly showing the ingredient lists and the overall labels - mandatory, if you don't show it, the TA's can't mark the rest.

Instructions on how to add photos and images to UBC Wiki can be found here: [[Help:Adding Media/Images and Pictures|https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists (4 points)</big>==
#Type out the lists of ingredients
#Identify fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used, if there is any
#Explain the roles of fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used in terms of the functional properties they contribute to the product
#Compare and contrast the lists of the two products and explain differences
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

* Sucralose 

'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added contains sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.
==<big>Labels</big> ==
#Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels
#Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label'''

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2024/Heinz Tomato Ketchup - Regular vs. No Sugar Added

2024-07-12T08:25:25Z

LeanneSu:

==<big>Introduction</big>==
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup & Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added</big>'''

Heinz Tomato Ketchup is a popular condiment known for its sweet and tangy tomato flavour. It is commonly used as a topping or dip for burgers, hot dogs, and fries. It conveniently comes in a squeeze bottle. Additionally, Heinz offers a no sugar added version of their ketchup, providing a choice for customers looking to reduce their sugar intake!

== <big>Pictures of the Products</big> ==
Include photos of the two products of your choice, clearly showing the ingredient lists and the overall labels - mandatory, if you don't show it, the TA's can't mark the rest.

Instructions on how to add photos and images to UBC Wiki can be found here: [[Help:Adding Media/Images and Pictures|https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 3.54.33 PM.png|thumb|Image 1: Heinz Tomato Ketchup|left|353x353px]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.03.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 2: Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|none|361x361px]][[File:Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup.png|thumb|Image 3: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Tomato Ketchup|271x271px|left]][[File:Screenshot 2024-07-10 at 4.00.50 PM.png|thumb|Image 4: Ingredients & Nutrition facts of Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added|281x281px|none]]
==<big>Ingredient lists (4 points)</big>==
#Type out the lists of ingredients
#Identify fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used, if there is any
#Explain the roles of fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used in terms of the functional properties they contribute to the product
#Compare and contrast the lists of the two products and explain differences
'''<big>1. Ingredients</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup
!Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added
|-
|
* Tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* Sugar
* Vinegar
* Salt
* Spices
|
* Tomato paste (made from fresh, ripe tomatoes)
* White vinegar
* Water
* Salt
* Torula yeast
* Onion powder
* Sucralose (3.7 mg sucralose per 15 mL serving)
* Garlic Powder
* Spices
|}

'''<big>2. Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

* Sucralose 

'''<big>3. Role of Substitutes & Additives</big>'''

'''<big>4. Compare & Contrast</big>'''

'''Similarities:''' Both products contain tomato paste (from fresh, ripe tomatoes), vinegar, salt, and spices.

'''Differences:''' Heinz Tomato Ketchup No Sugar Added contains sucralose in replacement of sugar as a sweetener. In addition, the No Sugar Added version contains Torula yeast, onion powder, and garlic powder which are used for flavour enhancement. Water is also added to the No Sugar Added version which may help adjust the consistency of the ketchup.

==<big>Labels</big> ==
#Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels
#Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.
'''<big>Heinz Tomato Ketchup Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2025 June 8
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|Toronto, ON M8B 3L6
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 3
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Serving Size: 1 tablespoon (15 mL)

Calories: 20

Fat: 0 g

Saturated Fat: 0 g

Trans Fat: 0 g

Cholesterol: 0 mg

Sodium: 150 mg

Carbohydrate: 5 g

Fiber: 0 g

Sugars: 4 g

Protein: 0.3 g

Potassium: 40 mg

Calcium: 0%

Iron: 0%
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label'''

'''<big>Heinz Ketchup Style Sauce No Sugar Added Label</big>'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Labelling Requirements
!
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|Ketchup
|-
|'''Bilingual Labelling'''
|Label is in French and English
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|USA
|-
|'''Storage instructions'''
|Refrigerate After Opening
|-
|'''Date marking'''
|2024 December 11
|-
|'''Identity'''
|Heinz Ketchup
|-
|'''Principal Place of Business'''
|90 Sheppard Avenue East, Suite 400 North York, Ontario M2N 7K5
|-
|'''Legibility and Location'''
|Legible and located at the back of the bottle
|-
|'''List of ingredients'''
|Specified in Ingredients List in Image 4
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts table'''
|Calories: 10
Fat: 0g

Saturated: 0g

Trans: 0g

Cholesterol: 0mg

Sodium: 200mg

Carbohydrate: 1g

Fiber: 0g

Sugars: 1g

Protein: 0.3g

Potassium: 40mg

Calcium: 0mg

Iron: 0mg

Vitamin A: 2% of DV

Vitamin C: 2% of DV
|-
|'''Net quantity of the food'''
|750 mL
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Sugar
|-
|'''Other mandatory information'''
|N/A
|-
|'''Nutrient content claims and diet-related health claims'''
|N/A
|}
'''Both complies with the regulatory requirements specified in Lesson 04.'''
==References==
{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-03-09T01:11:12Z

LeanneSu:

== The global influence of the fast fashion industry ==
[[File:Global oceanic distribution of microplastics.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Global oceanic distribution of microplastics. Surface currents are depicted by blue arrows, while dotted lines enclose areas where microplastic input may be due to fishing activities (red) or land-based activities (green). Microplastic concentration is placed on a scale from 0–10 kg/m^2. Note the higher microplastic concentration on the coast of Asia, as well as within the North Pacific and Atlantic gyres, due to the net transport of water towards the center of the gyre.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Sebille|first=Erik|date=2015|title=A global inventory of small floating plastic debris|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006/ampdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>|alt=|554x554px]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/shein-ultra-fast-fashion-1.6442545|title=Ultra-fast fashion site Shein has captured the wallets of young shoppers. but at what cost?|last=Al Mallees|first=Nojoud|date=May 9, 2022|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=January 29, 2023}}</ref>. They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which greatly reduces the lifespan of every individual garment. Textile production factories, mainly centered in Asia, also require a massive volume of water; an average of 200 tonnes of water usage is necessary for the production of only 1 ton of textile<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Niinimäki|first=Kirsi|last2=Peters|first2=Greg|last3=Dahlbo|first3=Hannah|last4=Perry|first4=Patsy|last5=Rissanen|first5=Timo|last6=Gwilt|first6=Alison|date=April 7, 2020|title=The environmental price of fast fashion|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|volume=1|pages=189–200|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9}}</ref>. Many of these factories are also sites of unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical and health concerns<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hobson|first=John|date=July 2, 2013|title=To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/63/5/317/1451439|journal=Occupational Medicine|volume=63|pages=317-319|via=https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079}}</ref>, as well as environmental issues, such as the unmonitored discharge of toxic industrial wastewater possessing the ability to contaminate local marine ecosystems<ref name=":10" /> .

Many fast fashion companies including SHEIN distribute worldwide. Unfortunately, very commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production and dyeing process<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Rosa|first=Jorge Marcos|last2=Garcia|first2=Vanessa|last3=Boiani|first3=Nathalia|last4=Melo|first4=Camila|last5=Pereira|first5=Maria|last6=Borrely|first6=Sueli|date=April 2019|title=Toxicity and environmental impacts approached in the dyeing of polyamide, polyester and cotton knits|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334371930096X?casa_token=J5d12nmmZgQAAAAA:vpEoCddwaeQ7BUNszprrlkhz9lzoFxqGQM0dVMl3d-j0PT38e4eeWLMQ3xbR9ufq8Ai-lXIRfZI|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|volume=7|issue=2|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102973}}</ref>. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibres into their environment. The heat, movement, and detergents of a laundry cycle all contribute to the weakening of textiles – a single load of laundry has the potential to discharge hundreds of thousands of microfibres into the local sewage network and are eventually flushed out into the ocean and marine environments. Researchers have also found that one major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver up to 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually<ref name=":2" />. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibres are essentially microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic chemical content. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding surface currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the main global oceans was analyzed and mapped. In a separate study, the Arctic Ocean was sampled for microplastics, and it was discovered that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic region. The rapid flux of microplastic to Earth's oceans is largely due to the breakdown of polyester, with a majority 73.3% of microplastic samples in the Arctic region found to be of polyester composition<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Peter S.|last2=Chastain|first2=Stephen|last3=Vassilenko|first3=Ekaterina|last4=Etemadifar|first4=Anahita|last5=Zimmermann|first5=Sarah|last6=Quesnel|first6=Sarah-Ann|last7=Eert|first7=Jane|last8=Solomon|first8=Eric|last9=Patankar|first9=Shreyas|date=January 12, 2021|title=Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20347-1|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1}}</ref>. Looking at this worldwide distribution, it is easy to see that microplastics will only continue to circulate our oceans, while accumulating in coastal input areas and within convergent gyres.

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

=== Water Usage ===
The fashion industry uses a substantial amount of water during the production of textiles. It is estimated that approximately 93 billion cubic meters of water per year are used in the industry which is believed to double by 2030<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=November 23, 2021|title=The Issues: Water|url=https://www.commonobjective.co/article/the-issues-water|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=March 7, 2023|website=Common Objective}}</ref>. Extensive water usage in the fashion industry is primarily linked to cotton cultivation and wet processing of textiles, which includes processes such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, and finishing<ref name=":7" />. Cotton is responsible for 1,559 litres of freshwater consumption per kilogram of cotton which makes it the leading fibre in depleting local freshwater<ref name=":7" />. Although synthetic fibres, such as polyester and polyamide, do not consume as much freshwater as cotton does<ref name=":7" />, the manufacturing of synthetic fibres uses 70 million barrels of oil each year that release lead, arsenic, benzene, and other pollutants from wastewater and into marine systems<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bandera|first=Gerardo|date=March 31, 2022|title=How the Fast Fashion Industry Pollutes our Water|url=https://www.fairplanet.org/story/how-the-fashion-industry-pollutes-our-water/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=March 7, 2023|website=Fair Planet}}</ref> It is evident that the fashion industry heavily relies on water throughout the production stages of apparel as processing a kilogram of fibre takes 100 to 150 litres of water<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Pathway of microfibres into the ocean.jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Pathway of microfibres released from laundry processes and into water sources where the health of marine life is imperiled. Diagram created by Venus van Hoof]]

=== Textile Dyes ===
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters<ref name=":5" />. When sunlight availability is low, marine primary producers, such as phytoplankton, are unable to support the deep ocean food web as they use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

=== Microfibres ===
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in the ocean and ultimately harm marine ecosystems<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water<ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms<ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain<ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres<ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb previously disposed chemical pollutants and oil within marine systems<ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species damage their metabolism and overall health<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered<ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs and cause issues with digestion<ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, hunting skills, and mobility performance<ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and not eating enough natural food<ref name=":1" />.

== What is the magnitude of the problem? ==

=== '''The Scale of Fashion''' ===
Fast fashion, with its cheap prices and rapid turnover due to low quality and seasonal trends, has dramatically increased the number of textiles produced in the last few decades. Worldwide, the fashion industry now generates $1.2 trillion and produces roughly 80 billion garments each year<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bick|first=Rachel|last2=Halsey|first2=Erika|last3=Ekenga|first3=Christine C.|date=27 December 2018|title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7|journal=Environmental Health|volume=17|pages=|via=}}</ref> - an incredibly high level of production driven by consumer demand for fast fashion in particular.

The quick turnover associated with fast fashion creates incredible amounts of waste as the inferior nature of garments results in a very low proportion of clothing being passed on for second-hand use. In the US, for example, 85% of garments end up on landfills<ref name=":8" />, contributing to the 92 million tons of waste produced by the fashion industry annually<ref name=":7" />. While not all this waste directly impacts marine ecosystems, it serves to demonstrate how inefficient the fashion system currently is and the need to change it. Despite this, there is a trend towards increased levels of production with roughly twice as many garments currently being produced per year as compared to before 2000<ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Microplastic Contribution''' ===
According to one study, it is estimated that the production and degradation of fast fashion products through use and disposal account for up to 35% of microplastics added to the marine environment each year. T<ref>{{Cite book|title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: A global evaluation of sources|last=Boucher|first=Julien|last2=Friot|first2=Damien|publisher=IUCN|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>his alone positions the fast fashion industry as a significant contributor to marine degradation. To put the scale of the problem into perspective, data from Europe and central Asia shows that per person the equivalent of 7.7 plastic bags per day is added to the ocean due to textile production and washing<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=March 2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|via=}}</ref>. In addition to this, packaging used in the fast fashion industry often consists of single use plastics. These can cause strangulation of marine organisms if they end up in the ocean and break down into microplastics.
[[File:COTTON.png|thumb|Figure 3: An infographic showing the amount of carbon dioxide released in the production of a cotton and a polyester t-shirt. Fast-fashion's trend towards using synthetic materials such as polyester is making the fashion industry much more carbon intensive<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Leal Filho|first=Walter|last2=Perry|first2=Patsy|last3=Heim|first3=Hilde|last4=Dinis|first4=Maria Alzira Pimenta|last5=Moda|first5=Haruna|last6=Ebhuoma|first6=Eromose|last7=Paço|first7=Arminda|date=5 September 2022|title=An overview of the contribution of the textiles sector to climate change|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102|journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>.|alt=]]

=== '''Climate Change Contribution''' ===
On top of this microplastic pollution, the industry contributes significantly to climate change, accounting for 8 to 10% of global greenhouse emissions<ref name=":9" />. This in turn accelerates processes such as ocean acidification and the numerous other marine impacts associated with global warming. The high carbon emissions of the fashion industry can also be traced back to fast fashion and the trend to create garments out of synthetic materials instead of natural ones. While a cotton t-shirt only emits 2.1 kg CO2 during its production, a polyester t-shirt, for example, emits 5.5 kg CO2 – more than double<ref name=":9" />.

==='''Impacts on Human Health'''===
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea foods such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabrics can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres, which could have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, it is uncertain whether humans are prone to these adverse effects if microfibres are ingested. Other studies argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on the human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process is still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risks of microfibres on the human health.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== '''Individual Initiatives''' ===
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for new clothes, which have detrimental effects on the environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp or linen are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production<ref>{{Cite book|title=Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles and Clothing Technology|last=Rana|first=Sohel|last2=Pichandi|first2=Subramani|last3=Parveen|first3=Shama|last4=Fangueiro|first4=Raul|publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=|editor-last=Muthu|editor-first=S.|location=Singapore|pages=1-35|chapter=Natural Plant Fibers: Production, Processing, Properties and Their Sustainability Parameters|doi=10.1007/978-981-287-065-0_1}}</ref>. Tencel lyocell is another example of a sustainable fabric and is made from the wood pulp of sustainably harvested trees<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=TENCEL™ fibers help maintain environmental balance by being integrated into nature´s cycle|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=Tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.025|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Futhermore, there are several products available that aim to reduce the release of microfibres during washing. Guppyfriend is a washing bag that minimizes fibre-shedding and contains microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Another in-drum device is the Cora ball, which can be added to the washing cycle and like Guppyfriend, collects microfibres and reduces microfibre-shedding<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=26-5-2021|title=The Microfiber Pollution Primer|url=https://www.coraball.com/en-ca/blogs/cora-ball-news/the-microfiber-pollution-primer|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=8-3-2023|website=cora ball}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be successful. These filters are installed externally and collect microfibres before the release of wastewater. Out of all of these products, washing machine filters have proven to be the most effective, reducing microfibre emissions by 78%<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Napper|first=Imogen E.|last2=Barrett|first2=Aaron C.|last3=Thompson|first3=Richard C.|date=October 2017|title=The efficiency of devices intended to reduce microfibre release during clothes washing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720339346#f0025|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=738|pages=|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140412|doi-broken-date=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The biggest problem lies in translating these intentions into actions. A survey has shown that while 50% of the consumers wants more sustainable clothes, only 29% is actually willing to pay more for sustainably sourced versions of the same item <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Sustainability in Fashion Retail|url=http://pages.nosto.com/rs/339-ZHG-780/images/EN-Sustainability-Summary-2019%20%281%29.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=8-3-2023|website=}}</ref>. As the manufacturing of sustainable clothes is more expensive, it is less affordable for those who are financially constraint <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Connell|first=Kim Y. Hiller|date=April 2010|title=Internal and external barriers to eco-conscious apparel acquisition|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00865.x|journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies|volume=34|pages=279-286|doi=10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00865.x|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. While thrift stores might seem an eco-friendly alternative for the latter, it does not solve the problem of overconsumption of clothes and still indirectly supports fast-fashion.

To minimize the impact on the environment, the most responsible consumer behaviour would be to purchase clothes made from sustainable materials and the use of washing products that limit microfibre emissions.

=== Global Initiatives ===
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant to successfully apply new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011, aims to educate the public on the impact of plastics on human health, as well as developing solutions for preventing, cleaning up and processing plastic waste. One current concept under development in the Czech Republic is the use of nanorobots to clean marine microplastics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hermanová|first=Soňa|date=February 2022|title=Micromachines for Microplastics Treatment|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00058|journal=ACS Nanoscience AU|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These solar-powered robots will collect microfibres as they move around the surface ocean and help to speed up microplastic degradation that occurs naturally with sun exposure. This project is working to ensure the materials using to construct the robots does not degrade sooner than the microplastics, and potentially contribute further to environmental problems. In England and Wales, the Microfibre Consortium has set up The Microfibre Roadmap, which is working towards zero impact from fibre fragmentation<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Microfibre Roadmap|url=https://www.microfibreconsortium.com/roadmap|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. This roadmap aims to collaborate with up to 250 existing textiles and clothing companies by 2030, offering best practice manufacturing guidelines, networking with stakeholders and other benefits to their signatories in an effort to promote sustainable clothing sourcing and production.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-03-09T01:02:15Z

LeanneSu: added figure 2

== The global influence of the fast fashion industry ==
[[File:Global oceanic distribution of microplastics.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Global oceanic distribution of microplastics. Surface currents are depicted by blue arrows, while dotted lines enclose areas where microplastic input may be due to fishing activities (red) or land-based activities (green). Microplastic concentration is placed on a scale from 0–10 kg/m^2. Note the higher microplastic concentration on the coast of Asia, as well as within the North Pacific and Atlantic gyres, due to the net transport of water towards the center of the gyre.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Sebille|first=Erik|date=2015|title=A global inventory of small floating plastic debris|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006/ampdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>|alt=|554x554px]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/shein-ultra-fast-fashion-1.6442545|title=Ultra-fast fashion site Shein has captured the wallets of young shoppers. but at what cost?|last=Al Mallees|first=Nojoud|date=May 9, 2022|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=January 29, 2023}}</ref>. They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which greatly reduces the lifespan of every individual garment. Textile production factories, mainly centered in Asia, also require a massive volume of water; an average of 200 tonnes of water usage is necessary for the production of only 1 ton of textile<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Niinimäki|first=Kirsi|last2=Peters|first2=Greg|last3=Dahlbo|first3=Hannah|last4=Perry|first4=Patsy|last5=Rissanen|first5=Timo|last6=Gwilt|first6=Alison|date=April 7, 2020|title=The environmental price of fast fashion|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|volume=1|pages=189–200|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9}}</ref>. Many of these factories are also sites of unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical and health concerns<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hobson|first=John|date=July 2, 2013|title=To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/63/5/317/1451439|journal=Occupational Medicine|volume=63|pages=317-319|via=https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079}}</ref>, as well as environmental issues, such as the unmonitored discharge of toxic industrial wastewater possessing the ability to contaminate local marine ecosystems<ref name=":10" /> .

Many fast fashion companies including SHEIN distribute worldwide. Unfortunately, very commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production and dyeing process<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Rosa|first=Jorge Marcos|last2=Garcia|first2=Vanessa|last3=Boiani|first3=Nathalia|last4=Melo|first4=Camila|last5=Pereira|first5=Maria|last6=Borrely|first6=Sueli|date=April 2019|title=Toxicity and environmental impacts approached in the dyeing of polyamide, polyester and cotton knits|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334371930096X?casa_token=J5d12nmmZgQAAAAA:vpEoCddwaeQ7BUNszprrlkhz9lzoFxqGQM0dVMl3d-j0PT38e4eeWLMQ3xbR9ufq8Ai-lXIRfZI|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|volume=7|issue=2|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102973}}</ref>. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibres into their environment. The heat, movement, and detergents of a laundry cycle all contribute to the weakening of textiles – a single load of laundry has the potential to discharge hundreds of thousands of microfibres into the local sewage network and are eventually flushed out into the ocean and marine environments. Researchers have also found that one major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver up to 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually<ref name=":2" />. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibres are essentially microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic chemical content. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding surface currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the main global oceans was analyzed and mapped. In a separate study, the Arctic Ocean was sampled for microplastics, and it was discovered that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic region. The rapid flux of microplastic to Earth's oceans is largely due to the breakdown of polyester, with a majority 73.3% of microplastic samples in the Arctic region found to be of polyester composition<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Peter S.|last2=Chastain|first2=Stephen|last3=Vassilenko|first3=Ekaterina|last4=Etemadifar|first4=Anahita|last5=Zimmermann|first5=Sarah|last6=Quesnel|first6=Sarah-Ann|last7=Eert|first7=Jane|last8=Solomon|first8=Eric|last9=Patankar|first9=Shreyas|date=January 12, 2021|title=Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20347-1|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1}}</ref>. Looking at this worldwide distribution, it is easy to see that microplastics will only continue to circulate our oceans, while accumulating in coastal input areas and within convergent gyres.

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

=== Water Usage ===
The fashion industry uses a substantial amount of water during the production of textiles. It is estimated that approximately 93 billion cubic meters of water per year are used in the industry which is believed to double by 2030<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=November 23, 2021|title=The Issues: Water|url=https://www.commonobjective.co/article/the-issues-water|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=March 7, 2023|website=Common Objective}}</ref>. Extensive water usage in the fashion industry is primarily linked to cotton cultivation and wet processing of textiles, which includes processes such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, and finishing<ref name=":7" />. Cotton is responsible for 1,559 litres of freshwater consumption per kilogram of cotton which makes it the leading fiber in depleting local freshwater<ref name=":7" />. Although synthetic fibres, such as polyester and polyamide, do not consume as much freshwater as cotton does<ref name=":7" />, the manufacturing of synthetic fibres uses 70 million barrels of oil each year that release lead, arsenic, benzene, and other pollutants from wastewater and into marine systems<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bandera|first=Gerardo|date=March 31, 2022|title=How the Fast Fashion Industry Pollutes our Water|url=https://www.fairplanet.org/story/how-the-fashion-industry-pollutes-our-water/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=March 7, 2023|website=Fair Planet}}</ref> It is evident that the fashion industry heavily relies on water throughout the production stages of apparel as processing a kilogram of fibre takes 100 to 150 litres of water<ref name=":11" />.
[[File:Pathway of microfibres into the ocean.jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Pathway of microfibres released from laundry processes and into water sources where the health of marine life is imperiled.

Diagram created by Venus van Hoof]]

=== Microfibres ===
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in the ocean and ultimately harm marine ecosystems <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb previously disposed chemical pollutants and oil within marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species damage their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs and cause issues with digestion<ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and not eating enough natural food <ref name=":1" />.

=== Textile Dyes ===
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. When sunlight availability is low, marine primary producers, such as phytoplankton, are unable to support the deep ocean food web as they use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

== What is the magnitude of the problem? ==

=== '''The Scale of Fashion''' ===
Fast fashion, with its cheap prices and rapid turnover due to low quality and seasonal trends, has dramatically increased the number of textiles produced in the last few decades. Worldwide, the fashion industry now generates $1.2 trillion and produces roughly 80 billion garments each year<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bick|first=Rachel|last2=Halsey|first2=Erika|last3=Ekenga|first3=Christine C.|date=27 December 2018|title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7|journal=Environmental Health|volume=17|pages=|via=}}</ref> - an incredibly high level of production driven by consumer demand for fast fashion in particular.

The quick turnover associated with fast fashion creates incredible amounts of waste as the inferior nature of garments results in a very low proportion of clothing being passed on for second-hand use. In the US, for example, 85% of garments end up on landfills<ref name=":8" />, contributing to the 92 million tons of waste produced by the fashion industry annually<ref name=":7" />. While not all this waste directly impacts marine ecosystems, it serves to demonstrate how inefficient the fashion system currently is and the need to change it. Despite this, there is a trend towards increased levels of production with roughly twice as many garments currently being produced per year as compared to before 2000<ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Microplastic Contribution''' ===
According to one study, it is estimated that the production and degradation of fast fashion products through use and disposal account for up to 35% of microplastics added to the marine environment each year. T<ref>{{Cite book|title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: A global evaluation of sources|last=Boucher|first=Julien|last2=Friot|first2=Damien|publisher=IUCN|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>his alone positions the fast fashion industry as a significant contributor to marine degradation. To put the scale of the problem into perspective, data from Europe and central Asia shows that per person the equivalent of 7.7 plastic bags per day is added to the ocean due to textile production and washing<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=March 2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|via=}}</ref>. In addition to this, packaging used in the fast fashion industry often consists of single use plastics. These can cause strangulation of marine organisms if they end up in the ocean and break down into microplastics.
[[File:COTTON.png|thumb|Figure 3: An infographic showing the amount of carbon dioxide released in the production of a cotton and a polyester t-shirt. Fast-fashion's trend towards using synthetic materials such as polyester is making the fashion industry much more carbon intensive<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Leal Filho|first=Walter|last2=Perry|first2=Patsy|last3=Heim|first3=Hilde|last4=Dinis|first4=Maria Alzira Pimenta|last5=Moda|first5=Haruna|last6=Ebhuoma|first6=Eromose|last7=Paço|first7=Arminda|date=5 September 2022|title=An overview of the contribution of the textiles sector to climate change|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102|journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>.|alt=]]

=== '''Climate Change Contribution''' ===
On top of this microplastic pollution, the industry contributes significantly to climate change, accounting for 8 to 10% of global greenhouse emissions<ref name=":9" />. This in turn accelerates processes such as ocean acidification and the numerous other marine impacts associated with global warming. The high carbon emissions of the fashion industry can also be traced back to fast fashion and the trend to create garments out of synthetic materials instead of natural ones. While a cotton t-shirt only emits 2.1 kg CO2 during its production, a polyester t-shirt, for example, emits 5.5 kg CO2 – more than double<ref name=":9" />.

==='''Impacts on Human Health'''===
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea foods such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabrics can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres, which could have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, it is uncertain whether humans are prone to these adverse effects if microfibres are ingested. Other studies argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on the human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process is still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risks of microfibres on the human health.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== '''Individual Initiatives''' ===
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for new clothes, which have detrimental effects on the environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp or linen are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production<ref>{{Cite book|title=Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles and Clothing Technology|last=Rana|first=Sohel|last2=Pichandi|first2=Subramani|last3=Parveen|first3=Shama|last4=Fangueiro|first4=Raul|publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=|editor-last=Muthu|editor-first=S.|location=Singapore|pages=1-35|chapter=Natural Plant Fibers: Production, Processing, Properties and Their Sustainability Parameters|doi=10.1007/978-981-287-065-0_1}}</ref>. Tencel lyocell is another example of a sustainable fabric and is made from the wood pulp of sustainably harvested trees<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=TENCEL™ fibers help maintain environmental balance by being integrated into nature´s cycle|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=Tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.025|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Futhermore, there are several products available that aim to reduce the release of microfibres during washing. Guppyfriend is a washing bag that minimizes fibre-shedding and contains microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Another in-drum device is the Cora ball, which can be added to the washing cycle and like Guppyfriend, collects microfibres and reduces microfibre-shedding<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=26-5-2021|title=The Microfiber Pollution Primer|url=https://www.coraball.com/en-ca/blogs/cora-ball-news/the-microfiber-pollution-primer|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=8-3-2023|website=cora ball}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be successful. These filters are installed externally and collect microfibres before the release of wastewater. Out of all of these products, washing machine filters have proven to be the most effective, reducing microfibre emissions by 78%<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Napper|first=Imogen E.|last2=Barrett|first2=Aaron C.|last3=Thompson|first3=Richard C.|date=October 2017|title=The efficiency of devices intended to reduce microfibre release during clothes washing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720339346#f0025|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=738|pages=|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140412|doi-broken-date=|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.The biggest problem lies in translating these intentions into actions. A survey has shown that while 50% of the consumers wants more sustainable clothes, only 29% is actually willing to pay more for sustainably sourced versions of the same item <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Sustainability in Fashion Retail|url=http://pages.nosto.com/rs/339-ZHG-780/images/EN-Sustainability-Summary-2019%20%281%29.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=8-3-2023|website=}}</ref>. As the manufacturing of sustainable clothes is more expensive, it is less affordable for those who are financially constraint <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Connell|first=Kim Y. Hiller|date=April 2010|title=Internal and external barriers to eco-conscious apparel acquisition|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00865.x|journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies|volume=34|pages=279-286|doi=10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00865.x|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. While thrift stores might seem an eco-friendly alternative for the latter, it does not solve the problem of overconsumption of clothes and still indirectly supports fast-fashion.

To minimize the impact on the environment, the most responsible consumer behaviour would be to purchase clothes made from sustainable materials and the use of washing products that limit microfibre emissions.

=== Global Initiatives ===
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant to successfully apply new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011, aims to educate the public on the impact of plastics on human health, as well as developing solutions for preventing, cleaning up and processing plastic waste. One current concept under development in the Czech Republic is the use of nanorobots to clean marine microplastics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hermanová|first=Soňa|date=February 2022|title=Micromachines for Microplastics Treatment|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00058|journal=ACS Nanoscience AU|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These solar-powered robots will collect microfibres as they move around the surface ocean and help to speed up microplastic degradation that occurs naturally with sun exposure. This project is working to ensure the materials using to construct the robots does not degrade sooner than the microplastics, and potentially contribute further to environmental problems. In England and Wales, the Microfibre Consortium has set up The Microfibre Roadmap, which is working towards zero impact from fibre fragmentation<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Microfibre Roadmap|url=https://www.microfibreconsortium.com/roadmap|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. This roadmap aims to collaborate with up to 250 existing textiles and clothing companies by 2030, offering best practice manufacturing guidelines, networking with stakeholders and other benefits to their signatories in an effort to promote sustainable clothing sourcing and production.

== References ==
<references />

File:Pathway of microfibres into the ocean.jpg

2023-03-09T00:56:56Z

LeanneSu: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

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Diagram created by Venus van Hoof.}}
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Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-03-08T06:02:27Z

LeanneSu: added paragraph on water usage in impacts on marine ecosystems

== Global influence of the fast fashion industry ==
[[File:Global oceanic distribution of microplastics.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Global oceanic distribution of microplastics. Surface currents are depicted by blue arrows, while dotted lines enclose areas where microplastic input may be due to fishing activities (red) or land-based activities (green). Microplastic concentration is placed on a scale from 0–10 kg/m^2. Note the higher microplastic concentration on the coast of Asia, as well as within the North Pacific and Atlantic gyres, due to the net transport of water towards the center of the gyre.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Sebille|first=Erik|date=2015|title=A global inventory of small floating plastic debris|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006/ampdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>|alt=|554x554px]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/shein-ultra-fast-fashion-1.6442545|title=Ultra-fast fashion site Shein has captured the wallets of young shoppers. but at what cost?|last=Al Mallees|first=Nojoud|date=May 9, 2022|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=January 29, 2023}}</ref>. They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which greatly reduces the lifespan of every individual garment. Textile production factories, mainly centered in Asia, also require a massive volume of water; an average of 200 tonnes of water usage is necessary for the production of only 1 ton of textile<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Niinimäki|first=Kirsi|last2=Peters|first2=Greg|last3=Dahlbo|first3=Hannah|last4=Perry|first4=Patsy|last5=Rissanen|first5=Timo|last6=Gwilt|first6=Alison|date=April 7, 2020|title=The environmental price of fast fashion|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|volume=1|pages=189–200|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9}}</ref>. Many of these factories are also sites of unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical, health<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hobson|first=John|date=July 2, 2013|title=To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/63/5/317/1451439|journal=Occupational Medicine|volume=63|pages=317-319|via=https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079}}</ref>, and environmental issues for their suppliers, such as the unmonitored discharge of toxic industrial textile wastewater<ref name=":10" /> .

Many fast fashion companies including SHEIN distribute worldwide. Unfortunately, very commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production and dyeing process<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Rosa|first=Jorge Marcos|last2=Garcia|first2=Vanessa|last3=Boiani|first3=Nathalia|last4=Melo|first4=Camila|last5=Pereira|first5=Maria|last6=Borrely|first6=Sueli|date=April 2019|title=Toxicity and environmental impacts approached in the dyeing of polyamide, polyester and cotton knits|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334371930096X?casa_token=J5d12nmmZgQAAAAA:vpEoCddwaeQ7BUNszprrlkhz9lzoFxqGQM0dVMl3d-j0PT38e4eeWLMQ3xbR9ufq8Ai-lXIRfZI|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|volume=7|issue=2|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102973}}</ref>. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibres into their environment. The heat, movement, and detergents of a laundry cycle all contribute to the weakening of textiles – a single load of laundry has the potential to discharge hundreds of thousands of microfibres into the local sewage network and are eventually flushed out into the ocean and marine environments<ref name=":2" />. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibres are essentially microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic chemical content. Researchers have also found that one major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver up to 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually<ref name=":2" />. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding surface currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the global oceans was analyzed and mapped. In the Arctic region, It was discovered that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic region. The rapid flux of microplastic to Earth's oceans is largely due to the breakdown of polyester, with a majority 73.3% of microplastic samples in the Arctic region found to be of polyester composition<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Peter S.|last2=Chastain|first2=Stephen|last3=Vassilenko|first3=Ekaterina|last4=Etemadifar|first4=Anahita|last5=Zimmermann|first5=Sarah|last6=Quesnel|first6=Sarah-Ann|last7=Eert|first7=Jane|last8=Solomon|first8=Eric|last9=Patankar|first9=Shreyas|date=January 12, 2021|title=Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20347-1|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1}}</ref>. Based on this worldwide distribution, it is easy to see that microplastics will only continue to populate our oceans, while accumulating in high continental input areas and within convergent gyres.

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

=== Water Usage ===
The fashion industry uses a substantial amount of water during the production of textiles. It is estimated that approximately 93 billion cubic meters of water per year are used in the industry which is believed to double by 2030<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=November 23, 2021|title=The Issues: Water|url=https://www.commonobjective.co/article/the-issues-water|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=March 7, 2023|website=Common Objective}}</ref>. Extensive water usage in the fashion industry is primarily linked to cotton cultivation and wet processing of textiles, which includes processes such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, and finishing<ref name=":7" />. Cotton is responsible for 1,559 litres of freshwater consumption per kilogram of cotton which makes it the leading fiber in depleting local freshwater<ref name=":7" />. Although synthetic fibres, such as polyester and polyamide, do not consume as much freshwater as cotton does<ref name=":7" />, the manufacturing of synthetic fibres uses 70 million barrels of oil each year that release lead, arsenic, benzene, and other pollutants from wastewater and into marine systems<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bandera|first=Gerardo|date=March 31, 2022|title=How the Fast Fashion Industry Pollutes our Water|url=https://www.fairplanet.org/story/how-the-fashion-industry-pollutes-our-water/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=March 7, 2023|website=Fair Planet}}</ref> It is evident that the fashion industry heavily relies on water throughout the production stages of apparel as processing a kilogram of fibre takes 100 to 150 litres of water<ref name=":11" />.

=== Microfibres ===
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in the ocean and ultimately harm marine ecosystems <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb previously disposed chemical pollutants and oil within marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species damage their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs and cause issues with digestion<ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and not eating enough natural food <ref name=":1" />.

=== Textile Dyes ===
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. When sunlight availability is low, marine primary producers, such as phytoplankton, are unable to support the deep ocean food web as they use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

== What is the magnitude of the problem? ==

=== '''The Scale of Fashion''' ===
Fast fashion, with its cheap prices and rapid turnover due to low quality and seasonal trends, has dramatically increased the number of textiles produced in the last few decades. Worldwide, the fashion industry now generates $1.2 trillion and produces roughly 80 billion garments each year<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bick|first=Rachel|last2=Halsey|first2=Erika|last3=Ekenga|first3=Christine C.|date=27 December 2018|title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7|journal=Environmental Health|volume=17|pages=|via=}}</ref> - an incredibly high level of production driven by consumer demand for fast fashion in particular.

The quick turnover associated with fast fashion creates incredible amounts of waste as the inferior nature of garments results in a very low proportion of clothing being passed on for second-hand use. In the US, for example, 85% of garments end up on landfills<ref name=":8" />, contributing to the 92 million tons of waste produced by the fashion industry annually<ref name=":7" />. While not all this waste directly impacts marine ecosystems, it serves to demonstrate how inefficient the fashion system currently is and the need to change it. Despite this, there is a trend towards increased levels of production with roughly twice as many garments currently being produced per year as compared to before 2000<ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Microplastic Contribution''' ===
According to one study, it is estimated that the production and degradation of fast fashion products through use and disposal account for up to 35% of microplastics added to the marine environment each year. T<ref>{{Cite book|title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: A global evaluation of sources|last=Boucher|first=Julien|last2=Friot|first2=Damien|publisher=IUCN|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>his alone positions the fast fashion industry as a significant contributor to marine degradation. To put the scale of the problem into perspective, data from Europe and central Asia shows that per person the equivalent of 7.7 plastic bags per day is added to the ocean due to textile production and washing<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=March 2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|via=}}</ref>. In addition to this, packaging used in the fast fashion industry often consists of single use plastics. These can cause strangulation of marine organisms if they end up in the ocean and break down into microplastics.
[[File:COTTON.png|thumb|Figure 3: An infographic showing the amount of carbon dioxide released in the production of a cotton and a polyester t-shirt. Fast-fashion's trend towards using synthetic materials such as polyester is making the fashion industry much more carbon intensive<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Leal Filho|first=Walter|last2=Perry|first2=Patsy|last3=Heim|first3=Hilde|last4=Dinis|first4=Maria Alzira Pimenta|last5=Moda|first5=Haruna|last6=Ebhuoma|first6=Eromose|last7=Paço|first7=Arminda|date=5 September 2022|title=An overview of the contribution of the textiles sector to climate change|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102|journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>.|alt=]]

=== '''Climate Change Contribution''' ===
On top of this microplastic pollution, the industry contributes significantly to climate change, accounting for 8 to 10% of global greenhouse emissions<ref name=":9" />. This in turn accelerates processes such as ocean acidification and the numerous other marine impacts associated with global warming. The high carbon emissions of the fashion industry can also be traced back to fast fashion and the trend to create garments out of synthetic materials instead of natural ones. While a cotton t-shirt only emits 2.1 kg CO2 during its production, a polyester t-shirt, for example, emits 5.5 kg CO2 – more than double<ref name=":9" />.

==='''Impacts on Human Health'''===
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea foods such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabrics can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres, which could have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, it is uncertain whether humans are prone to these adverse effects if microfibres are ingested. Other studies argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on the human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process is still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risks of microfibres on the human health.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== '''Individual Initiatives''' ===
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for new clothes. The consumers are the driving factor for this demand, and therefore also bare a responsibility in the detrimental effects of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture. On an individual level, changes in shopping and washing behaviour could decrease the amount of microplastics that wind up in the ocean.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp, linen and Tencel lyocell are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=TENCEL™ fibers help maintain environmental balance by being integrated into nature´s cycle|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=Tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.025|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Changes in washing methods, can also reduce microfibre shedding. Washing products, such as Guppyfriend, aim to limit the amount of microfibres being released into the ocean, by minimizing fibre-shedding and containing microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be a successful way of entrapping microfibres, reducing microfibre emissions by 41% <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erdle|first=Lisa M.|last2=Parto|first2=Dorsa Nouri|last3=Sweetnam|first3=David|last4=Rochman|first4=Chelsea M.|date=2021|title=Washing Machine Filters Reduce Microfiber Emissions: Evidence From a Community-Scale Pilot in Parry Sound, Ontario|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865/full|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|volume=8|pages=|doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.777865|via=Frontiers}}</ref>.

The biggest problems lies in translating these intentions into actions. Despite younger people being the most aware of the environmental impacts of the fast-fashion industry and sustainable fashion brands, they prefer cheaper fashion brands <ref name=":0" />. Oftentimes, sustainable fashion brands are perceived to be expensive, less fashionable, and accessible than their fast-fashion counterparts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Lindsey|last2=Cervellon|first2=Marie-Cecile|date=2014|title=Ethical fashion dimensions:
pictorial and auditory depictions
through three cultural perspectives|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFMM-11-2012-0067/full/html|journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management|volume=18|issue=4|pages=483-506|doi=10.1108/jfmm-11-2012-0067|via=emerald insight}}</ref>. Further research into consumer behaviour and motivation could help in developing effective methods to encourage people to make these behavioural changes and purchase more sustainably.

=== Global Initiatives ===
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant to successfully apply new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011, aims to educate the public on the impact of plastics on human health, as well as developing solutions for preventing, cleaning up and processing plastic waste. One current concept under development in the Czech Republic is the use of nanorobots to clean marine microplastics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hermanová|first=Soňa|date=February 2022|title=Micromachines for Microplastics Treatment|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00058|journal=ACS Nanoscience AU|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These solar-powered robots will collect microfibres as they move around the surface ocean and help to speed up microplastic degradation that occurs naturally with sun exposure. This project is working to ensure the materials using to construct the robots does not degrade sooner than the microplastics, and potentially contribute further to environmental problems. In England and Wales, the Microfibre Consortium has set up The Microfibre Roadmap, which is working towards zero impact from fibre fragmentation<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Microfibre Roadmap|url=https://www.microfibreconsortium.com/roadmap|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. This roadmap aims to collaborate with up to 250 existing textiles and clothing companies by 2030, offering best practice manufacturing guidelines, networking with stakeholders and other benefits to their signatories in an effort to promote sustainable clothing sourcing and production.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-02-28T00:32:20Z

LeanneSu:

== Global influence of the fast fashion industry ==
[[File:Global oceanic distribution of microplastics.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Global oceanic distribution of microplastics. Surface currents are depicted by blue arrows, while dotted lines enclose areas where microplastic input may be due to fishing activities (red) or land-based activities (green). Microplastic concentration is placed on a scale from 0–10 kg/m^2. Note the higher microplastic concentration on the coast of Asia, as well as within the North Pacific and Atlantic gyres, due to the net transport of water towards the center of the gyre.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Sebille|first=Erik|date=2015|title=A global inventory of small floating plastic debris|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006/ampdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>|alt=|554x554px]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/shein-ultra-fast-fashion-1.6442545|title=Ultra-fast fashion site Shein has captured the wallets of young shoppers. but at what cost?|last=Al Mallees|first=Nojoud|date=May 9, 2022|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=January 29, 2023}}</ref>. They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which greatly reduces the lifespan of every individual garment. Textile production factories, mainly centered in Asia, also require a massive volume of water; an average of 200 tonnes of water usage is necessary for the production of only 1 ton of textile<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Niinimäki|first=Kirsi|last2=Peters|first2=Greg|last3=Dahlbo|first3=Hannah|last4=Perry|first4=Patsy|last5=Rissanen|first5=Timo|last6=Gwilt|first6=Alison|date=April 7, 2020|title=The environmental price of fast fashion|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|volume=1|pages=189–200|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9}}</ref>. Many of these factories are also sites of unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical, health<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hobson|first=John|date=July 2, 2013|title=To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/63/5/317/1451439|journal=Occupational Medicine|volume=63|pages=317-319|via=https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079}}</ref>, and environmental issues for their suppliers, such as the unmonitored discharge of toxic industrial textile wastewater<ref name=":10" /> .

Many fast fashion companies including SHEIN distribute worldwide. Unfortunately, very commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production and dyeing process<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Rosa|first=Jorge Marcos|last2=Garcia|first2=Vanessa|last3=Boiani|first3=Nathalia|last4=Melo|first4=Camila|last5=Pereira|first5=Maria|last6=Borrely|first6=Sueli|date=April 2019|title=Toxicity and environmental impacts approached in the dyeing of polyamide, polyester and cotton knits|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334371930096X?casa_token=J5d12nmmZgQAAAAA:vpEoCddwaeQ7BUNszprrlkhz9lzoFxqGQM0dVMl3d-j0PT38e4eeWLMQ3xbR9ufq8Ai-lXIRfZI|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|volume=7|issue=2|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102973}}</ref>. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibres into their environment. The heat, movement, and detergents of a laundry cycle all contribute to the weakening of textiles – a single load of laundry has the potential to discharge hundreds of thousands of microfibres into the local sewage network and are eventually flushed out into the ocean and marine environments<ref name=":2" />. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibres are essentially microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic chemical content. Researchers have also found that one major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver up to 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually<ref name=":2" />. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding surface currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the global oceans was analyzed and mapped. In the Arctic region, It was discovered that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic region. The rapid flux of microplastic to Earth's oceans is largely due to the breakdown of polyester, with a majority 73.3% of microplastic samples in the Arctic region found to be of polyester composition<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Peter S.|last2=Chastain|first2=Stephen|last3=Vassilenko|first3=Ekaterina|last4=Etemadifar|first4=Anahita|last5=Zimmermann|first5=Sarah|last6=Quesnel|first6=Sarah-Ann|last7=Eert|first7=Jane|last8=Solomon|first8=Eric|last9=Patankar|first9=Shreyas|date=January 12, 2021|title=Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20347-1|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1}}</ref>. Based on this worldwide distribution, it is easy to see that microplastics will only continue to populate our oceans, while accumulating in high continental input areas and within convergent gyres.

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

=== Microfibres ===
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in the ocean and ultimately harm marine ecosystems <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb previously disposed chemical pollutants and oil within marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species damage their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs and cause issues with digestion<ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and not eating enough natural food <ref name=":1" />.

=== Textile Dyes ===
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. When sunlight availability is low, marine primary producers, such as phytoplankton, are unable to support the deep ocean food web as they use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

== What is the magnitude of the problem? ==

=== '''The Scale of Fashion''' ===
Fast fashion, with its cheap prices and rapid turnover due to low quality and seasonal trends, has dramatically increased the number of textiles produced in the last few decades. Worldwide, the fashion industry now generates $1.2 trillion and produces roughly 80 billion garments each year<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bick|first=Rachel|last2=Halsey|first2=Erika|last3=Ekenga|first3=Christine C.|date=27 December 2018|title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7|journal=Environmental Health|volume=17|pages=|via=}}</ref> - an incredibly high level of production driven by consumer demand for fast fashion in particular.

The quick turnover associated with fast fashion creates incredible amounts of waste as the inferior nature of garments results in a very low proportion of clothing being passed on for second-hand use. In the US, for example, 85% of garments end up on landfills<ref name=":8" />, contributing to the 92 million tons of waste produced by the fashion industry annually<ref name=":7" />. While not all this waste directly impacts marine ecosystems, it serves to demonstrate how inefficient the fashion system currently is and the need to change it. Despite this, there is a trend towards increased levels of production with roughly twice as many garments currently being produced per year as compared to before 2000<ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Microplastic Contribution''' ===
According to one study, it is estimated that the production and degradation of fast fashion products through use and disposal account for up to 35% of microplastics added to the marine environment each year. T<ref>{{Cite book|title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: A global evaluation of sources|last=Boucher|first=Julien|last2=Friot|first2=Damien|publisher=IUCN|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>his alone positions the fast fashion industry as a significant contributor to marine degradation. To put the scale of the problem into perspective, data from Europe and central Asia shows that per person the equivalent of 7.7 plastic bags per day is added to the ocean due to textile production and washing<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=March 2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|via=}}</ref>. In addition to this, packaging used in the fast fashion industry often consists of single use plastics. These can cause strangulation of marine organisms if they end up in the ocean and break down into microplastics.
[[File:COTTON.png|thumb|Figure 3: An infographic showing the amount of carbon dioxide released in the production of a cotton and a polyester t-shirt. Fast-fashion's trend towards using synthetic materials such as polyester is making the fashion industry much more carbon intensive<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Leal Filho|first=Walter|last2=Perry|first2=Patsy|last3=Heim|first3=Hilde|last4=Dinis|first4=Maria Alzira Pimenta|last5=Moda|first5=Haruna|last6=Ebhuoma|first6=Eromose|last7=Paço|first7=Arminda|date=5 September 2022|title=An overview of the contribution of the textiles sector to climate change|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102|journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>.|alt=]]

=== '''Climate Change Contribution''' ===
On top of this microplastic pollution, the industry contributes significantly to climate change, accounting for 8 to 10% of global greenhouse emissions<ref name=":9" />. This in turn accelerates processes such as ocean acidification and the numerous other marine impacts associated with global warming. The high carbon emissions of the fashion industry can also be traced back to fast fashion and the trend to create garments out of synthetic materials instead of natural ones. While a cotton t-shirt only emits 2.1 kg CO2 during its production, a polyester t-shirt, for example, emits 5.5 kg CO2 – more than double<ref name=":9" />.

==='''Impacts on Human Health'''===
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea foods such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabrics can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres, which could have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, it is uncertain whether humans are prone to these adverse effects if microfibres are ingested. Other studies argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on the human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process is still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risks of microfibres on the human health.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== '''Individual Initiatives''' ===
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for new clothes. The consumers are the driving factor for this demand, and therefore also bare a responsibility in the detrimental effects of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture. On an individual level, changes in shopping and washing behaviour could decrease the amount of microplastics that wind up in the ocean.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp, linen and Tencel lyocell are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=TENCEL™ fibers help maintain environmental balance by being integrated into nature´s cycle|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=Tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.025|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Changes in washing methods, can also reduce microfibre shedding. Washing products, such as Guppyfriend, aim to limit the amount of microfibres being released into the ocean, by minimizing fibre-shedding and containing microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be a successful way of entrapping microfibres, reducing microfibre emissions by 41% <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erdle|first=Lisa M.|last2=Parto|first2=Dorsa Nouri|last3=Sweetnam|first3=David|last4=Rochman|first4=Chelsea M.|date=2021|title=Washing Machine Filters Reduce Microfiber Emissions: Evidence From a Community-Scale Pilot in Parry Sound, Ontario|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865/full|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|volume=8|pages=|doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.777865|via=Frontiers}}</ref>.

The biggest problems lies in translating these intentions into actions. Despite younger people being the most aware of the environmental impacts of the fast-fashion industry and sustainable fashion brands, they prefer cheaper fashion brands <ref name=":0" />. Oftentimes, sustainable fashion brands are perceived to be expensive, less fashionable, and accessible than their fast-fashion counterparts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Lindsey|last2=Cervellon|first2=Marie-Cecile|date=2014|title=Ethical fashion dimensions:
pictorial and auditory depictions
through three cultural perspectives|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFMM-11-2012-0067/full/html|journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management|volume=18|issue=4|pages=483-506|doi=10.1108/jfmm-11-2012-0067|via=emerald insight}}</ref>. Further research into consumer behaviour and motivation could help in developing effective methods to encourage people to make these behavioural changes and purchase more sustainably.

=== Global Initiatives ===
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant to successfully apply new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011, aims to educate the public on the impact of plastics on human health, as well as developing solutions for preventing, cleaning up and processing plastic waste. One current concept under development in the Czech Republic is the use of nanorobots to clean marine microplastics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hermanová|first=Soňa|date=February 2022|title=Micromachines for Microplastics Treatment|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00058|journal=ACS Nanoscience AU|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These solar-powered robots will collect microfibres as they move around the surface ocean and help to speed up microplastic degradation that occurs naturally with sun exposure. This project is working to ensure the materials using to construct the robots does not degrade sooner than the microplastics, and potentially contribute further to environmental problems. In England and Wales, the Microfibre Consortium has set up The Microfibre Roadmap, which is working towards zero impact from fibre fragmentation<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Microfibre Roadmap|url=https://www.microfibreconsortium.com/roadmap|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. This roadmap aims to collaborate with up to 250 existing textiles and clothing companies by 2030, offering best practice manufacturing guidelines, networking with stakeholders and other benefits to their signatories in an effort to promote sustainable clothing sourcing and production.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-02-26T23:47:45Z

LeanneSu: added figure 2 and edited text in impact on marine ecosystems

== The global influence of the fast fashion industry ==
[[File:Global oceanic distribution of microplastics.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Global oceanic distribution of microplastics. Surface currents are depicted by blue arrows, while dotted lines enclose areas where microplastic input may be due to fishing activities (red) or land-based activities (green). Microplastic concentration is placed on a scale from 0–10 kg/m^2. Note the higher microplastic concentration within the North Pacific gyre, due to the net transport of water towards the center.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Sebille|first=Erik|date=2015|title=A global inventory of small floating plastic debris|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006/ampdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>|alt=|554x554px]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/shein-ultra-fast-fashion-1.6442545|title=Ultra-fast fashion site Shein has captured the wallets of young shoppers. but at what cost?|last=Al Mallees|first=Nojoud|date=May 9, 2022|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=January 29, 2023}}</ref>. They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which greatly reduces the lifespan of every individual item. Often, each step of garment production is completed in a different country, which further increases the environmental and economical price of the item. Production also requires a massive volume of water; an average of 200 tonnes of water usage is necessary for the production of only 1 ton of textile<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Niinimäki|first=Kirsi|last2=Peters|first2=Greg|last3=Dahlbo|first3=Hannah|last4=Perry|first4=Patsy|last5=Rissanen|first5=Timo|last6=Gwilt|first6=Alison|date=April 7, 2020|title=The environmental price of fast fashion|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|volume=1|pages=189–200|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9}}</ref>. These are also sites of unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical, health, and environmental issues for their suppliers<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hobson|first=John|date=July 2, 2013|title=To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/63/5/317/1451439|journal=Occupational Medicine|volume=63|pages=317-319|via=https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079}}</ref> .

Many fast fashion companies including SHEIN distribute worldwide. Unfortunately, very commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production and dyeing process<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosa|first=Jorge Marcos|last2=Garcia|first2=Vanessa|last3=Boiani|first3=Nathalia|last4=Melo|first4=Camila|last5=Pereira|first5=Maria|last6=Borrely|first6=Sueli|date=April 2019|title=Toxicity and environmental impacts approached in the dyeing of polyamide, polyester and cotton knits|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334371930096X?casa_token=J5d12nmmZgQAAAAA:vpEoCddwaeQ7BUNszprrlkhz9lzoFxqGQM0dVMl3d-j0PT38e4eeWLMQ3xbR9ufq8Ai-lXIRfZI|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|volume=7|issue=2|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102973}}</ref>. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibres into their environment. The heat, movement, and detergents of a laundry cycle all contribute to the weakening of textiles – a single load of laundry has the potential to discharge hundreds of thousands of microfibres into the local sewage network and are eventually flushed out into the ocean and marine environments<ref name=":2" />. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibres are essentially microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic chemical content. Researchers have also found that one major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver up to 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Peter S.|last2=Chastain|first2=Stephen|last3=Vassilenko|first3=Ekaterina|last4=Etemadifar|first4=Anahita|last5=Zimmermann|first5=Sarah|last6=Quesnel|first6=Sarah-Ann|last7=Eert|first7=Jane|last8=Solomon|first8=Eric|last9=Patankar|first9=Shreyas|date=January 12, 2021|title=Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20347-1|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1}}</ref>. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding surface currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the global oceans was analyzed and mapped. In the Arctic region, It was found that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic region<ref name=":6" />. The rapid flux of microplastic to Earth's oceans is largely due to the breakdown of polyester, with a majority 73.3% of microplastic samples in the Arctic region found to be of polyester composition.

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

=== Microfibres ===
[[File:Plastics in the Textile Chain.png|alt=|thumb|400x400px|Figure 2: Pathway of use of plastics in the the textile industry starting from suppliers to consumers. ]]
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in the ocean and ultimately harm marine ecosystems <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb previously disposed chemical pollutants and oil within marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species damage their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs or digestive glands and cause obstruction in the gut <ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, duration of digestion, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and not eating enough natural food <ref name=":1" />.

=== Textile Dyes ===
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. When sunlight availability is low, marine primary producers, such as phytoplankton, are unable to support the deep ocean food web as they use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

== What is the magnitude of the problem? ==

=== '''The Scale of Fashion''' ===
Fast fashion, with its cheap prices and rapid turnover due to low quality and seasonal trends, has dramatically increased the number of textiles produced in the last few decades. Worldwide, the fashion industry now generates $1.2 trillion and produces roughly 80 billion garments each year<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bick|first=Rachel|last2=Halsey|first2=Erika|last3=Ekenga|first3=Christine C.|date=27 December 2018|title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7|journal=Environmental Health|volume=17|pages=|via=}}</ref> - an incredibly high level of production driven by consumer demand for fast fashion in particular.

The quick turnover associated with fast fashion creates incredible amounts of waste as the inferior nature of garments results in a very low proportion of clothing being passed on for second-hand use. In the US, for example, 85% of garments end up on landfills<ref name=":8" />, contributing to the 92 million tons of waste produced by the fashion industry annually<ref name=":7" />. While not all this waste directly impacts marine ecosystems, it serves to demonstrate how inefficient the fashion system currently is and the need to change it. Despite this, there is a trend towards increased levels of production with roughly twice as many garments currently being produced per year as compared to before 2000<ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Microplastic Contribution''' ===
According to one study, it is estimated that the production and degradation of fast fashion products through use and disposal account for up to 35% of microplastics added to the marine environment each year. T<ref>{{Cite book|title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: A global evaluation of sources|last=Boucher|first=Julien|last2=Friot|first2=Damien|publisher=IUCN|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>his alone positions the fast fashion industry as a significant contributor to marine degradation. To put the scale of the problem into perspective, data from Europe and central Asia shows that per person the equivalent of 7.7 plastic bags per day is added to the ocean due to textile production and washing<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=March 2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|via=}}</ref>. In addition to this, packaging used in the fast fashion industry often consists of single use plastics. These can cause strangulation of marine organisms if they end up in the ocean and break down into microplastics.
[[File:COTTON.png|thumb|Figure 3: An infographic showing the amount of carbon dioxide released in the production of a cotton and a polyester t-shirt. Fast-fashion's trend towards using synthetic materials such as polyester is making the fashion industry much more carbon intensive<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Leal Filho|first=Walter|last2=Perry|first2=Patsy|last3=Heim|first3=Hilde|last4=Dinis|first4=Maria Alzira Pimenta|last5=Moda|first5=Haruna|last6=Ebhuoma|first6=Eromose|last7=Paço|first7=Arminda|date=5 September 2022|title=An overview of the contribution of the textiles sector to climate change|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102|journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>.|alt=]]

=== '''Climate Change Contribution''' ===
On top of this microplastic pollution, the industry contributes significantly to climate change, accounting for 8 to 10% of global greenhouse emissions<ref name=":9" />. This in turn accelerates processes such as ocean acidification and the numerous other marine impacts associated with global warming. The high carbon emissions of the fashion industry can also be traced back to fast fashion and the trend to create garments out of synthetic materials instead of natural ones. While a cotton t-shirt only emits 2.1 kg CO2 during its production, a polyester t-shirt, for example, emits 5.5 kg CO2 – more than double<ref name=":9" />.

==='''Impacts on Human Health'''===
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea foods such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabrics can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres, which could have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, it is uncertain whether humans are prone to these adverse effects if microfibres are ingested. Other studies argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on the human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process is still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risks of microfibres on the human health.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== '''Individual Initiatives''' ===
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for new clothes. The consumers are the driving factor for this demand, and therefore also bare a responsibility in the detrimental effects of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture. On an individual level, changes in shopping and washing behaviour could decrease the amount of microplastics that wind up in the ocean.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp, linen and Tencel lyocell are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=TENCEL™ fibers help maintain environmental balance by being integrated into nature´s cycle|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=Tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.025|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Changes in washing methods, can also reduce microfibre shedding. Washing products, such as Guppyfriend, aim to limit the amount of microfibres being released into the ocean, by minimizing fibre-shedding and containing microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be a successful way of entrapping microfibres, reducing microfibre emissions by 41% <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erdle|first=Lisa M.|last2=Parto|first2=Dorsa Nouri|last3=Sweetnam|first3=David|last4=Rochman|first4=Chelsea M.|date=2021|title=Washing Machine Filters Reduce Microfiber Emissions: Evidence From a Community-Scale Pilot in Parry Sound, Ontario|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865/full|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|volume=8|pages=|doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.777865|via=Frontiers}}</ref>.

The biggest problems lies in translating these intentions into actions. Despite younger people being the most aware of the environmental impacts of the fast-fashion industry and sustainable fashion brands, they prefer cheaper fashion brands <ref name=":0" />. Oftentimes, sustainable fashion brands are perceived to be expensive, less fashionable, and accessible than their fast-fashion counterparts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Lindsey|last2=Cervellon|first2=Marie-Cecile|date=2014|title=Ethical fashion dimensions:
pictorial and auditory depictions
through three cultural perspectives|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFMM-11-2012-0067/full/html|journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management|volume=18|issue=4|pages=483-506|doi=10.1108/jfmm-11-2012-0067|via=emerald insight}}</ref>. Further research into consumer behaviour and motivation could help in developing effective methods to encourage people to make these behavioural changes and purchase more sustainably.

=== Global Initiatives ===
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant to successfully apply new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011, aims to educate the public on the impact of plastics on human health, as well as developing solutions for preventing, cleaning up and processing plastic waste. One current concept under development in the Czech Republic is the use of nanorobots to clean marine microplastics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hermanová|first=Soňa|date=February 2022|title=Micromachines for Microplastics Treatment|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00058|journal=ACS Nanoscience AU|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These solar-powered robots will collect microfibres as they move around the surface ocean and help to speed up microplastic degradation that occurs naturally with sun exposure. This project is working to ensure the materials using to construct the robots does not degrade sooner than the microplastics, and potentially contribute further to environmental problems. In England and Wales, the Microfibre Consortium has set up The Microfibre Roadmap, which is working towards zero impact from fibre fragmentation<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Microfibre Roadmap|url=https://www.microfibreconsortium.com/roadmap|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. This roadmap aims to collaborate with up to 250 existing textiles and clothing companies by 2030, offering best practice manufacturing guidelines, networking with stakeholders and other benefits to their signatories in an effort to promote sustainable clothing sourcing and production.

== References ==
<references />

File:Plastics in the Textile Chain.png

2023-02-26T22:12:55Z

LeanneSu: Uploaded a work by Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung from https://openverse.org/image/fd565f1c-a912-448b-a7e5-dac1266479df?q=textiles%20ocean with UploadWizard

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Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-02-15T00:36:19Z

LeanneSu: edited text for impact on marine ecosystems

== The global influence of the fast fashion industry ==
[[File:Global oceanic distribution of microplastics.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Global oceanic distribution of microplastics. Surface currents are depicted by blue arrows, while dotted lines enclose areas where microplastic input may be due to fishing activities (red) or land-based activities (green). Microplastic concentration is placed on a scale from 0–10 kg/m^2. Note the higher microplastic concentration within the North Pacific gyre, due to the net transport of water towards the center.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Sebille|first=Erik|date=2015|title=A global inventory of small floating plastic debris|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006/ampdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/shein-ultra-fast-fashion-1.6442545|title=Ultra-fast fashion site Shein has captured the wallets of young shoppers. but at what cost?|last=Al Mallees|first=Nojoud|date=May 9, 2022|work=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=January 29, 2023}}</ref>. They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which severely reduces the quality of the items. These mass production factories are also sites of incredible water waste<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Niinimäki|first=Kirsi|last2=Peters|first2=Greg|last3=Dahlbo|first3=Hannah|last4=Perry|first4=Patsy|last5=Rissanen|first5=Timo|last6=Gwilt|first6=Alison|date=April 7, 2020|title=The environmental price of fast fashion|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|volume=1|pages=189–200|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9}}</ref>, as well as unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical, health, and environmental issues for their suppliers<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hobson|first=John|date=July 2, 2013|title=To die for? The health and safety of fast fashion|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/63/5/317/1451439|journal=Occupational Medicine|volume=63|pages=317-319|via=https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt079}}</ref> .

Many fast fashion companies including SHEIN distribute worldwide, allowing their cheap, low quality materials to reach every corner on Earth. Unfortunately, commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production and dyeing process<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosa|first=Jorge Marcos|last2=Garcia|first2=Vanessa|last3=Boiani|first3=Nathalia|last4=Melo|first4=Camila|last5=Pereira|first5=Maria|last6=Borrely|first6=Sueli|date=April 2019|title=Toxicity and environmental impacts approached in the dyeing of polyamide, polyester and cotton knits|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221334371930096X?casa_token=J5d12nmmZgQAAAAA:vpEoCddwaeQ7BUNszprrlkhz9lzoFxqGQM0dVMl3d-j0PT38e4eeWLMQ3xbR9ufq8Ai-lXIRfZI|journal=Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering|volume=7|issue=2|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102973}}</ref>. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibers into their environment. The heat, movement, and detergents of a laundry cycle all contribute to the weakening of textiles – a single load of laundry has the potential to discharge hundreds of thousands of microfibres into the local sewage network and are eventually flushed out into the ocean and marine environments<ref name=":2" />. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibres ''are'' microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic and non biodegradable chemical content. Researchers have also found that one major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver up to 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Peter S.|last2=Chastain|first2=Stephen|last3=Vassilenko|first3=Ekaterina|last4=Etemadifar|first4=Anahita|last5=Zimmermann|first5=Sarah|last6=Quesnel|first6=Sarah-Ann|last7=Eert|first7=Jane|last8=Solomon|first8=Eric|last9=Patankar|first9=Shreyas|date=January 12, 2021|title=Pervasive distribution of polyester fibres in the Arctic Ocean is driven by Atlantic inputs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20347-1|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=|pages=|via=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20347-1}}</ref>. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding surface currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the global oceans was analyzed and mapped. In the Arctic region, It was found that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic region<ref name=":6" />.

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

=== Microfibres ===
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in marine environments <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb preceding chemical pollutants and oil in the marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species impair their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs or digestive glands and cause obstruction in the gut <ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, duration of digestion, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and the deprivation of natural food <ref name=":1" />.

=== Textile Dyes ===
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. This restricts photosynthesis from occurring which consequently inhibits marine life as it is the leading form of primary production. In absence of light, there is no photosynthesis, and without photosynthesis, primary producers are unable to support the deep ocean food web. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

== What is the magnitude of the problem? ==

=== '''The Scale of Fashion''' ===
Fast fashion, with its cheap prices and rapid turnover due to low quality and seasonal trends, has dramatically increased the number of textiles produced in the last few decades. Worldwide, the fashion industry now generates $1.2 trillion and produces roughly 80 billion garments each year<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bick|first=Rachel|last2=Halsey|first2=Erika|last3=Ekenga|first3=Christine C.|date=27 December 2018|title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7|journal=Environmental Health|volume=17|pages=|via=}}</ref> - an incredibly high level of production driven by consumer demand for fast fashion in particular.

The quick turnover associated with fast fashion creates incredible amounts of waste as the inferior nature of garments results in a very low proportion of clothing being passed on for second-hand use. In the US, for example, 85% of garments end up on landfills<ref name=":8" />, contributing to the 92 million tons of waste produced by the fashion industry annually<ref name=":7" />. While not all this waste directly impacts marine ecosystems, it serves to demonstrate how inefficient the fashion system currently is and the need to change it. Despite this, there is a trend towards increased levels of production with roughly twice as many garments currently being produced per year as compared to before 2000<ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Microplastic Contribution''' ===
According to one study, it is estimated that the production and degradation of fast fashion products through use and disposal account for up to 35% of microplastics added to the marine environment each year<ref>{{Cite book|title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: A global evaluation of sources|last=Boucher|first=Julien|last2=Friot|first2=Damien|publisher=IUCN|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>. This alone positions the fast fashion industry as a significant contributor to marine degradation. To put the scale of the problem into perspective, data from Europe and central Asia shows that per person the equivalent of 7.7 plastic bags per day is added to the ocean due to textile production and washing<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=March 2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|via=}}</ref>. In addition to this, packaging used in the fast fashion industry often consists of single use plastics. These can cause strangulation of marine organisms if they end up in the ocean and break down into microplastics.
[[File:COTTON.png|thumb|Figure 2: An infographic showing the amount of carbon dioxide released in the production of a cotton and a polyester t-shirt. Fast-fashion's trend towards using synthetic materials such as polyester is making the fashion industry much more carbon intensive<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Leal Filho|first=Walter|last2=Perry|first2=Patsy|last3=Heim|first3=Hilde|last4=Dinis|first4=Maria Alzira Pimenta|last5=Moda|first5=Haruna|last6=Ebhuoma|first6=Eromose|last7=Paço|first7=Arminda|date=5 September 2022|title=An overview of the contribution of the textiles sector to climate change|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.973102|journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science|volume=10|pages=|via=}}</ref>.]]

=== '''Climate Change Contribution''' ===
On top of this microplastic pollution, the industry contributes significantly to climate change, accounting for 8 to 10% of global greenhouse emissions<ref name=":9" />. This in turn accelerates processes such as ocean acidification and the numerous other marine impacts associated with global warming. The high carbon emissions of the fashion industry can also be traced back to fast fashion and the trend to create garments out of synthetic materials instead of natural ones. While a cotton t-shirt only emits 2.1 kg CO2 during its production, a polyester t-shirt, for example, emits 5.5 kg CO2 – more than double<ref name=":9" />.

==='''Impacts on Human Health'''===
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea foods such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabrics can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres, which could have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, it is uncertain whether humans are prone to these adverse effects if microfibres are ingested. Other studies argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on the human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process is still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risks of microfibres on the human health.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== '''Individual Initiatives''' ===
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for new clothes. The consumers are the driving factor for this demand, and therefore also bare a responsibility in the detrimental effects of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture. On an individual level, changes in shopping and washing behaviour could decrease the amount of microplastics that wind up in the ocean.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp, linen and Tencel lyocell are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=TENCEL™ fibers help maintain environmental balance by being integrated into nature´s cycle|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=Tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.025|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Changes in washing methods, can also reduce microfibre shedding. Washing products, such as Guppyfriend, aim to limit the amount of microfibres being released into the ocean, by minimizing fibre-shedding and containing microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be a successful way of entrapping microfibres, reducing microfibre emissions by 41% <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erdle|first=Lisa M.|last2=Parto|first2=Dorsa Nouri|last3=Sweetnam|first3=David|last4=Rochman|first4=Chelsea M.|date=2021|title=Washing Machine Filters Reduce Microfiber Emissions: Evidence From a Community-Scale Pilot in Parry Sound, Ontario|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865/full|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|volume=8|pages=|doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.777865|via=Frontiers}}</ref>.

The biggest problems lies in translating these intentions into actions. Despite younger people being the most aware of the environmental impacts of the fast-fashion industry and sustainable fashion brands, they prefer cheaper fashion brands <ref name=":0" />. Oftentimes, sustainable fashion brands are perceived to be expensive, less fashionable, and accessible than their fast-fashion counterparts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Lindsey|last2=Cervellon|first2=Marie-Cecile|date=2014|title=Ethical fashion dimensions:
pictorial and auditory depictions
through three cultural perspectives|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFMM-11-2012-0067/full/html|journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management|volume=18|issue=4|pages=483-506|doi=10.1108/jfmm-11-2012-0067|via=emerald insight}}</ref>. Further research into consumer behaviour and motivation could help in developing effective methods to encourage people to make these behavioural changes and purchase more sustainably.

=== Global Initiatives ===
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant to successfully apply new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011, aims to educate the public on the impact of plastics on human health, as well as developing solutions for preventing, cleaning up and processing plastic waste. One current concept under development in the Czech Republic is the use of nanorobots to clean marine microplastics<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hermanová|first=Soňa|date=February 2022|title=Micromachines for Microplastics Treatment|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00058|journal=ACS Nanoscience AU|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These solar-powered robots will collect microfibres as they move around the surface ocean and help to speed up microplastic degradation that occurs naturally with sun exposure. This project is working to ensure the materials using to construct the robots does not degrade sooner than the microplastics, and potentially contribute further to environmental problems. In England and Wales, the Microfibre Consortium has set up The Microfibre Roadmap, which is working towards zero impact from fibre fragmentation<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Microfibre Roadmap|url=https://www.microfibreconsortium.com/roadmap|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. This roadmap aims to collaborate with up to 250 existing textiles and clothing companies by 2030, offering best practice manufacturing guidelines, networking with stakeholders and other benefits to their signatories in an effort to promote sustainable clothing sourcing and production.

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-02-07T05:15:00Z

LeanneSu: edited text for impact on marine ecosystems

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Microplastic_Distribution_in_the_Arctic_Ocean.png|thumb|Figure 1: Microplastic Distribution in the Arctic Ocean. 71 seawater samples from 3-8m depth throughout the Arctic containing microplastic were collected by four different groups during four different expeditions. The blue squares denote samples collected on the CCGS Sir Wilfrid Laurier from the North Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea in 2016 (C30 2016). The black circles represent the samples collected by the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea expedition aboard the CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent, passing over the North Pole and into the Northern Canada Basin (UNCLOS 2016). The red triangles represent the Joint Ocean Ice Study aboard the CCGS Louis S. St Laurent with samples from the Canada Basin (JOIS 2016). Yellow triangles indicate the One Ocean Expeditions RV Akademik Ioffe, with samples collected from Greenland through the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago (One Ocean 2016). The pale blue diamonds represent samples from six stations in the Beaufort Sea down to 1015 m (JOIS depth sample). Arrows represent an approximate representation of the inflows of Atlantic- and Pacific-origin waters into the Arctic Ocean. The width of the arrows is proportional to the volume of the inflow. (Ross et al., 2016)]]
Fast fashion is the term used to describe the unsustainable, as well as unethical, proportion of the fashion industry that is dominated by massive conglomerate companies. These companies focus on the replication of high designer trends at a fraction of the cost of their competitors, appealing especially to the younger generations of today’s consumer driven economy. This is highly profitable for companies such as the Chinese e-commerce platform SHEIN, which is worth an estimated $100 billion, and continues to grow exponentially, leading the global fashion market (Al Mallees, 2022). They are able to profit immensely due to the severe decrease in material quality as well as production quality. Uploading over 6,000 new items every day to their website, SHEIN demands a breakneck pace of fabrication from their suppliers, which severely reduces the quality of the items. These mass production factories are also sites of incredible water waste (Jun, 2021), as well as unregulated working conditions, causing many ethical, health, and environmental issues for their suppliers (Ruggiero et al., 2021).

SHEIN and other countries distribute worldwide, allowing their cheap, low quality clothing to reach every corner on Earth. Unfortunately, commonly used synthetic fabrics such as nylon and polyester are essentially made out of plastic, and involve toxic, non biodegradable chemicals in their production process. When these clothes are sent worldwide, so are these chemicals and plastics. When fabrics break down, they release microfibers into their environment. Researchers have proposed that a single load of laundry has the potential to release hundreds of thousands of microfibers into the water supply (Ruggiero et al., 2021). By contaminating the water supply, these fibers can easily travel into the ocean and marine environments. Since synthetic fabrics like polyester are plastic based, their microfibers are microplastics, and are likely most damaging to natural environments due to their toxic and non biodegradable chemical content. Ross et al. also demonstrated that a single major secondary wastewater treatment plant can deliver as much as 21 billion microfibres into the receiving environment annually. Once in the ocean, these microplastics are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers away from their input location, just by riding ocean currents. In Figure 1, the distribution of microplastic samples in the Arctic ocean was analyzed and mapped. It was found that the inflow from the Atlantic ocean contained the highest concentration of microplastics, with almost three times more particles found in the east Arctic versus the west Arctic (Ross et al., 2016).

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

==== Microfibres ====
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibres that persist in marine environments <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibres to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machines, these fibres get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibres move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fibre particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibres is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Zooplankton, coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibres <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibres being non-biodegradable, they also absorb preceding chemical pollutants and oil in the marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibres, marine species impair their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibres by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fibre fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibres consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs or digestive glands and cause obstruction in the gut <ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, duration of digestion, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and the deprivation of natural food <ref name=":1" />.

==== Textile Dyes ====
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. This restricts photosynthesis from occurring which consequently inhibits marine life as it is the leading form of primary production. In absence of light, there is no photosynthesis, and without photosynthesis, primary producers are unable to support the deep ocean food web. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

==== '''Impact on Human Health''' ====
Humans are exposed to microfibres through the consumption of sea food such as shellfish and crustaceans<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Cauwenberghe|first=Lisbeth|last2=Janssen|first2=Colin R.|date=2014|title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749114002425#:~:text=Microplastics%20are%20present%20in%20two%20bivalve%20species%20cultured%20for%20human%20consumption.&text=Mussels%20had%20an%20average%20plastic,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=Oyster%20had%20on%20average%200.47,per%20gram%20tissue%20(ww).&text=The%20annual%20dietary%20exposure%20of,be%20up%20to%2011%2C000%20microplastics.|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=193|pages=65-70|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Microfibres from synthetic fabric can be potentially damaging as they expose humans to plastic as well as chemical particles. Very small particles have the ability to pass through the cell membrane, which could result in cell damage, inflammation and oxidative stress <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vethaak|first=A. Dick|last2=Leslie|first2=Heather A.|date=2016|title=Plastic Debris is a Human Health Issue|url=https://pubs-acs-org.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02569#|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=50|pages=6825-6826|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02569|via=}}</ref>. Chemical additives such as Phthalates, Polychlorinated bisphenyles (PCB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) are contained in microfibres. It has been shown that these chemicals can have numerous harmful effects on the human health, causing an imbalance on female reproductive hormones, injuries of the intestines, liver and kidneys and showing carcinogenic properties <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future
challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. However, others argue that with the current uptake rate, serious toxicity of microfibres is not very likely <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waring|first=R.H|last2=Harris|first2=R.M.|last3=Mitchell|first3=S.C.|date=2018|title=Plastic contamination of the food chain: A threat to human health?|url=|journal=Maturitas|volume=115|pages=64-68|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.010|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>.

The exact consequences of microfibres on human health remain unclear. The effect of microfibres on the digestive process are still in its early stages of research and it is uncertain what the long-term risks are <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Beverley|last2=Laitala|first2=Kirsi|last3=Klepp|first3=Ingun Grimstad|date=2019|title=Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896971834049X?via%3Dihub#bb0515|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=652|pages=483-494|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.166|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Overall more research is necessary to evaluate potential risk of microfibre on human health.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
· What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

· What is the present status compared to the past?

· What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for the new clothes. The consumers are the driving factor for this demand, and therefore also bare a responsibility in the detrimental effects of the fast-fashion industry to the marine environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture. On an individual level, changes in shopping and washing behaviour could decrease the amount of microplastics that wind up in the ocean.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp, linen and Tencel lyocell are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Sustainability|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Changes in washing methods, can also reduce microfibre shedding. Washing products, such as Guppyfriend, aim to limit the amount of microfibres being released into the ocean, by minimizing fibre-shedding and containing microfibres within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be a successful way of entrapping microfibres, reducing microfibre emissions by 41% <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erdle|first=Lisa M.|last2=Parto|first2=Dorsa Nouri|last3=Sweetnam|first3=David|last4=Rochman|first4=Chelsea M.|date=2021|title=Washing Machine Filters Reduce Microfiber Emissions: Evidence From a Community-Scale Pilot in Parry Sound, Ontario|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865/full|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|volume=8|pages=|doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.777865|via=Frontiers}}</ref>.

The biggest problems lies in translating these intentions into actions. Despite younger people being the most aware of the environmental impacts of the fast-fashion industry and sustainable fashion brands, they prefer cheaper fashion brands <ref name=":0" />. Oftentimes, sustainable fashion brands are perceived to be expensive, less fashionable, and accessible than their fast-fashion counterparts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Lindsey|last2=Cervellon|first2=Marie-Cecile|date=2014|title=Ethical fashion dimensions:
pictorial and auditory depictions
through three cultural perspectives|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFMM-11-2012-0067/full/html|journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management|volume=18|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Global Initiatives ====
As the prevalence of microfibres in marine systems increases, countries around the world and international organizations have begun developing their own practices and policies to counter microfibre pollution. These changes can range from implementing preventative measures to advancing cleaning technologies to resolve current problems.

The United Nations (UN) has several branches that focus on reducing plastic pollution. Namely, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched their Clean Seas Campaign in 2017, which aims to enact changes to standardized practices and policies around marine litter on individual, local, industry and governmental levels<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Clean Seas|url=https://www.cleanseas.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Although this organization is more focused on the elimination of single-use plastics, their recent report "From Pollution to Solution" (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=From Pollution to Solution|url=https://www.unep.org/resources/pollution-solution-global-assessment-marine-litter-and-plastic-pollution|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=unep.org}}</ref> acknowledges the dangers of microplastics in cigarette filters, textiles and cosmetic products. In partnership with UNEP, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion places equal emphasis on both the social and environmental issues surrounding fast fashion and the unethical production of textiles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion|url=https://unfashionalliance.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=05-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. While the involvement of large international organizations is significant in the successful application of new policies, many of their initiatives are more driven towards reducing plastic consumption, rather than the elimination of microfibres.

Several European countries are actively working on solutions for the growing microfibre issue. The Plastic Soup Foundation, founded in the Netherlands in February 2011,

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/The impact of the fast-fashion industry on the marine environment

2023-02-05T23:31:57Z

LeanneSu: added text and citations for impact on marine ecosystems

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

· Where does the problem occur?

· How pervasive is the problem?

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==

==== Microfibers ====
Synthetic apparels are unable to fully break down and instead, shed into tiny plastic fibers that persist in marine environments <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Rojalin Priyadarshini|last2=Mishra|first2=Sunanda|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2020|title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation|url=|journal=Chemosphere|volume=257|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. When clothes are washed through washing machines, friction from the laundry process causes fibers to detach from the garments and end up mixing with the water <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=Andrew|last2=Fletcher|first2=Kate|last3=Francis|first3=Robert A.|last4=Rigby|first4=Emma Dulcie|last5=Roberts|first5=Thomas|date=2017|title=Fashion, Sustainability, and the Anthropocene|url=|journal=Utopian Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=482-504|doi=https://doi.org/10.5325/utopianstudies.28.3.0482|via=}}</ref>. From the washing machine, these fibers get released and flow into sewage systems where they build up in bodies of water <ref name=":2" />. As a result, microfibers move downstream through rivers and make their way into the deep ocean where they are ingested by marine organisms <ref name=":1" />. Small animals in the aquatic environment consume these fiber particles and taint higher trophic levels of the food chain <ref name=":1" />. In particular, the uptake of microfibers is common in plankton, which serves as a fundamental base for the marine food web <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Sunanda|last2=Rath|first2=Chandi charan|last3=Das|first3=Alok Prasad|date=2019|title=Marine microfiber pollution: A review on present status and future challenges|url=|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=140|pages=188-197|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.01.039|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Zooplankton, coral, fish, crabs, mussels, and whales are among numerous marine species that also feed on microfibers <ref name=":3" />.

In addition to microfibers being non-biodegradable, they also absorb preceding chemical pollutants and oil in the marine systems <ref name=":1" />. By ingesting these microfibers, marine species impair their metabolism and overall health <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Periyasamy|first=Aravin Prince|last2=Tehrani-Bagha|first2=Ali|date=2022|title=A review on microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques|url=|journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability|volume=199|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. The consumption of microfibers by the organisms is unintentional due to their inability to distinguish the fiber fragments apart from real food sources <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Sanjit|last2=Rumi|first2=Shaida S|last3=Hu|first3=Yang|last4=Abidi|first4=Noureddine|date=2021|title=Microfibers from synthetic textiles as a major source of microplastics in the environment: A review|url=|journal=Textile Research Journal|volume=91|issue=17-18|pages=|doi=https://doi.org/10.1177/0040517521991244|via=}}</ref>. In effect, their physiological conditions are negatively affected in which development, maturation, and reproduction are hindered <ref name=":1" />. Microfibers consumed by aquatic animals can clog respiratory organs or digestive glands and cause obstruction in the gut <ref name=":4" />. This may reduce their feeding potential, duration of digestion, hunting skills, and mobility performance <ref name=":1" />. Eventually, such adverse effects can lead to the death of marine life owing to the lack of proper nutrition and the deprivation of natural food <ref name=":1" />.

==== Textile Dyes ====
Textile dyes contain several hazardous chemicals and toxic substances that are disposed of in wastewater and into marine systems <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Khattab|first=Tawfik A.|last2=Abdelrahman|first2=Meram S.|last3=Rehan|first3=Mohamed|date=2019|title=Textile dyeing industry: environmental impacts and remediation|url=|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume=27|issue=4|pages=3803-3818|doi=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07137-z|via=}}</ref>. Not only do the dyes cause excess turbidity that produces poor water clarity and a foul smell to the water, but the increased turbidity levels also prevent sunlight from penetrating through the waters <ref name=":5" />. This restricts photosynthesis from occurring which consequently inhibits marine life as the process of photosynthesis is the leading form of primary production. In absence of light, there is no photosynthesis, and without photosynthesis, photosynthetic primary producers are unable to support the deep ocean food web. Hence, the entire marine ecosystem is threatened due to decreased photosynthetic activity and loss of primary production.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
· What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

· What is the present status compared to the past?

· What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
The fast-fashion industry created an environment of low-quality mass-production and a continuous consumer demand for the new clothes. The consumers are the driving factor for this demand, and therefore also bare a responsibility in the detrimental effects of the fast-fashion industry to the marine environment. However, small lifestyle change could mitigate these problems and generate a more sustainable shopping-culture. On an individual level, changes in shopping and washing behaviour could decrease the amount of microplastics that wind up in the ocean.

For one, the fabric material can already make a big difference. Clothing produced from organic or recycled cotton, hemp, linen and Tencel lyocell are not only biodegradable but also require less water for production <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Sustainability|url=https://www.tencel.com/sustainability|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=tencel}}</ref>. Recently, thrift stores have become increasingly more popular due to a renewed interest in vintage or retro style<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Hyun Jung|last2=Lin|first2=Li Min|date=2020|title=Exploring attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption: comparison of
recycled and upcycled fashion products|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318304004|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=117|pages=623-628|via=Elsevier ScienceDirect}}</ref>. Donating clothes minimizes the amount of trash that would end up in a landfill and buying second-hand clothes avoids the costly production of a new garment.

Changes in washing methods, can also reduce microfiber shedding. Washing products, such as Guppyfriend, aim to limit the amount of microfibers being released into the ocean, by minimizing fibre-shedding and containing microfibers within the washing bag<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Guppyfriend|url=https://guppyfriend.us/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04-02-2023|website=}}</ref>. Installing washing machine filters have also proven to be a succesful way of entrapping microfibers, reducing microfiber emmissions by 41% <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erdle|first=Lisa M.|last2=Parto|first2=Dorsa Nouri|last3=Sweetnam|first3=David|last4=Rochman|first4=Chelsea M.|date=2021|title=Washing Machine Filters Reduce Microfiber Emissions: Evidence From a Community-Scale Pilot in Parry Sound, Ontario|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.777865/full|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|volume=8|pages=|doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.777865|via=Frontiers}}</ref>.

The biggest problems lies in translating these intententions into actions. Despite younger people being the most aware of the environmental impacts of the fast-fashion industry and sustainable fashion brands, they prefer cheaper fashion brands <ref name=":0" />. Oftentimes, sustainable fashion brands are perceived to be expensive, less fashionable, and accessible than their fast-fashion counterparts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Lindsey|last2=Cervellon|first2=Marie-Cecile|date=2014|title=Ethical fashion dimensions:
pictorial and auditory depictions
through three cultural perspectives|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JFMM-11-2012-0067/full/html|journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management|volume=18|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

== References ==
<references />

User:LeanneSu

2023-01-24T02:21:04Z

LeanneSu: Created page with "Hello! My name is Leanne Su and I am a second year student majoring in Microbiology and Oceanography. My knowledge about marine ecosystems is minimal so I am excited to enha..."

Hello! My name is Leanne Su and I am a second year student majoring in Microbiology and Oceanography.

My knowledge about marine ecosystems is minimal so I am excited to enhance my understanding of the diversity of marine ecosystems through [[Course:EOSC270|EOSC270.]] In particular, I am most interested in learning in depth about human impacts on marine ecosystems and marine ecological restoration.