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Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-18T01:46:12Z

JenniferLam: /* Statement of Connection and why you chose it */

== Summary/Overview ==
The 2018 Kilauea Eruption represents a recent, real-time demonstration of the inseparable relationship between Earth’s geological forces and biological systems. This catastrophic event was driven by a series of subterranean shifts, beginning with increased magma pressurization and the subsequent collapse of the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent on April 30, 2018. A structural failure of this size forced a massive underground magma intrusion down the Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ), triggering a historic Mw 6.9 earthquake that dilated the rift and unleashed a destructive effusive eruption through 24 open fissures. Over a three-month period, molten basaltic lava flows completely reshaped the landscape, burying over 14 square miles of lush, subtropical rainforest while the summit caldera underwent massive collapses.

While devastating, this geological upheaval acts as a reset button for the biosphere. By erasing existing habitats and replacing them with completely sterile rock, the eruption provides a blank canvas for ecological primary succession, paving the way for specialized pioneer species to slowly rebuild a new, highly resilient biological community from the ground up. The immense volumes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released during the eruption altered atmospheric chemistry, generating persistent ash fall, volcanic fog (VOG), and laze directly challenged localized biodiversity and human respiratory health. The goal of this page is to analyze the geological triggers and environmental aftermath of the 2018 Kilauea eruption, illustrating how violent planetary disruptions actively dictate the colonization, evolution, and long-term sustainability of various living ecosystems.

== Statement of Connection and why you chose it ==
My desire to investigate the biological consequences of volcanic activity stems from a desire to explore how geology and biology can dictate the rules of life, a relationship that is seen by the 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawai'i. From the many biology classes I have taken throughout my undergraduate journey, I found that we often study cellular, physiological, and environmental ecosystems as established systems. However, in EOSC courses, that is not always the case. By focusing on volcanic events, it forces us to analyze ecological assembly from absolute zero. Volcanism serves as the ultimate geological catalyst for primary succession as it provides a barren canvas where the fundamental rules of life are explicitly visible. Geology and Biology are heavily intertwined as the geological concepts provide an explanation for the physical and chemical foundations for life, while biology actively reshapes the geological landscapes. By centering our project on Hawai'i's unique island ecosystem, we can directly bridge the gap between the Earth's systems and living networks. The 2018 Kilauea Eruption is a clear example of how a violent physical Earth process is not just a force of destruction, but also the starting point for new biodiversity to accumulate. This allows us to track how a singular geological disruption can have ripple effects that fundamentally reshape global climate patterns and biodiversity, drive localized evolutionary adaptation, alter atmospheric and land chemistry through volcanic gases and lava, dictate the long-term sustainability of ecological communities, and present the immediate public health challenges for human health (LP).

Having visited Hawaii in the last 5 years, the idea to research the Kilauea eruption came to mind knowing how diverse, sensitive, and dynamic the ecosystem is. It’s a beautiful place to visit with such an interesting environment to be in knowing how connected the people are with nature. Coming from a Biology background, Ecology is a primary focus that is studied and many examples that are shown are from the Pacific Islands. One of the most intriguing things about Kilauea is how volcanically active the region is and how this causes rapid changes in the population and ecosystem. We are observing ecological changes in real time given the nature of Kilauea. Volcanic eruptions are prime examples of primary succession allowing us to investigate how species adapt to extreme conditions. Researching how this disturbance and the effects of the eruption with the surrounding ecosystem provide the ability to connect biological concepts such as allopatric speciation to the geological causes bridging biology to geological change (ZO).

Volcanic eruptions have always been a symbol of Hawaii, which is one of the reasons why I chose to investigate Kilauea. More specifically, I chose to investigate the 2018 Kilauea eruption because it highlights how biological systems are influenced by geological processes. It demonstrates how volcanic activity can rapidly alter habitats, affect biodiversity, and initiate long-term ecological change. Therefore, by exploring this topic and this case study, I hope to better understand how Earth’s internal processes shape the conditions that allow ecosystems to develop, adapt, and persist over time (JL).

[[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates a cross-section of the tectonic plate mechanism of the Hawaiian Hotspot. As the Pacific Plate moves northwestward over a fixed mantle plume, it creates a chronological chain of volcanoes, where island age increases as it moves away from the magma source. |457x457px]]

== '''Brief Overview of Hawaiian Topography''' ==
The Hawaiian Islands form a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean consisting of eight major islands - Hawai’i, Maui, O’ahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lāna’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe. These series of islands are the result of volcanism associated with a hot spot, which is associated with persistent volcanic activity. This hotspot remains stationary while the tectonic plates, specifically in this case the Pacific Plate, move northwest over the hotspot, leading to the formation of the various Hawaiian Islands<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Geology and Ecology of National Parks|title=Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park|url=https://www.usgs.gov/geology-and-ecology-of-national-parks/geology-hawaii-volcanoes-national-park|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. As the plates continue to move, this on-going movement creates new islands in the process as magma rises and erupts on the seafloor. Volcanoes further away from the hot spot are considered to be older and inactive, as they lack a continuous stream of magma, while volcanoes closer to the hot spot are younger and pose more of a threat due to the increase in their activity and abundant supply of magma<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 16, 2024|title=How did the Hawaiian Islands form?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hawaii.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. Typically, shield volcanoes are found on the Hawaiian Islands. These volcanoes are characterized by their broad, shallow sloping profiles with mafic lava flows and effusive eruptions.

== '''Volcanic Activity on the Hawaiian Islands''' ==
[[File:Kilauea Shield Volcano Hawaii 20071209A.jpg|thumb|272x272px|Mauna Ulu, an inactive shield volcano, displays the classic broad, low-profile characteristic of shield volcanoes. Its gentle sloping geometry is created and shaped by highly basaltic lava flows that travel great distances before solidifying. ]]
[[File:Location Hawaii Volcanoes.svg|thumb|This geological map of the Island of Hawai'i displays the geographic boundaries of the five major shield volcanos that form the island: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. |289x289px]]
Due to the movement of the Pacific Plate over a stationary mantle hotspot, the islands exhibit a distinct age progression where the youngest volcanoes are found on the southeastern end of the Hawaiian chain, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Island of Hawai'i is composed of five major shield volcanoes, each representing a different stage in the life cycle of a hotspot island. Moving northwestward away from the primary hotspot, the islands transition to its older, less active structures known as Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Hualālai. Kohala is the oldest and the only extinct volcano of these five major volcanoes as it is believed to have last erupted 120, 000 years ago, sometime during the late Pleistocene epoch <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=January 13, 2026|title=How Many Volcanoes Make Up the Big Island of Hawaii?|url=https://biologyinsights.com/how-many-volcanoes-make-up-the-big-island-of-hawaii/|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=biologyinsights}}</ref>. It is anchored at the northern tip of the island and its deeply eroded valleys and dramatic sea cliffs demonstrate the fate of these volcanoes, as the tectonic forces shift away from the hotspot. Mauna Kea is located in the northern part of the island. It is a giant volcano that is dormant and last erupted somewhere from 6,000 to 4,500 years ago <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2025|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. This volcano is culturally sacred to the Native Hawaiians and from the oceanic floor, it stands at an impressive height of over 10, 210 meters (33, 500 feet) tall <ref name=":1" />. To the west lies Hualālai. This volcano is the third most active on the island and has erupted 3 times in the past 1,000 years <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Currently, it remains dormant, but still poses dangerous risks and requires monitoring as the last eruption occurred in 1801 and rising magma is believed to be the cause of an earthquake in 1929 <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=June 10, 2026|title=Big Island Hawaii Volcanoes|url=https://www.explore-the-big-island.com/hawaii-volcanoes.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=Explore The Big Island}}</ref>. Others may consider it an active volcano as there is a possibility that it may erupt in the future.

At the island’s southeastern core lies Mauna Loa and Kilauea. These volcanoes are the most active volcanoes in the region where Mauna Loa has erupted 34 times since 1843 and Kilauea has experienced near-continuous eruptive activity from 1983 to 2018 <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano, in terms of its volume and area, as it accounts for 51% of Hawai’i’s landmass <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. In 2022, the volcano erupted for a span of two weeks where its lava flows came within 2.8 kilometers of the Daniel K. Inouye Highway and due to this recent eruption, the volcano is still deemed to pose severe threats <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Kilauea is the youngest and by far the most active volcano of the five major ones found on Hawai’i. Located on the island’s southeastern part, this is the most dangerous volcano as its continuous eruptions, especially from 1983 until 2018, have resulted in severe environmental impacts for both various animal species and humans<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />.

== '''Case Study: Mt. Kilauea 2018 Volcano Eruption''' ==

=== '''Introduction to Kilauea''' ===
Mt. Kilauea, or simply known as Kilauea, is an active basaltic shield volcano located on Hawaii Island. It is the youngest and most active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. Due to its frequent eruptions over the past century, much of the volcano's surface is geologically young; only 10% of Kilauea’s surface consists of rock older than 1000 years, while around 90% is covered by lava flows younger than 1000 years <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Kyle R.|last2=Shea|first2=Thomas|last3=Lynn|first3=Kendra J.|last4=Montgomery-Brown|first4=Emily K.|last5=Swanson|first5=Donald A.|last6=Patrick|first6=Matthew R.|last7=Shiro|first7=Brian R.|last8=Neal|first8=Christina A.|date=2023|title=The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea: Insights, puzzles, and opportunities for Volcano Science|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075925|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|via=USGS Publications Warehouse}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawai’i.|date=2025, March 20|title=Eruptions of Kīlauea|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/eruptions.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June 16|website=National Parks Service}}</ref>.

Before 2018, Kilauea had been erupting almost continuously for more than a century, interrupted only by short periods of repose. One of its most notable periods of activity began in March 2008, when a new vent opened within Halemaʻumaʻu Crater and formed a persistent lava lake at the summit. Although the lava lake remained relatively stable from 2013 to 2018, its level frequently rose and fell in response to changes in pressure within the summit magma chamber. Occasional overflows spread fresh lava across portions of the crater floor, providing clear evidence of ongoing active volcanic activity. By 2016 and 2017, the lava lake was often visible from public viewing areas in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and had become a major tourist attraction <ref>{{Cite web|first=Kīlauea|date=November 23, 2023|title=Chronology of Kīlauea's summit eruption, 2008–2018|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/chronology-kilaueas-summit-eruption-2008-2018#overview|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geology Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

This long period of sustained activity culminated in the 2018 eruption, one of the most significant volcanic events in Hawaii’s recorded history. Unlike previous eruptions, the 2018 eruption was considered the most impactful volcanic eruption in centuries, as it coincided with a massive summit collapse, resulting in widespread environmental, social, and economic impacts <ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawaii|date=June 7, 2021|title=2018 Eruption and Summit Collapse|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/2018-eruption.htm|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=National Park Service}}</ref>. The scale and complexity of the eruption make it an important event for studying volcanic processes and their immediate effect on human health, biodiversity, ecological communities, and more.

=== '''Geological Triggers Leading to the Eruption''' ===
While Kilauea’s eruption caught public attention in May 2018, the geological and tectonic triggers behind it had been accumulating immense structural stress for decades until the system eventually met its breaking point and collapsed. Deep down in the mantle, intense heat melts rock into magma and since it is hot and buoyant, magma can force its way upward toward the surface. Before an eruption occurs, the magma pools into a reservoir complex, a tank that directly sits underneath the volcano’s summit caldera, roughly 1-5 km beneath the surface <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick|first=M.R.|last2=Houghton|first2=B.F.|last3=Anderson|first3=K.R.|last4=Poland|first4=M.P.|last5=Montgomery-Brown|first5=E.|last6=Johanson|first6=I.|last7=Thelen|first7=W.|last8=Elias|first8=T.|date=2020|title=The cascading origin of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption and implications for future forecasting|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2471544946?pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|pages=1-14}}</ref>. From here, the magma is able to either pump straight up to feed the active vents inside the main summit crater or it can be pushed and stored sideways into long, weak structural cracks into rift zones. Given Kilauea’s history, where its East Rift Zone is active, its south flank continuously slid seaward at a rate of up to 8 centimeters per year <ref name=":4" />. This long-term movement resulted in immense extensional stress on the shallow rift zones, which steadily reduced the amount of internal magma pressure required to split the rift open and result in dike intrusions and fissure eruptions <ref name=":4" />. Prior to 2018, Kilauea had constant eruptions since 1983 at or near the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent in the Middle East Rift Zone (MERZ) while its last eruptions in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) occurred in 1961 <ref name=":4" />. Following the Pu’u’Ōʻō eruption in 1983, the summit magma reservoir deflated for decades due to fluctuating internal pressure. It wasn’t until 2010 when the entire shallow magmatic plumbing system underwent sustained inflation and this pattern continued for years afterward, directly causing the Halema’uma’u lava lake to steadily rise until Kilauea’s massive eruption in 2018. In the first quarter of 2018, tilt and GPS instruments recorded the highest levels of magma pressurization seen at Kilauea in at least two decades and because 57 years had passed since the last LERZ eruption, the region was structurally compromised for a major opening <ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Kilauea eastern rift zone fissure eruption May 2018.jpg|thumb|366x366px|The early stages of the May 2018 Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced explosive lava fountains from newly opened fissures. This intense activity rapidly generated wildfires and smothered local flora, illustrating Kilauea's immediate, destructive force. ]]
In March and April of 2018, the rate of system pressurization accelerated dramatically, while the volume of lava exiting the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent was actively waning. This created “magma backup”, where the volcano lacked an efficient exit point so the bottled-up magma intensified and caused lava lakes at both the summit and the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent to rise to unusually high levels <ref name=":4" />. In the weeks leading to the Kilauea eruption, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) issued various early warning signs starting on April 17 based on new data demonstrating changes in lava lakes, ground swelling, and increased seismic activity <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Youhua|last2=Tong|first2=Daniel Q.|last3=Yang|first3=Kai|last4=Lee|first4=Pius|last5=Baker|first5=Barry|last6=Crawford|first6=Alice|last7=Luke|first7=Winston|last8=Stein|first8=Ariel|last9=Campbell|first9=Patrick C.|displayauthors=et al.|date=September 15, 2020|title=Air quality impacts of the 2018 Mt. Kilauea Volcano eruption in Hawaii: A regional chemical transport model study with satellite-constrained emissions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020303800|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=237}}</ref>. The tipping point occurred on April 30, 2018 when a small fissure eruption developed into the west flank of the Pu’u’Ōʻō, which led to the vent collapsing <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />. Over the course of the next several days, after this collapse, magma began migrating down rift and many earthquakes were recorded. On May 3, the advancing magma breached the surface, opening the first of 24 eruptive fissures within the Leilani Estates subdivision <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2023|title=2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption and Summit Collapse at Kīlauea|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/2018-lower-east-rift-zone-eruption-and-summit-collapse-kilauea|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. The following day, on May 4, the intense stress of this massive subsurface magma injection triggered a (moment magnitude) Mw 6.9 earthquake along Kilauea’s south flank, which further opened up the rift <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />. This event marked the largest recorded earthquake in Hawai’i in 43 years where this tectonic shift caused 5 meters of sudden fault slip, characterizing this as the largest LERZ eruption and summit collapse within the past 200 years<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

According to a NASA-funded study, it was found that potentially a prolonged duration of heavy rainfall in the months preceding the eruption could have been a culprit in this eruption. As rainfall increased, water was able to infiltrate into the Earth’s shallow crust, which in turn weakened rock formations and made it easier for magma to break through to the surface <ref name=":6" />. That being said, this hypothesis is highly debated among many volcanologists as extrinsic triggers, such as heavy rainfall, are not the main reason as to why this eruption occurred <ref name=":4" />. Ground data collected in the weeks prior to the event reveal that there were exceptionally high rates of widespread inflation and dramatic lava lake level rises. So while rainwater may have altered the rock’s fracturing threshold, the increased pressure in magma had led to the structural breaking point <ref name=":4" />.

=== '''Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts (Air and Climate)''' ===
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2062.jpg|thumb|392x392px|Helicopter overflight view of Kilauea Volcano's Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) captured on May 19, 2018. Sourced from fissures 16-20, this volcanic discharge overruns local roads and vegetation, demonstrating its sheer destruction and devastation. ]]
Kilauea’s eruption unleashed massive volumes of lava, ash, and volcanic gases that radically altered the biosphere. This eruption officially commenced when lava and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emerged from fissures within the Eastern Rift Zone (ERZ) <ref name=":5" />.The advancing lava flows from Kilauea acted as an immediate, devastating force that rapidly eradicated both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As molten lava moves across a landscape, its intense heat instantly kills any and all flora and fauna in its path, while the cooling, thickening lava crust extinguishes the underlying soil <ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Hodges|first=Meghan|date=Oct 18, 2025|title=Kilauea's Eruptions: Environmental Impacts And Ecosystem Changes Explored|url=https://shunwaste.com/article/how-does-kilauea-affect-the-environment|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Shun Waste}}</ref>. All of the affected areas transformed into basaltic, barren, and inhospitable terrain. This new environment now lacked the proper nutrients, minerals, soil, and moisture needed to sustain various life forms and any specialized species, especially endemic Hawaiian plants and animals, faced intensified competition for shrinking food and shelter resources <ref name=":7" />.

During the month of May, the eruption advanced further down rift into dramatic lava fountain eruptions from newly opened fissures <ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously, the summit reservoir drained, causing the lava lake levels to drop, the crater walls gave way in a massive summit collapse, and a hazardous mixture of ash and SO2 ejected into the atmosphere <ref name=":6" />. By mid-May, the LERZ eruption resulted in an increase in hotter and additional magma from multiple vents, which in turn produced faster lava flows <ref name=":6" />. Since the lava was able to travel faster and farther out, these basaltic flows not only buried tropical forests and extinguished wildlife habitats, but its destruction crossed into a major highway extending into the ocean on May 19 near the Mackenzie State Recreational Area <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />.
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2069.jpg|thumb|397x397px|As the fast flowing lava meets the coastal waters, the resulting interaction produces laze, triggering severe environmental stress for nearshore marine organisms and coastal food chains. ]]
[[File:Kilauea Fissure 8 cone erupting on 6-28-2018.jpg|thumb|398x398px|Aerial view of the active fissure 8 during the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, which would eventually account for two-thirds of the total volume erupted during this event. ]]
On May 27, eruptive activity returned to fissure 8 and within a 24 hour window, an 80 meter high lava fountain rapidly built a surrounding tephra cone which produced a channelized lava flow that advanced northeast and entered the ocean at Kapoho Bay on June 3 <ref name=":6" />. With fissure 8’s lava flow expanded, it was able to enter the sea at multiple locations. As a result, molten lava formed new lava deltas. The interaction between Kilauea’s molten lava and the ocean generated a hazardous phenomenon known as laze, which is a toxic mixture of water vapor, hydrochloric acid, and fine volcanic particles <ref name=":7" />. Laze drastically lowered the pH of the surrounding water, producing acidic conditions, altered salinity levels, and shifts in temperature. This destruction subjected local marine life, such as fish, plankton, sea turtles, sea birds, and delicate coral reef populations, to extreme thermal stress, decreased oxygen levels, chemical pollution, and displacement from vital nesting grounds <ref name=":7" />. Ultimately, these compounding hazards presented severe physical challenges for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

While many species perished, those that survived were forced into smaller habitable regions where vegetation and shelter became scarce. As time went on, competition for resources increased and long-term population declined as reproductive rates lowered and local extinctions grew. By the time the eruption ended in early August, Kilauea expelled roughly 1 cubic kilometer of lava, with two-thirds of that total volume originating solely from fissure 8 <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 14, 2026|title=2018 Eruption|url=https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/resources/2018-eruption|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Kilauea Eruption Recovery}}</ref>. This ecological erasure completely reshaped the landscape where 8,488 acres of land was flooded with lava, destroying 500 acres of protected forest reserve and several marine ecosystems <ref name=":8" />.
Beyond the immediate destruction caused by molten lava, Kilauea’s atmospheric emissions imposed severe tolls on the region’s air quality and terrestrial ecosystems through ash fallout and volcanic fog (VOG). When Kilauea erupted, it released vast amounts of fine volcanic ash that settled over the surrounding landscape, forming a dense, opaque layer. These ash fallouts physically crushed smaller vegetation and stunted the growth of larger plants, while its chemical composition of sulfur and heavy metals, toxified and altered the soil’s pH <ref name=":7" />. The drastic chemical changes turned the soil acidic, which further stressed the plants, disrupted nutrient uptake, and led to soil degradation <ref name=":7" />. Simultaneously, the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other volcanic gases created VOG. Due to its high toxicity load, during the LERZ eruption, extreme traces of SO2 in the air required mandatory evacuations even for individuals far from the initial impacted lava flow zones <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Zinkova|first=Mila|date=August 6, 2019|title=2018 Kīlauea eruption|url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wea.3589|journal=Weather|volume=75|pages=214-220}}</ref>. Driven by shifting wind patterns, these choking fumes frequently bypassed nearby cities like Hilo and pushed over 100 kilometers away to cities such as Kona and others found on the opposite end of the island <ref name=":9" />.[[File:May 9, 2018- Halemaumau ash cloud (49888154838).jpg|thumb|Volcanic ash clouds from the Halema'uma'u crater at the summit of Kilauea on May 9, 2018. The plume was generated by frequent rockfalls and debris collapsing into the receding lava lake. |397x397px]]The reach of the ash fall and VOG produced from Kilauea was massive and posed serious health risks. However, the blockage of sunlight by volcanic ash created both physical and environmental barriers that disrupted photosynthesis. As ash fall coats leaf surfaces, this barrier reflects and absorbs incoming solar radiation, completely blocking sunlight from penetrating the leaf tissue. Since plants were unable to convert light into usable energy, many suffered from a drastic reduction in food production, stunted growth, and weakened resilience. Given that plants form the foundational base of the ecosystem, the reduction of sunlight triggered a devastating domino effect throughout the food chain where herbivores suffered from severe food scarcity, which subsequently starved predators, and overall impacted regional biodiversity <ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Ecological Destruction and Biodiversity Reset''' ===
[[File:Sulfur dioxide emissions from the Halemaumau vent 04-08-1 1.jpg|thumb|Sulfur dioxide emissions from the Halemaumau vent. ]]
Following the Kilauea eruption the surrounding ecosystem was completely erased. Lava flows reaching 1170°C covered 35.5 km2 destroying 2.0 km2 of forest reserve including the Pu’ala’a low-land rainforest and the Kilauea summit<ref name=":8" />. 80 anchialine pools were destroyed within the Kapoho Bay and Wai‘ōpae Tidepools Marine Life Conservation District. The eruption expanded the shoreline by 3.5 km2 with it destroying the Ahalanui Beach Park<ref name=":8" />.

The eruption released 100,000 tons of sulfur dioxide SO2 into the atmosphere per day causing intense volcanic smog<ref name=":12" />. When introduced with atmospheric moisture or directly with moisture on plants it reacts to produce sulfuric acid H2SO4 causing the defoliation of plants and destroying the tree canopy of the rainforest<ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously the eruption created pyrocumulonimbus clouds due to the heat and moisture causing strong updrafts, whirlwinds, and thunderstorms with 13.97 inches of rain within the 24 hours preceding the eruption<ref name=":9" />.
[[File:Lava rock cairns at Kiluea Iki volcano crater.jpg|thumb|Plant growth through cooled volcanic rock at the bottom of Kīlauea Iki volcanic crater. ]]
As lava flows reached the Pacific Ocean, localized temperatures spiked to 49°C killing marine life including reef structures, phytoplankton and algae. Interestingly, west of the island, the iron and phosphorus from the lava triggered a 160 km open-ocean phytoplankton bloom west of the island increasing primary production<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kīlauea volcano ash prompts largest open ocean phytoplankton bloom|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2025/04/17/kilauea-volcano-ash-phytoplankton-bloom/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16 2026|website=University of Hawaiʻi System News.}}</ref>.

The destruction of the ecosystem following Kilauea triggered the ecological reset facilitating the processes of allopatric speciation and adaptive radiation. Initial lava flows depleted nutrients, altered soil pH, and destroyed agricultural fields<ref name=":7" />. Over time, cooled lava altered the microtopography of rock crevices, cracks and erosion gullies, enriching the soil with minerals such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium<ref name=":7" />. These resulted in microenvironments that supported the growth of pioneer seedlings<ref name=":7" />. At a macro perspective, these lava flows isolated patches of old growth forests surrounded by cooled barren volcanic rock. These patches known as kīpukas are a prime example of vicariance which separated a once continuous forest or population into geographically isolated sub populations<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kīpukas|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/kipukas.htm|url-status=live|access-date=June 16 2026|website=U.S. National Park Service}}</ref>. The volcanic rock acting as a barrier between each population prevents gene flow and amplifies the effects of genetic drift and natural selection leading to speciation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Allopatric Speciation|url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/modes-of-speciation/allopatric-speciation/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16 2026}}</ref>.
[[File:Metrosideros polymorpha.jpg|thumb|Flower of ''Metrosideros polymorpha var. glabberrima.'' ]]
'''Divergence of Ohi’a Lehua Tree'''

The Ohi’a Lehua, ''Metrosideros polymorpha,'' is a Hawaiian evergreen tree that makes up 80% of Hawaii’s native forest. Following the events of Kilauea, isolation of these trees led to the divergence and speciation of the ''Glaberrima'' variety to the ''Incana'' variety. Genomic scans identified these genetic clusters and characterized the ''M. polymorpha incana'' to develop wooly hairs to reduce water loss and endure intense solar heat which allow them to survive in dry environments<ref>Izuno, A., Onoda, Y., Amada, G., Kobayashi, K., Mukai, M., Isagi, Y., & Shimizu, K. K. (2022). Demography and selection analysis of the incipient adaptive radiation of a Hawaiian woody species. ''PLOS Genetics'', ''18''(1), e1009987. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009987</nowiki></ref>.

'''Adaptive Radiation of Hawaiian Genus ''Schidea.'''''
[[File:Schiedea kaalae (4832023659).jpg|thumb|Schiedea Kaalae. ]]
The events of Kilauea drive diversification through the establishment of ecological niches. Cooled lava flows undergo primary succession transforming into micro environments with high surface temperatures, minimal water and nutrient deficits. These conditions act as selective pressures that have caused the Hawaiian genus ''Schiedea'' to undergo adaptive radiation. Molecular analysis of the species has shown that the Rubisco enzyme and other drought defence proteins have undergone amino acid substitutions that optimize enzyme efficiency and thermal stability creating distinct species specialized to the volcanic landscape <ref>Gillespie, R. G. (2016). Island time and the interplay between ecology and evolution in species diversification. ''Evolutionary Applications'', ''9''(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12302</ref><ref>Kapralov, M. V., & Filatov, D. A. (2006). Molecular Adaptation during Adaptive Radiation in the Hawaiian Endemic Genus Schiedea. ''PLOS ONE'', ''1''(1), e8. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000008</nowiki></ref>.

=== '''Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts''' ===
[[File:Kīlauea.jpg|left|thumb|Lava from a fissure near Kilauea, Hawaiʻi, on May 6, 2018. The eruption destroyed homes and infrastructure, prompting mandatory evacuations for the immediate area.]]
The 2018 Kilauea eruption had significant social and economic impacts on communities across Hawai'i Island, especially the lower Puna district <ref name=":10">{{Cite web|first=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|date=March 31, 2022|title=Volcano Watch - The 2018 eruption of Kilauea was big on a global scale|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. Lava flows destroyed 612 homes, displaced more than 3,000 residents, and caused an estimated $236.5 million in damage to roads, community facilities, and other critical infrastructure. In addition, more than 1,337 acres of agricultural land were affected by the eruption <ref name=":8" />. Although many residents were eventually able to access housing, food, water, and other necessities, damage to infrastructure and disruptions to essential services forced many to relocate. Many affected residents also required unemployment, financial, and health assistance during the recovery process <ref>{{Cite web|first=UH News|date=October 22, 2018|title=UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/10/22/kilauea-eruption-agricultural-survey/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=University of Hawaii News}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ludwig|first=K. A.|last2=Pennaz|first2=Alice B.|last3=Wilkins|first3=Aleeza|date=2019|title=Results from the Department of the Interior Strategic Sciences Group Technical Support for the 2018 Kīlauea Eruption: Cooperator Report|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70205097|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>.

The local economy was also severely affected. Hawai'i’s economy is highly dependent on tourism, yet the eruption led to closure of businesses, agricultural operations, and tourist attractions across Hawai'i Island, while also significantly reducing tourism on neighboring islands <ref>{{Cite web|last=Rott|first=Nathan|date=May 27, 2018|title=Kilauea Volcano Disrupts Big Island's Tourist-Dependent Economy|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/27/614886508/kilauea-volcano-disrupts-big-island-s-tourist-dependent-economy|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=Vermont Public News}}</ref>. As a result, Hawai'i Island alone experienced an estimated economic loss of ~$542.3 million, largely due to major decline in local job opportunities, tourism revenue, and agriculture production <ref name=":8" />.

In addition to its social and economic consequences, the eruption posed significant risks on human health. At its peak, Kilauea emitted ~100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per day. This gas contributed to the formation of volcanic smog (VOG), which contains acidic sulfuric acid droplets that can irritate the skin, lungs, and mucous membranes while degrading air pollution in downwind communities, creating persistent health concerns for residents. Furthermore, the volcano released ~77,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per day. Because cooled CO2 is heavier than air, it can accumulate in low-lying areas and reach hazardous concentrations under certain atmospheric conditions. This posed serious health risks for human and animal populations in the downwind of the Kilauea volcano, as exposure to air containing more than 3% CO2 can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate, and breathing difficulties, while concentrations above 15% can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death <ref>{{Cite web|first=Volcano Hazards Program|title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=June 5, 2026|title=How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-sulfur-dioxide-so2-gas-does-kilauea-emit|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

Beyond the physical hazards, the prolonged eruption, frequent earthquakes, displacement of residents, and uncertainty surrounding future volcanic activity contributed to social tensions and fatigue among affected residents, local government officials, and emergency responders <ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ewert|first=John W.|last2=Diefenbach|first2=Angela K.|last3=Ramsey|first3=David W.|date=2018|title=2018 Update to the U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2018/5140/sir20185140.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>. These impacts demonstrate that volcanic disasters, like the 2018 Kilauea eruption, can have long-lasting effects that extend far beyond the eruption itself, creating ongoing challenges for community recovery, public health, and economic resilience.

==Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections==

The 2018 Kilauea Eruption serves as a profound testament to the fact that geology and biology are not separate academic disciplines, but rather go hand in hand to explore planetary topics. By tracking this event from its subterranean magma shifts to its far-reaching ecological and atmospheric consequences, this investigation reveals that geological disruptions do not merely collide with biological systems. Volcanism plays a role in designing the physical architecture of the Earth through a means of destruction and structural rebirth. Looking forward, one must recognize how the connections between the geological forces and biological networks at play are essential for understanding modern ecological conservation. Being able to bridge my biology background with the principles of geosciences has fundamentally transformed my understanding of the natural world around me. Analyzing this eruption forced me to step outside the traditional approaches I am accustomed to and has shown me just how fragile and resilient life truly is. After spending the past few weeks researching and putting together this project, I find it really incredible how the vibrant, subtropical rainforests of Hawai’i are entirely a byproduct of such violent volcanic eruptions (LP).

Synthesizing the ideas between geology and biology have made me reflect on how interconnected each focus is and how a change in one area can have significant outcomes in the other. This project has allowed me to reinforce and look back at the ecological concepts I have learnt through my undergrad and apply them to new learnings of volcanic activity within the Hawaiian Islands. It’s very intriguing to see how organisms adapt to the active volcano of Kilauea and how with each eruption the opportunity for a new species to diverge becomes more apparent. One of the main themes that I have learnt is how these habitats will continue to grow in the face of destruction adapting to its environment. Ecosystems are dynamic and balanced between a state of disturbance and recovery. These regenerations are necessary to uphold and develop the resilience of these habitats to ensure the longevity of these systems. Researching the Kilauea eruption has provided a deeper understanding on volcanism and the effects it can have with the surrounding ecosystem and the communities of people that live on the Hawaiian Islands (ZO).

The 2018 Kilauea eruption revealed that catastrophic geological events can simultaneously threaten and sustain life. While the eruption caused widespread destruction by burying extensive areas of rainforests beneath lava flows, degrading air quality through volcanic emission, and just in general disrupting both human and natural communities, it also created opportunities for primary succession and the gradual establishment of new ecological communities. Researching the 2018 Kilauea eruption has fundamentally changed the way I view the relationship between Earth systems and living organisms. As someone majoring in Biology, I often focused on the living organisms in our ecosystems and the interactions between them. However, this project showed me that many of the environments we take for granted exist because of the very much “alive” geological processes happening beneath and around us. Studying the 2018 Kilauea eruption challenged me to beyond biological systems and develop a deeper understanding of how and why those geological processes work. Overall, I find it very interesting that one of the most destructive volcanic eruptions in recent history can also serve as the foundation for primary succession that eventually transforms into entirely new ecosystems (JL).

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-18T01:14:05Z

JenniferLam: /* Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections */

== Summary/Overview ==
The 2018 Kilauea Eruption represents a recent, real-time demonstration of the inseparable relationship between Earth’s geological forces and biological systems. This catastrophic event was driven by a series of subterranean shifts, beginning with increased magma pressurization and the subsequent collapse of the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent on April 30, 2018. A structural failure of this size forced a massive underground magma intrusion down the Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ), triggering a historic Mw 6.9 earthquake that dilated the rift and unleashed a destructive effusive eruption through 24 open fissures. Over a three-month period, molten basaltic lava flows completely reshaped the landscape, burying over 14 square miles of lush, subtropical rainforest while the summit caldera underwent massive collapses.

While devastating, this geological upheaval acts as a reset button for the biosphere. By erasing existing habitats and replacing them with completely sterile rock, the eruption provides a blank canvas for ecological primary succession, paving the way for specialized pioneer species to slowly rebuild a new, highly resilient biological community from the ground up. The immense volumes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released during the eruption altered atmospheric chemistry, generating persistent ash fall, volcanic fog (VOG), and laze directly challenged localized biodiversity and human respiratory health. The goal of this page is to analyze the geological triggers and environmental aftermath of the 2018 Kilauea eruption, illustrating how violent planetary disruptions actively dictate the colonization, evolution, and long-term sustainability of various living ecosystems.

== Statement of Connection and why you chose it ==
My desire to investigate the biological consequences of volcanic activity stems from a desire to explore how geology and biology can dictate the rules of life, a relationship that is seen by the 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawai'i. From the many biology classes I have taken throughout my undergraduate journey, I found that we often study cellular, physiological, and environmental ecosystems as established systems. However, in EOSC courses, that is not always the case. By focusing on volcanic events, it forces us to analyze ecological assembly from absolute zero. Volcanism serves as the ultimate geological catalyst for primary succession as it provides a barren canvas where the fundamental rules of life are explicitly visible. Geology and Biology are heavily intertwined as the geological concepts provide an explanation for the physical and chemical foundations for life, while biology actively reshapes the geological landscapes. By centering our project on Hawai'i's unique island ecosystem, we can directly bridge the gap between the Earth's systems and living networks. The 2018 Kilauea Eruption is a clear example of how a violent physical Earth process is not just a force of destruction, but also the starting point for new biodiversity to accumulate. This allows us to track how a singular geological disruption can have ripple effects that fundamentally reshape global climate patterns and biodiversity, drive localized evolutionary adaptation, alter atmospheric and land chemistry through volcanic gases and lava, dictate the long-term sustainability of ecological communities, and present the immediate public health challenges for human health (LP).

Having visited Hawaii in the last 5 years, the idea to research the Kilauea eruption came to mind knowing how diverse, sensitive, and dynamic the ecosystem is. It’s a beautiful place to visit with such an interesting environment to be in knowing how connected the people are with nature. Coming from a Biology background, Ecology is a primary focus that is studied and many examples that are shown are from the Pacific Islands. One of the most intriguing things about Kilauea is how volcanically active the region is and how this causes rapid changes in the population and ecosystem. We are observing ecological changes in real time given the nature of Kilauea. Volcanic eruptions are prime examples of primary succession allowing us to investigate how species adapt to extreme conditions. Researching how this disturbance and the effects of the eruption with the surrounding ecosystem provide the ability to connect biological concepts such as allopatric speciation to the geological causes bridging biology to geological change (ZO).

[[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates a cross-section of the tectonic plate mechanism of the Hawaiian Hotspot. As the Pacific Plate moves northwestward over a fixed mantle plume, it creates a chronological chain of volcanoes, where island age increases as it moves away from the magma source. |457x457px]]

== '''Brief Overview of Hawaiian Topography''' ==
The Hawaiian Islands form a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean consisting of eight major islands - Hawai’i, Maui, O’ahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lāna’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe. These series of islands are the result of volcanism associated with a hot spot, which is associated with persistent volcanic activity. This hotspot remains stationary while the tectonic plates, specifically in this case the Pacific Plate, move northwest over the hotspot, leading to the formation of the various Hawaiian Islands<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Geology and Ecology of National Parks|title=Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park|url=https://www.usgs.gov/geology-and-ecology-of-national-parks/geology-hawaii-volcanoes-national-park|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. As the plates continue to move, this on-going movement creates new islands in the process as magma rises and erupts on the seafloor. Volcanoes further away from the hot spot are considered to be older and inactive, as they lack a continuous stream of magma, while volcanoes closer to the hot spot are younger and pose more of a threat due to the increase in their activity and abundant supply of magma<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 16, 2024|title=How did the Hawaiian Islands form?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hawaii.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. Typically, shield volcanoes are found on the Hawaiian Islands. These volcanoes are characterized by their broad, shallow sloping profiles with mafic lava flows and effusive eruptions.

== '''Volcanic Activity on the Hawaiian Islands''' ==
[[File:Kilauea Shield Volcano Hawaii 20071209A.jpg|thumb|272x272px|Mauna Ulu, an inactive shield volcano, displays the classic broad, low-profile characteristic of shield volcanoes. Its gentle sloping geometry is created and shaped by highly basaltic lava flows that travel great distances before solidifying. ]]
[[File:Location Hawaii Volcanoes.svg|thumb|This geological map of the Island of Hawai'i displays the geographic boundaries of the five major shield volcanos that form the island: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. |289x289px]]
Due to the movement of the Pacific Plate over a stationary mantle hotspot, the islands exhibit a distinct age progression where the youngest volcanoes are found on the southeastern end of the Hawaiian chain, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Island of Hawai'i is composed of five major shield volcanoes, each representing a different stage in the life cycle of a hotspot island. Moving northwestward away from the primary hotspot, the islands transition to its older, less active structures known as Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Hualālai. Kohala is the oldest and the only extinct volcano of these five major volcanoes as it is believed to have last erupted 120, 000 years ago, sometime during the late Pleistocene epoch <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=January 13, 2026|title=How Many Volcanoes Make Up the Big Island of Hawaii?|url=https://biologyinsights.com/how-many-volcanoes-make-up-the-big-island-of-hawaii/|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=biologyinsights}}</ref>. It is anchored at the northern tip of the island and its deeply eroded valleys and dramatic sea cliffs demonstrate the fate of these volcanoes, as the tectonic forces shift away from the hotspot. Mauna Kea is located in the northern part of the island. It is a giant volcano that is dormant and last erupted somewhere from 6,000 to 4,500 years ago <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2025|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. This volcano is culturally sacred to the Native Hawaiians and from the oceanic floor, it stands at an impressive height of over 10, 210 meters (33, 500 feet) tall <ref name=":1" />. To the west lies Hualālai. This volcano is the third most active on the island and has erupted 3 times in the past 1,000 years <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Currently, it remains dormant, but still poses dangerous risks and requires monitoring as the last eruption occurred in 1801 and rising magma is believed to be the cause of an earthquake in 1929 <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=June 10, 2026|title=Big Island Hawaii Volcanoes|url=https://www.explore-the-big-island.com/hawaii-volcanoes.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=Explore The Big Island}}</ref>. Others may consider it an active volcano as there is a possibility that it may erupt in the future.

At the island’s southeastern core lies Mauna Loa and Kilauea. These volcanoes are the most active volcanoes in the region where Mauna Loa has erupted 34 times since 1843 and Kilauea has experienced near-continuous eruptive activity from 1983 to 2018 <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano, in terms of its volume and area, as it accounts for 51% of Hawai’i’s landmass <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. In 2022, the volcano erupted for a span of two weeks where its lava flows came within 2.8 kilometers of the Daniel K. Inouye Highway and due to this recent eruption, the volcano is still deemed to pose severe threats <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Kilauea is the youngest and by far the most active volcano of the five major ones found on Hawai’i. Located on the island’s southeastern part, this is the most dangerous volcano as its continuous eruptions, especially from 1983 until 2018, have resulted in severe environmental impacts for both various animal species and humans<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />.

== '''Case Study: Mt. Kilauea 2018 Volcano Eruption''' ==

=== '''Introduction to Kilauea''' ===
Mt. Kilauea, or simply known as Kilauea, is an active basaltic shield volcano located on Hawaii Island. It is the youngest and most active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. Due to its frequent eruptions over the past century, much of the volcano's surface is geologically young; only 10% of Kilauea’s surface consists of rock older than 1000 years, while around 90% is covered by lava flows younger than 1000 years <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Kyle R.|last2=Shea|first2=Thomas|last3=Lynn|first3=Kendra J.|last4=Montgomery-Brown|first4=Emily K.|last5=Swanson|first5=Donald A.|last6=Patrick|first6=Matthew R.|last7=Shiro|first7=Brian R.|last8=Neal|first8=Christina A.|date=2023|title=The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea: Insights, puzzles, and opportunities for Volcano Science|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075925|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|via=USGS Publications Warehouse}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawai’i.|date=2025, March 20|title=Eruptions of Kīlauea|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/eruptions.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June 16|website=National Parks Service}}</ref>.

Before 2018, Kilauea had been erupting almost continuously for more than a century, interrupted only by short periods of repose. One of its most notable periods of activity began in March 2008, when a new vent opened within Halemaʻumaʻu Crater and formed a persistent lava lake at the summit. Although the lava lake remained relatively stable from 2013 to 2018, its level frequently rose and fell in response to changes in pressure within the summit magma chamber. Occasional overflows spread fresh lava across portions of the crater floor, providing clear evidence of ongoing active volcanic activity. By 2016 and 2017, the lava lake was often visible from public viewing areas in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and had become a major tourist attraction <ref>{{Cite web|first=Kīlauea|date=November 23, 2023|title=Chronology of Kīlauea's summit eruption, 2008–2018|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/chronology-kilaueas-summit-eruption-2008-2018#overview|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geology Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

This long period of sustained activity culminated in the 2018 eruption, one of the most significant volcanic events in Hawaii’s recorded history. Unlike previous eruptions, the 2018 eruption was considered the most impactful volcanic eruption in centuries, as it coincided with a massive summit collapse, resulting in widespread environmental, social, and economic impacts <ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawaii|date=June 7, 2021|title=2018 Eruption and Summit Collapse|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/2018-eruption.htm|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=National Park Service}}</ref>. The scale and complexity of the eruption make it an important event for studying volcanic processes and their immediate effect on human health, biodiversity, ecological communities, and more.

=== '''Geological Triggers Leading to the Eruption''' ===
While Kilauea’s eruption caught public attention in May 2018, the geological and tectonic triggers behind it had been accumulating immense structural stress for decades until the system eventually met its breaking point and collapsed. Deep down in the mantle, intense heat melts rock into magma and since it is hot and buoyant, magma can force its way upward toward the surface. Before an eruption occurs, the magma pools into a reservoir complex, a tank that directly sits underneath the volcano’s summit caldera, roughly 1-5 km beneath the surface <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick|first=M.R.|last2=Houghton|first2=B.F.|last3=Anderson|first3=K.R.|last4=Poland|first4=M.P.|last5=Montgomery-Brown|first5=E.|last6=Johanson|first6=I.|last7=Thelen|first7=W.|last8=Elias|first8=T.|date=2020|title=The cascading origin of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption and implications for future forecasting|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2471544946?pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|pages=1-14}}</ref>. From here, the magma is able to either pump straight up to feed the active vents inside the main summit crater or it can be pushed and stored sideways into long, weak structural cracks into rift zones. Given Kilauea’s history, where its East Rift Zone is active, its south flank continuously slid seaward at a rate of up to 8 centimeters per year <ref name=":4" />. This long-term movement resulted in immense extensional stress on the shallow rift zones, which steadily reduced the amount of internal magma pressure required to split the rift open and result in dike intrusions and fissure eruptions <ref name=":4" />. Prior to 2018, Kilauea had constant eruptions since 1983 at or near the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent in the Middle East Rift Zone (MERZ) while its last eruptions in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) occurred in 1961 <ref name=":4" />. Following the Pu’u’Ōʻō eruption in 1983, the summit magma reservoir deflated for decades due to fluctuating internal pressure. It wasn’t until 2010 when the entire shallow magmatic plumbing system underwent sustained inflation and this pattern continued for years afterward, directly causing the Halema’uma’u lava lake to steadily rise until Kilauea’s massive eruption in 2018. In the first quarter of 2018, tilt and GPS instruments recorded the highest levels of magma pressurization seen at Kilauea in at least two decades and because 57 years had passed since the last LERZ eruption, the region was structurally compromised for a major opening <ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Kilauea eastern rift zone fissure eruption May 2018.jpg|thumb|366x366px|The early stages of the May 2018 Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced explosive lava fountains from newly opened fissures. This intense activity rapidly generated wildfires and smothered local flora, illustrating Kilauea's immediate, destructive force. ]]
In March and April of 2018, the rate of system pressurization accelerated dramatically, while the volume of lava exiting the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent was actively waning. This created “magma backup”, where the volcano lacked an efficient exit point so the bottled-up magma intensified and caused lava lakes at both the summit and the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent to rise to unusually high levels <ref name=":4" />. In the weeks leading to the Kilauea eruption, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) issued various early warning signs starting on April 17 based on new data demonstrating changes in lava lakes, ground swelling, and increased seismic activity <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Youhua|last2=Tong|first2=Daniel Q.|last3=Yang|first3=Kai|last4=Lee|first4=Pius|last5=Baker|first5=Barry|last6=Crawford|first6=Alice|last7=Luke|first7=Winston|last8=Stein|first8=Ariel|last9=Campbell|first9=Patrick C.|displayauthors=et al.|date=September 15, 2020|title=Air quality impacts of the 2018 Mt. Kilauea Volcano eruption in Hawaii: A regional chemical transport model study with satellite-constrained emissions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020303800|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=237}}</ref>. The tipping point occurred on April 30, 2018 when a small fissure eruption developed into the west flank of the Pu’u’Ōʻō, which led to the vent collapsing <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />. Over the course of the next several days, after this collapse, magma began migrating down rift and many earthquakes were recorded. On May 3, the advancing magma breached the surface, opening the first of 24 eruptive fissures within the Leilani Estates subdivision <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2023|title=2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption and Summit Collapse at Kīlauea|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/2018-lower-east-rift-zone-eruption-and-summit-collapse-kilauea|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. The following day, on May 4, the intense stress of this massive subsurface magma injection triggered a (moment magnitude) Mw 6.9 earthquake along Kilauea’s south flank, which further opened up the rift <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />. This event marked the largest recorded earthquake in Hawai’i in 43 years where this tectonic shift caused 5 meters of sudden fault slip, characterizing this as the largest LERZ eruption and summit collapse within the past 200 years<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

According to a NASA-funded study, it was found that potentially a prolonged duration of heavy rainfall in the months preceding the eruption could have been a culprit in this eruption. As rainfall increased, water was able to infiltrate into the Earth’s shallow crust, which in turn weakened rock formations and made it easier for magma to break through to the surface <ref name=":6" />. That being said, this hypothesis is highly debated among many volcanologists as extrinsic triggers, such as heavy rainfall, are not the main reason as to why this eruption occurred <ref name=":4" />. Ground data collected in the weeks prior to the event reveal that there were exceptionally high rates of widespread inflation and dramatic lava lake level rises. So while rainwater may have altered the rock’s fracturing threshold, the increased pressure in magma had led to the structural breaking point <ref name=":4" />.

=== '''Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts (Air and Climate)''' ===
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2062.jpg|thumb|392x392px|Helicopter overflight view of Kilauea Volcano's Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) captured on May 19, 2018. Sourced from fissures 16-20, this volcanic discharge overruns local roads and vegetation, demonstrating its sheer destruction and devastation. ]]
Kilauea’s eruption unleashed massive volumes of lava, ash, and volcanic gases that radically altered the biosphere. This eruption officially commenced when lava and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emerged from fissures within the Eastern Rift Zone (ERZ) <ref name=":5" />.The advancing lava flows from Kilauea acted as an immediate, devastating force that rapidly eradicated both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As molten lava moves across a landscape, its intense heat instantly kills any and all flora and fauna in its path, while the cooling, thickening lava crust extinguishes the underlying soil <ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Hodges|first=Meghan|date=Oct 18, 2025|title=Kilauea's Eruptions: Environmental Impacts And Ecosystem Changes Explored|url=https://shunwaste.com/article/how-does-kilauea-affect-the-environment|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Shun Waste}}</ref>. All of the affected areas transformed into basaltic, barren, and inhospitable terrain. This new environment now lacked the proper nutrients, minerals, soil, and moisture needed to sustain various life forms and any specialized species, especially endemic Hawaiian plants and animals, faced intensified competition for shrinking food and shelter resources <ref name=":7" />.

During the month of May, the eruption advanced further down rift into dramatic lava fountain eruptions from newly opened fissures <ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously, the summit reservoir drained, causing the lava lake levels to drop, the crater walls gave way in a massive summit collapse, and a hazardous mixture of ash and SO2 ejected into the atmosphere <ref name=":6" />. By mid-May, the LERZ eruption resulted in an increase in hotter and additional magma from multiple vents, which in turn produced faster lava flows <ref name=":6" />. Since the lava was able to travel faster and farther out, these basaltic flows not only buried tropical forests and extinguished wildlife habitats, but its destruction crossed into a major highway extending into the ocean on May 19 near the Mackenzie State Recreational Area <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />.
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2069.jpg|thumb|397x397px|As the fast flowing lava meets the coastal waters, the resulting interaction produces laze, triggering severe environmental stress for nearshore marine organisms and coastal food chains. ]]
[[File:Kilauea Fissure 8 cone erupting on 6-28-2018.jpg|thumb|398x398px|Aerial view of the active fissure 8 during the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, which would eventually account for two-thirds of the total volume erupted during this event. ]]
On May 27, eruptive activity returned to fissure 8 and within a 24 hour window, an 80 meter high lava fountain rapidly built a surrounding tephra cone which produced a channelized lava flow that advanced northeast and entered the ocean at Kapoho Bay on June 3 <ref name=":6" />. With fissure 8’s lava flow expanded, it was able to enter the sea at multiple locations. As a result, molten lava formed new lava deltas. The interaction between Kilauea’s molten lava and the ocean generated a hazardous phenomenon known as laze, which is a toxic mixture of water vapor, hydrochloric acid, and fine volcanic particles <ref name=":7" />. Laze drastically lowered the pH of the surrounding water, producing acidic conditions, altered salinity levels, and shifts in temperature. This destruction subjected local marine life, such as fish, plankton, sea turtles, sea birds, and delicate coral reef populations, to extreme thermal stress, decreased oxygen levels, chemical pollution, and displacement from vital nesting grounds <ref name=":7" />. Ultimately, these compounding hazards presented severe physical challenges for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

While many species perished, those that survived were forced into smaller habitable regions where vegetation and shelter became scarce. As time went on, competition for resources increased and long-term population declined as reproductive rates lowered and local extinctions grew. By the time the eruption ended in early August, Kilauea expelled roughly 1 cubic kilometer of lava, with two-thirds of that total volume originating solely from fissure 8 <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 14, 2026|title=2018 Eruption|url=https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/resources/2018-eruption|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Kilauea Eruption Recovery}}</ref>. This ecological erasure completely reshaped the landscape where 8,488 acres of land was flooded with lava, destroying 500 acres of protected forest reserve and several marine ecosystems <ref name=":8" />.
Beyond the immediate destruction caused by molten lava, Kilauea’s atmospheric emissions imposed severe tolls on the region’s air quality and terrestrial ecosystems through ash fallout and volcanic fog (VOG). When Kilauea erupted, it released vast amounts of fine volcanic ash that settled over the surrounding landscape, forming a dense, opaque layer. These ash fallouts physically crushed smaller vegetation and stunted the growth of larger plants, while its chemical composition of sulfur and heavy metals, toxified and altered the soil’s pH <ref name=":7" />. The drastic chemical changes turned the soil acidic, which further stressed the plants, disrupted nutrient uptake, and led to soil degradation <ref name=":7" />. Simultaneously, the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other volcanic gases created VOG. Due to its high toxicity load, during the LERZ eruption, extreme traces of SO2 in the air required mandatory evacuations even for individuals far from the initial impacted lava flow zones <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Zinkova|first=Mila|date=August 6, 2019|title=2018 Kīlauea eruption|url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wea.3589|journal=Weather|volume=75|pages=214-220}}</ref>. Driven by shifting wind patterns, these choking fumes frequently bypassed nearby cities like Hilo and pushed over 100 kilometers away to cities such as Kona and others found on the opposite end of the island <ref name=":9" />.[[File:May 9, 2018- Halemaumau ash cloud (49888154838).jpg|thumb|Volcanic ash clouds from the Halema'uma'u crater at the summit of Kilauea on May 9, 2018. The plume was generated by frequent rockfalls and debris collapsing into the receding lava lake. |397x397px]]The reach of the ash fall and VOG produced from Kilauea was massive and posed serious health risks. However, the blockage of sunlight by volcanic ash created both physical and environmental barriers that disrupted photosynthesis. As ash fall coats leaf surfaces, this barrier reflects and absorbs incoming solar radiation, completely blocking sunlight from penetrating the leaf tissue. Since plants were unable to convert light into usable energy, many suffered from a drastic reduction in food production, stunted growth, and weakened resilience. Given that plants form the foundational base of the ecosystem, the reduction of sunlight triggered a devastating domino effect throughout the food chain where herbivores suffered from severe food scarcity, which subsequently starved predators, and overall impacted regional biodiversity <ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Ecological Destruction and Biodiversity Reset''' ===
[[File:Sulfur dioxide emissions from the Halemaumau vent 04-08-1 1.jpg|thumb|Sulfur dioxide emissions from the Halemaumau vent. ]]
Following the Kilauea eruption the surrounding ecosystem was completely erased. Lava flows reaching 1170°C covered 35.5 km2 destroying 2.0 km2 of forest reserve including the Pu’ala’a low-land rainforest and the Kilauea summit<ref name=":8" />. 80 anchialine pools were destroyed within the Kapoho Bay and Wai‘ōpae Tidepools Marine Life Conservation District. The eruption expanded the shoreline by 3.5 km2 with it destroying the Ahalanui Beach Park<ref name=":8" />.

The eruption released 100,000 tons of sulfur dioxide SO2 into the atmosphere per day causing intense volcanic smog<ref name=":12" />. When introduced with atmospheric moisture or directly with moisture on plants it reacts to produce sulfuric acid H2SO4 causing the defoliation of plants and destroying the tree canopy of the rainforest<ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously the eruption created pyrocumulonimbus clouds due to the heat and moisture causing strong updrafts, whirlwinds, and thunderstorms with 13.97 inches of rain within the 24 hours preceding the eruption<ref name=":9" />.
[[File:Lava rock cairns at Kiluea Iki volcano crater.jpg|thumb|Plant growth through cooled volcanic rock at the bottom of Kīlauea Iki volcanic crater. ]]
As lava flows reached the Pacific Ocean, localized temperatures spiked to 49°C killing marine life including reef structures, phytoplankton and algae. Interestingly, west of the island, the iron and phosphorus from the lava triggered a 160 km open-ocean phytoplankton bloom west of the island increasing primary production<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kīlauea volcano ash prompts largest open ocean phytoplankton bloom|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2025/04/17/kilauea-volcano-ash-phytoplankton-bloom/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16 2026|website=University of Hawaiʻi System News.}}</ref>.

The destruction of the ecosystem following Kilauea triggered the ecological reset facilitating the processes of allopatric speciation and adaptive radiation. Initial lava flows depleted nutrients, altered soil pH, and destroyed agricultural fields<ref name=":7" />. Over time, cooled lava altered the microtopography of rock crevices, cracks and erosion gullies, enriching the soil with minerals such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium<ref name=":7" />. These resulted in microenvironments that supported the growth of pioneer seedlings<ref name=":7" />. At a macro perspective, these lava flows isolated patches of old growth forests surrounded by cooled barren volcanic rock. These patches known as kīpukas are a prime example of vicariance which separated a once continuous forest or population into geographically isolated sub populations<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kīpukas|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/kipukas.htm|url-status=live|access-date=June 16 2026|website=U.S. National Park Service}}</ref>. The volcanic rock acting as a barrier between each population prevents gene flow and amplifies the effects of genetic drift and natural selection leading to speciation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Allopatric Speciation|url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/modes-of-speciation/allopatric-speciation/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16 2026}}</ref>.
[[File:Metrosideros polymorpha.jpg|thumb|Flower of ''Metrosideros polymorpha var. glabberrima.'' ]]
'''Divergence of Ohi’a Lehua Tree'''

The Ohi’a Lehua, ''Metrosideros polymorpha,'' is a Hawaiian evergreen tree that makes up 80% of Hawaii’s native forest. Following the events of Kilauea, isolation of these trees led to the divergence and speciation of the ''Glaberrima'' variety to the ''Incana'' variety. Genomic scans identified these genetic clusters and characterized the ''M. polymorpha incana'' to develop wooly hairs to reduce water loss and endure intense solar heat which allow them to survive in dry environments<ref>Izuno, A., Onoda, Y., Amada, G., Kobayashi, K., Mukai, M., Isagi, Y., & Shimizu, K. K. (2022). Demography and selection analysis of the incipient adaptive radiation of a Hawaiian woody species. ''PLOS Genetics'', ''18''(1), e1009987. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009987</nowiki></ref>.

'''Adaptive Radiation of Hawaiian Genus ''Schidea.'''''
[[File:Schiedea kaalae (4832023659).jpg|thumb|Schiedea Kaalae. ]]
The events of Kilauea drive diversification through the establishment of ecological niches. Cooled lava flows undergo primary succession transforming into micro environments with high surface temperatures, minimal water and nutrient deficits. These conditions act as selective pressures that have caused the Hawaiian genus ''Schiedea'' to undergo adaptive radiation. Molecular analysis of the species has shown that the Rubisco enzyme and other drought defence proteins have undergone amino acid substitutions that optimize enzyme efficiency and thermal stability creating distinct species specialized to the volcanic landscape <ref>Gillespie, R. G. (2016). Island time and the interplay between ecology and evolution in species diversification. ''Evolutionary Applications'', ''9''(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12302</ref><ref>Kapralov, M. V., & Filatov, D. A. (2006). Molecular Adaptation during Adaptive Radiation in the Hawaiian Endemic Genus Schiedea. ''PLOS ONE'', ''1''(1), e8. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000008</nowiki></ref>.

=== '''Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts''' ===
[[File:Kīlauea.jpg|left|thumb|Lava from a fissure near Kilauea, Hawaiʻi, on May 6, 2018. The eruption destroyed homes and infrastructure, prompting mandatory evacuations for the immediate area.]]
The 2018 Kilauea eruption had significant social and economic impacts on communities across Hawai'i Island, especially the lower Puna district <ref name=":10">{{Cite web|first=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|date=March 31, 2022|title=Volcano Watch - The 2018 eruption of Kilauea was big on a global scale|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. Lava flows destroyed 612 homes, displaced more than 3,000 residents, and caused an estimated $236.5 million in damage to roads, community facilities, and other critical infrastructure. In addition, more than 1,337 acres of agricultural land were affected by the eruption <ref name=":8" />. Although many residents were eventually able to access housing, food, water, and other necessities, damage to infrastructure and disruptions to essential services forced many to relocate. Many affected residents also required unemployment, financial, and health assistance during the recovery process <ref>{{Cite web|first=UH News|date=October 22, 2018|title=UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/10/22/kilauea-eruption-agricultural-survey/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=University of Hawaii News}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ludwig|first=K. A.|last2=Pennaz|first2=Alice B.|last3=Wilkins|first3=Aleeza|date=2019|title=Results from the Department of the Interior Strategic Sciences Group Technical Support for the 2018 Kīlauea Eruption: Cooperator Report|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70205097|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>.

The local economy was also severely affected. Hawai'i’s economy is highly dependent on tourism, yet the eruption led to closure of businesses, agricultural operations, and tourist attractions across Hawai'i Island, while also significantly reducing tourism on neighboring islands <ref>{{Cite web|last=Rott|first=Nathan|date=May 27, 2018|title=Kilauea Volcano Disrupts Big Island's Tourist-Dependent Economy|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/27/614886508/kilauea-volcano-disrupts-big-island-s-tourist-dependent-economy|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=Vermont Public News}}</ref>. As a result, Hawai'i Island alone experienced an estimated economic loss of ~$542.3 million, largely due to major decline in local job opportunities, tourism revenue, and agriculture production <ref name=":8" />.

In addition to its social and economic consequences, the eruption posed significant risks on human health. At its peak, Kilauea emitted ~100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per day. This gas contributed to the formation of volcanic smog (VOG), which contains acidic sulfuric acid droplets that can irritate the skin, lungs, and mucous membranes while degrading air pollution in downwind communities, creating persistent health concerns for residents. Furthermore, the volcano released ~77,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per day. Because cooled CO2 is heavier than air, it can accumulate in low-lying areas and reach hazardous concentrations under certain atmospheric conditions. This posed serious health risks for human and animal populations in the downwind of the Kilauea volcano, as exposure to air containing more than 3% CO2 can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate, and breathing difficulties, while concentrations above 15% can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death <ref>{{Cite web|first=Volcano Hazards Program|title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=June 5, 2026|title=How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-sulfur-dioxide-so2-gas-does-kilauea-emit|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

Beyond the physical hazards, the prolonged eruption, frequent earthquakes, displacement of residents, and uncertainty surrounding future volcanic activity contributed to social tensions and fatigue among affected residents, local government officials, and emergency responders <ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ewert|first=John W.|last2=Diefenbach|first2=Angela K.|last3=Ramsey|first3=David W.|date=2018|title=2018 Update to the U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2018/5140/sir20185140.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>. These impacts demonstrate that volcanic disasters, like the 2018 Kilauea eruption, can have long-lasting effects that extend far beyond the eruption itself, creating ongoing challenges for community recovery, public health, and economic resilience.

==Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections==

The 2018 Kilauea Eruption serves as a profound testament to the fact that geology and biology are not separate academic disciplines, but rather go hand in hand to explore planetary topics. By tracking this event from its subterranean magma shifts to its far-reaching ecological and atmospheric consequences, this investigation reveals that geological disruptions do not merely collide with biological systems. Volcanism plays a role in designing the physical architecture of the Earth through a means of destruction and structural rebirth. Looking forward, one must recognize how the connections between the geological forces and biological networks at play are essential for understanding modern ecological conservation. Being able to bridge my biology background with the principles of geosciences has fundamentally transformed my understanding of the natural world around me. Analyzing this eruption forced me to step outside the traditional approaches I am accustomed to and has shown me just how fragile and resilient life truly is. After spending the past few weeks researching and putting together this project, I find it really incredible how the vibrant, subtropical rainforests of Hawai’i are entirely a byproduct of such violent volcanic eruptions (LP).

Synthesizing the ideas between geology and biology have made me reflect on how interconnected each focus is and how a change in one area can have significant outcomes in the other. This project has allowed me to reinforce and look back at the ecological concepts I have learnt through my undergrad and apply them to new learnings of volcanic activity within the Hawaiian Islands. It’s very intriguing to see how organisms adapt to the active volcano of Kilauea and how with each eruption the opportunity for a new species to diverge becomes more apparent. One of the main themes that I have learnt is how these habitats will continue to grow in the face of destruction adapting to its environment. Ecosystems are dynamic and balanced between a state of disturbance and recovery. These regenerations are necessary to uphold and develop the resilience of these habitats to ensure the longevity of these systems. Researching the Kilauea eruption has provided a deeper understanding on volcanism and the effects it can have with the surrounding ecosystem and the communities of people that live on the Hawaiian Islands (ZO).

The 2018 Kilauea eruption revealed that catastrophic geological events can simultaneously threaten and sustain life. While the eruption caused widespread destruction by burying extensive areas of rainforests beneath lava flows, degrading air quality through volcanic emission, and just in general disrupting both human and natural communities, it also created opportunities for primary succession and the gradual establishment of new ecological communities. Researching the 2018 Kilauea eruption has fundamentally changed the way I view the relationship between Earth systems and living organisms. As someone majoring in Biology, I often focused on the living organisms in our ecosystems and the interactions between them. However, this project showed me that many of the environments we take for granted exist because of the very much “alive” geological processes happening beneath and around us. Studying the 2018 Kilauea eruption challenged me to beyond biological systems and develop a deeper understanding of how and why those geological processes work. Overall, I find it very interesting that one of the most destructive volcanic eruptions in recent history can also serve as the foundation for primary succession that eventually transforms into entirely new ecosystems (JL).

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T23:20:29Z

JenniferLam: /* Introduction to Kilauea */

== Summary/Overview ==
The 2018 Kilauea Eruption represents a recent, real-time demonstration of the inseparable relationship between Earth’s geological forces and biological systems. This catastrophic event was driven by a series of subterranean shifts, beginning with increased magma pressurization and the subsequent collapse of the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent on April 30, 2018. A structural failure of this size forced a massive underground magma intrusion down the Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ), triggering a historic Mw 6.9 earthquake that dilated the rift and unleashed a destructive effusive eruption through 24 open fissures. Over a three-month period, molten basaltic lava flows completely reshaped the landscape, burying over 14 square miles of lush, subtropical rainforest while the summit caldera underwent massive collapses.

While devastating, this geological upheaval acts as a reset button for the biosphere. By erasing existing habitats and replacing them with completely sterile rock, the eruption provides a blank canvas for ecological primary succession, paving the way for specialized pioneer species to slowly rebuild a new, highly resilient biological community from the ground up. The immense volumes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released during the eruption altered atmospheric chemistry, generating persistent ash fall, volcanic fog (VOG), and laze directly challenged localized biodiversity and human respiratory health. The goal of this page is to analyze the geological triggers and environmental aftermath of the 2018 Kilauea eruption, illustrating how violent planetary disruptions actively dictate the colonization, evolution, and long-term sustainability of various living ecosystems.

== Statement of Connection and why you chose it ==
My desire to investigate the biological consequences of volcanic activity stems from a desire to explore how geology and biology can dictate the rules of life, a relationship that is seen by the 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawai'i. From the many biology classes I have taken throughout my undergraduate journey, I found that we often study cellular, physiological, and environmental ecosystems as established systems. However, in EOSC courses, that is not always the case. By focusing on volcanic events, it forces us to analyze ecological assembly from absolute zero. Volcanism serves as the ultimate geological catalyst for primary succession as it provides a barren canvas where the fundamental rules of life are explicitly visible. Geology and Biology are heavily intertwined as the geological concepts provide an explanation for the physical and chemical foundations for life, while biology actively reshapes the geological landscapes. By centering our project on Hawai'i's unique island ecosystem, we can directly bridge the gap between the Earth's systems and living networks. The 2018 Kilauea Eruption is a clear example of how a violent physical Earth process is not just a force of destruction, but also the starting point for new biodiversity to accumulate. This allows us to track how a singular geological disruption can have ripple effects that fundamentally reshape global climate patterns and biodiversity, drive localized evolutionary adaptation, alter atmospheric and land chemistry through volcanic gases and lava, dictate the long-term sustainability of ecological communities, and present the immediate public health challenges for human health.

[[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates a cross-section of the tectonic plate mechanism of the Hawaiian Hotspot. As the Pacific Plate moves northwestward over a fixed mantle plume, it creates a chronological chain of volcanoes, where island age increases as it moves away from the magma source. |457x457px]]

== '''Brief Overview of Hawaiian Topography''' ==
The Hawaiian Islands form a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean consisting of eight major islands - Hawai’i, Maui, O’ahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lāna’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe. These series of islands are the result of volcanism associated with a hot spot, which is associated with persistent volcanic activity. This hotspot remains stationary while the tectonic plates, specifically in this case the Pacific Plate, move northwest over the hotspot, leading to the formation of the various Hawaiian Islands<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Geology and Ecology of National Parks|title=Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park|url=https://www.usgs.gov/geology-and-ecology-of-national-parks/geology-hawaii-volcanoes-national-park|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. As the plates continue to move, this on-going movement creates new islands in the process as magma rises and erupts on the seafloor. Volcanoes further away from the hot spot are considered to be older and inactive, as they lack a continuous stream of magma, while volcanoes closer to the hot spot are younger and pose more of a threat due to the increase in their activity and abundant supply of magma<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 16, 2024|title=How did the Hawaiian Islands form?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hawaii.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. Typically, shield volcanoes are found on the Hawaiian Islands. These volcanoes are characterized by their broad, shallow sloping profiles with mafic lava flows and effusive eruptions.

== '''Volcanic Activity on the Hawaiian Islands''' ==
[[File:Kilauea Shield Volcano Hawaii 20071209A.jpg|thumb|272x272px|Mauna Ulu, an inactive shield volcano, displays the classic broad, low-profile characteristic of shield volcanoes. Its gentle sloping geometry is created and shaped by highly basaltic lava flows that travel great distances before solidifying. ]]
[[File:Location Hawaii Volcanoes.svg|thumb|This geological map of the Island of Hawai'i displays the geographic boundaries of the five major shield volcanos that form the island: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. |289x289px]]
Due to the movement of the Pacific Plate over a stationary mantle hotspot, the islands exhibit a distinct age progression where the youngest volcanoes are found on the southeastern end of the Hawaiian chain, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Island of Hawai'i is composed of five major shield volcanoes, each representing a different stage in the life cycle of a hotspot island. Moving northwestward away from the primary hotspot, the islands transition to its older, less active structures known as Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Hualālai. Kohala is the oldest and the only extinct volcano of these five major volcanoes as it is believed to have last erupted 120, 000 years ago, sometime during the late Pleistocene epoch <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=January 13, 2026|title=How Many Volcanoes Make Up the Big Island of Hawaii?|url=https://biologyinsights.com/how-many-volcanoes-make-up-the-big-island-of-hawaii/|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=biologyinsights}}</ref>. It is anchored at the northern tip of the island and its deeply eroded valleys and dramatic sea cliffs demonstrate the fate of these volcanoes, as the tectonic forces shift away from the hotspot. Mauna Kea is located in the northern part of the island. It is a giant volcano that is dormant and last erupted somewhere from 6,000 to 4,500 years ago <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2025|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. This volcano is culturally sacred to the Native Hawaiians and from the oceanic floor, it stands at an impressive height of over 10, 210 meters (33, 500 feet) tall <ref name=":1" />. To the west lies Hualālai. This volcano is the third most active on the island and has erupted 3 times in the past 1,000 years <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Currently, it remains dormant, but still poses dangerous risks and requires monitoring as the last eruption occurred in 1801 and rising magma is believed to be the cause of an earthquake in 1929 <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=June 10, 2026|title=Big Island Hawaii Volcanoes|url=https://www.explore-the-big-island.com/hawaii-volcanoes.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=Explore The Big Island}}</ref>. Others may consider it an active volcano as there is a possibility that it may erupt in the future.

At the island’s southeastern core lies Mauna Loa and Kilauea. These volcanoes are the most active volcanoes in the region where Mauna Loa has erupted 34 times since 1843 and Kilauea has experienced near-continuous eruptive activity from 1983 to 2018 <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano, in terms of its volume and area, as it accounts for 51% of Hawai’i’s landmass <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. In 2022, the volcano erupted for a span of two weeks where its lava flows came within 2.8 kilometers of the Daniel K. Inouye Highway and due to this recent eruption, the volcano is still deemed to pose severe threats <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Kilauea is the youngest and by far the most active volcano of the five major ones found on Hawai’i. Located on the island’s southeastern part, this is the most dangerous volcano as its continuous eruptions, especially from 1983 until 2018, have resulted in severe environmental impacts for both various animal species and humans<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />.

== '''Case Study: Mt. Kilauea 2018 Volcano Eruption''' ==

=== '''Introduction to Kilauea''' ===
Mt. Kilauea, or simply known as Kilauea, is an active basaltic shield volcano located on Hawaii Island. It is the youngest and most active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. Due to its frequent eruptions over the past century, much of the volcano's surface is geologically young; only 10% of Kilauea’s surface consists of rock older than 1000 years, while around 90% is covered by lava flows younger than 1000 years <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Kyle R.|last2=Shea|first2=Thomas|last3=Lynn|first3=Kendra J.|last4=Montgomery-Brown|first4=Emily K.|last5=Swanson|first5=Donald A.|last6=Patrick|first6=Matthew R.|last7=Shiro|first7=Brian R.|last8=Neal|first8=Christina A.|date=2023|title=The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea: Insights, puzzles, and opportunities for Volcano Science|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075925|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|via=USGS Publications Warehouse}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawai’i.|date=2025, March 20|title=Eruptions of Kīlauea|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/eruptions.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June 16|website=National Parks Service}}</ref>.

Before 2018, Kilauea had been erupting almost continuously for more than a century, interrupted only by short periods of repose. One of its most notable periods of activity began in March 2008, when a new vent opened within Halemaʻumaʻu Crater and formed a persistent lava lake at the summit. Although the lava lake remained relatively stable from 2013 to 2018, its level frequently rose and fell in response to changes in pressure within the summit magma chamber. Occasional overflows spread fresh lava across portions of the crater floor, providing clear evidence of ongoing active volcanic activity. By 2016 and 2017, the lava lake was often visible from public viewing areas in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and had become a major tourist attraction <ref>{{Cite web|first=Kīlauea|date=November 23, 2023|title=Chronology of Kīlauea's summit eruption, 2008–2018|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/chronology-kilaueas-summit-eruption-2008-2018#overview|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geology Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

This long period of sustained activity culminated in the 2018 eruption, one of the most significant volcanic events in Hawaii’s recorded history. Unlike previous eruptions, the 2018 eruption was considered the most impactful volcanic eruption in centuries, as it coincided with a massive summit collapse, resulting in widespread environmental, social, and economic impacts <ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawaii|date=June 7, 2021|title=2018 Eruption and Summit Collapse|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/2018-eruption.htm|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=National Park Service}}</ref>. The scale and complexity of the eruption make it an important event for studying volcanic processes and their immediate effect on human health, biodiversity, ecological communities, and more.

=== '''Geological Triggers Leading to the Eruption''' ===
While Kilauea’s eruption caught public attention in May 2018, the geological and tectonic triggers behind it had been accumulating immense structural stress for decades until the system eventually met its breaking point and collapsed. Deep down in the mantle, intense heat melts rock into magma and since it is hot and buoyant, magma can force its way upward toward the surface. Before an eruption occurs, the magma pools into a reservoir complex, a tank that directly sits underneath the volcano’s summit caldera, roughly 1-5 km beneath the surface <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick|first=M.R.|last2=Houghton|first2=B.F.|last3=Anderson|first3=K.R.|last4=Poland|first4=M.P.|last5=Montgomery-Brown|first5=E.|last6=Johanson|first6=I.|last7=Thelen|first7=W.|last8=Elias|first8=T.|date=2020|title=The cascading origin of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption and implications for future forecasting|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2471544946?pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|pages=1-14}}</ref>. From here, the magma is able to either pump straight up to feed the active vents inside the main summit crater or it can be pushed and stored sideways into long, weak structural cracks into rift zones. Given Kilauea’s history, where its East Rift Zone is active, its south flank continuously slid seaward at a rate of up to 8 centimeters per year <ref name=":4" />. This long-term movement resulted in immense extensional stress on the shallow rift zones, which steadily reduced the amount of internal magma pressure required to split the rift open and result in dike intrusions and fissure eruptions <ref name=":4" />. Prior to 2018, Kilauea had constant eruptions since 1983 at or near the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent in the Middle East Rift Zone (MERZ) while its last eruptions in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) occurred in 1961 <ref name=":4" />. Following the Pu’u’Ōʻō eruption in 1983, the summit magma reservoir deflated for decades due to fluctuating internal pressure. It wasn’t until 2010 when the entire shallow magmatic plumbing system underwent sustained inflation and this pattern continued for years afterward, directly causing the Halema’uma’u lava lake to steadily rise until Kilauea’s massive eruption in 2018. In the first quarter of 2018, tilt and GPS instruments recorded the highest levels of magma pressurization seen at Kilauea in at least two decades and because 57 years had passed since the last LERZ eruption, the region was structurally compromised for a major opening <ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Kilauea eastern rift zone fissure eruption May 2018.jpg|thumb|366x366px|The early stages of the May 2018 Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced explosive lava fountains from newly opened fissures. This intense activity rapidly generated wildfires and smothered local flora, illustrating Kilauea's immediate, destructive force. ]]
In March and April of 2018, the rate of system pressurization accelerated dramatically, while the volume of lava exiting the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent was actively waning. This created “magma backup”, where the volcano lacked an efficient exit point so the bottled-up magma intensified and caused lava lakes at both the summit and the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent to rise to unusually high levels <ref name=":4" />. In the weeks leading to the Kilauea eruption, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) issued various early warning signs starting on April 17 based on new data demonstrating changes in lava lakes, ground swelling, and increased seismic activity <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Youhua|last2=Tong|first2=Daniel Q.|last3=Yang|first3=Kai|last4=Lee|first4=Pius|last5=Baker|first5=Barry|last6=Crawford|first6=Alice|last7=Luke|first7=Winston|last8=Stein|first8=Ariel|last9=Campbell|first9=Patrick C.|displayauthors=et al.|date=September 15, 2020|title=Air quality impacts of the 2018 Mt. Kilauea Volcano eruption in Hawaii: A regional chemical transport model study with satellite-constrained emissions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020303800|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=237}}</ref>. The tipping point occurred on April 30, 2018 when a small fissure eruption developed into the west flank of the Pu’u’Ōʻō, which led to the vent collapsing <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />. Over the course of the next several days, after this collapse, magma began migrating down rift and many earthquakes were recorded. On May 3, the advancing magma breached the surface, opening the first of 24 eruptive fissures within the Leilani Estates subdivision <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2023|title=2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption and Summit Collapse at Kīlauea|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/2018-lower-east-rift-zone-eruption-and-summit-collapse-kilauea|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. The following day, on May 4, the intense stress of this massive subsurface magma injection triggered a (moment magnitude) Mw 6.9 earthquake along Kilauea’s south flank, which further opened up the rift <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />. This event marked the largest recorded earthquake in Hawai’i in 43 years where this tectonic shift caused 5 meters of sudden fault slip, characterizing this as the largest LERZ eruption and summit collapse within the past 200 years<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

According to a NASA-funded study, it was found that potentially a prolonged duration of heavy rainfall in the months preceding the eruption could have been a culprit in this eruption. As rainfall increased, water was able to infiltrate into the Earth’s shallow crust, which in turn weakened rock formations and made it easier for magma to break through to the surface <ref name=":6" />. That being said, this hypothesis is highly debated among many volcanologists as extrinsic triggers, such as heavy rainfall, are not the main reason as to why this eruption occurred <ref name=":4" />. Ground data collected in the weeks prior to the event reveal that there were exceptionally high rates of widespread inflation and dramatic lava lake level rises. So while rainwater may have altered the rock’s fracturing threshold, the increased pressure in magma had led to the structural breaking point <ref name=":4" />.

=== '''Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts (Air and Climate)''' ===
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2062.jpg|thumb|392x392px|Helicopter overflight view of Kilauea Volcano's Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) captured on May 19, 2018. Sourced from fissures 16-20, this volcanic discharge overruns local roads and vegetation, demonstrating its sheer destruction and devastation. ]]
Kilauea’s eruption unleashed massive volumes of lava, ash, and volcanic gases that radically altered the biosphere. This eruption officially commenced when lava and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emerged from fissures within the Eastern Rift Zone (ERZ) <ref name=":5" />.The advancing lava flows from Kilauea acted as an immediate, devastating force that rapidly eradicated both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As molten lava moves across a landscape, its intense heat instantly kills any and all flora and fauna in its path, while the cooling, thickening lava crust extinguishes the underlying soil <ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Hodges|first=Meghan|date=Oct 18, 2025|title=Kilauea's Eruptions: Environmental Impacts And Ecosystem Changes Explored|url=https://shunwaste.com/article/how-does-kilauea-affect-the-environment|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Shun Waste}}</ref>. All of the affected areas transformed into basaltic, barren, and inhospitable terrain. This new environment now lacked the proper nutrients, minerals, soil, and moisture needed to sustain various life forms and any specialized species, especially endemic Hawaiian plants and animals, faced intensified competition for shrinking food and shelter resources <ref name=":7" />.

During the month of May, the eruption advanced further down rift into dramatic lava fountain eruptions from newly opened fissures <ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously, the summit reservoir drained, causing the lava lake levels to drop, the crater walls gave way in a massive summit collapse, and a hazardous mixture of ash and SO2 ejected into the atmosphere <ref name=":6" />. By mid-May, the LERZ eruption resulted in an increase in hotter and additional magma from multiple vents, which in turn produced faster lava flows <ref name=":6" />. Since the lava was able to travel faster and farther out, these basaltic flows not only buried tropical forests and extinguished wildlife habitats, but its destruction crossed into a major highway extending into the ocean on May 19 near the Mackenzie State Recreational Area <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />.
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2069.jpg|thumb|397x397px|As the fast flowing lava meets the coastal waters, the resulting interaction produces laze, triggering severe environmental stress for nearshore marine organisms and coastal food chains. ]]
[[File:Kilauea Fissure 8 cone erupting on 6-28-2018.jpg|thumb|398x398px|Aerial view of the active fissure 8 during the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, which would eventually account for two-thirds of the total volume erupted during this event. ]]
On May 27, eruptive activity returned to fissure 8 and within a 24 hour window, an 80 meter high lava fountain rapidly built a surrounding tephra cone which produced a channelized lava flow that advanced northeast and entered the ocean at Kapoho Bay on June 3 <ref name=":6" />. With fissure 8’s lava flow expanded, it was able to enter the sea at multiple locations. As a result, molten lava formed new lava deltas. The interaction between Kilauea’s molten lava and the ocean generated a hazardous phenomenon known as laze, which is a toxic mixture of water vapor, hydrochloric acid, and fine volcanic particles <ref name=":7" />. Laze drastically lowered the pH of the surrounding water, producing acidic conditions, altered salinity levels, and shifts in temperature. This destruction subjected local marine life, such as fish, plankton, sea turtles, sea birds, and delicate coral reef populations, to extreme thermal stress, decreased oxygen levels, chemical pollution, and displacement from vital nesting grounds <ref name=":7" />. Ultimately, these compounding hazards presented severe physical challenges for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

While many species perished, those that survived were forced into smaller habitable regions where vegetation and shelter became scarce. As time went on, competition for resources increased and long-term population declined as reproductive rates lowered and local extinctions grew. By the time the eruption ended in early August, Kilauea expelled roughly 1 cubic kilometer of lava, with two-thirds of that total volume originating solely from fissure 8 <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 14, 2026|title=2018 Eruption|url=https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/resources/2018-eruption|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Kilauea Eruption Recovery}}</ref>. This ecological erasure completely reshaped the landscape where 8,488 acres of land was flooded with lava, destroying 500 acres of protected forest reserve and several marine ecosystems <ref name=":8" />.
Beyond the immediate destruction caused by molten lava, Kilauea’s atmospheric emissions imposed severe tolls on the region’s air quality and terrestrial ecosystems through ash fallout and volcanic fog (VOG). When Kilauea erupted, it released vast amounts of fine volcanic ash that settled over the surrounding landscape, forming a dense, opaque layer. These ash fallouts physically crushed smaller vegetation and stunted the growth of larger plants, while its chemical composition of sulfur and heavy metals, toxified and altered the soil’s pH <ref name=":7" />. The drastic chemical changes turned the soil acidic, which further stressed the plants, disrupted nutrient uptake, and led to soil degradation <ref name=":7" />. Simultaneously, the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other volcanic gases created VOG. Due to its high toxicity load, during the LERZ eruption, extreme traces of SO2 in the air required mandatory evacuations even for individuals far from the initial impacted lava flow zones <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Zinkova|first=Mila|date=August 6, 2019|title=2018 Kīlauea eruption|url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wea.3589|journal=Weather|volume=75|pages=214-220}}</ref>. Driven by shifting wind patterns, these choking fumes frequently bypassed nearby cities like Hilo and pushed over 100 kilometers away to cities such as Kona and others found on the opposite end of the island <ref name=":9" />.[[File:May 9, 2018- Halemaumau ash cloud (49888154838).jpg|thumb|Volcanic ash clouds from the Halema'uma'u crater at the summit of Kilauea on May 9, 2018. The plume was generated by frequent rockfalls and debris collapsing into the receding lava lake. |397x397px]]The reach of the ash fall and VOG produced from Kilauea was massive and posed serious health risks. However, the blockage of sunlight by volcanic ash created both physical and environmental barriers that disrupted photosynthesis. As ash fall coats leaf surfaces, this barrier reflects and absorbs incoming solar radiation, completely blocking sunlight from penetrating the leaf tissue. Since plants were unable to convert light into usable energy, many suffered from a drastic reduction in food production, stunted growth, and weakened resilience. Given that plants form the foundational base of the ecosystem, the reduction of sunlight triggered a devastating domino effect throughout the food chain where herbivores suffered from severe food scarcity, which subsequently starved predators, and overall impacted regional biodiversity <ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Ecological Destruction and Biodiversity Reset''' ===

=== '''Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts''' ===
[[File:Kīlauea.jpg|left|thumb|Lava from a fissure near Kilauea, Hawaiʻi, on May 6, 2018. The eruption destroyed homes and infrastructure, prompting mandatory evacuations for the immediate area.]]
The 2018 Kilauea eruption had significant social and economic impacts on communities across Hawai'i Island, especially the lower Puna district <ref name=":10">{{Cite web|first=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|date=March 31, 2022|title=Volcano Watch - The 2018 eruption of Kilauea was big on a global scale|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. Lava flows destroyed 612 homes, displaced more than 3,000 residents, and caused an estimated $236.5 million in damage to roads, community facilities, and other critical infrastructure. In addition, more than 1,337 acres of agricultural land were affected by the eruption <ref name=":8" />. Although many residents were eventually able to access housing, food, water, and other necessities, damage to infrastructure and disruptions to essential services forced many to relocate. Many affected residents also required unemployment, financial, and health assistance during the recovery process <ref>{{Cite web|first=UH News|date=October 22, 2018|title=UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/10/22/kilauea-eruption-agricultural-survey/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=University of Hawaii News}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ludwig|first=K. A.|last2=Pennaz|first2=Alice B.|last3=Wilkins|first3=Aleeza|date=2019|title=Results from the Department of the Interior Strategic Sciences Group Technical Support for the 2018 Kīlauea Eruption: Cooperator Report|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70205097|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>.

The local economy was also severely affected. Hawai'i’s economy is highly dependent on tourism, yet the eruption led to closure of businesses, agricultural operations, and tourist attractions across Hawai'i Island, while also significantly reducing tourism on neighboring islands <ref>{{Cite web|last=Rott|first=Nathan|date=May 27, 2018|title=Kilauea Volcano Disrupts Big Island's Tourist-Dependent Economy|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/27/614886508/kilauea-volcano-disrupts-big-island-s-tourist-dependent-economy|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=Vermont Public News}}</ref>. As a result, Hawai'i Island alone experienced an estimated economic loss of ~$542.3 million, largely due to major decline in local job opportunities, tourism revenue, and agriculture production <ref name=":8" />.

In addition to its social and economic consequences, the eruption posed significant risks on human health. At its peak, Kilauea emitted ~100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per day. This gas contributed to the formation of volcanic smog (VOG), which contains acidic sulfuric acid droplets that can irritate the skin, lungs, and mucous membranes while degrading air pollution in downwind communities, creating persistent health concerns for residents. Furthermore, the volcano released ~77,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per day. Because cooled CO2 is heavier than air, it can accumulate in low-lying areas and reach hazardous concentrations under certain atmospheric conditions. This posed serious health risks for human and animal populations in the downwind of the Kilauea volcano, as exposure to air containing more than 3% CO2 can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate, and breathing difficulties, while concentrations above 15% can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death <ref>{{Cite web|first=Volcano Hazards Program|title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 5, 2026|title=How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-sulfur-dioxide-so2-gas-does-kilauea-emit|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

Beyond the physical hazards, the prolonged eruption, frequent earthquakes, displacement of residents, and uncertainty surrounding future volcanic activity contributed to social tensions and fatigue among affected residents, local government officials, and emergency responders <ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ewert|first=John W.|last2=Diefenbach|first2=Angela K.|last3=Ramsey|first3=David W.|date=2018|title=2018 Update to the U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2018/5140/sir20185140.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>. These impacts demonstrate that volcanic disasters, like the 2018 Kilauea eruption, can have long-lasting effects that extend far beyond the eruption itself, creating ongoing challenges for community recovery, public health, and economic resilience.

==Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections==

The 2018 Kilauea Eruption serves as a profound testament to the fact that geology and biology are not separate academic disciplines, but rather go hand in hand to explore planetary topics. By tracking this event from its subterranean magma shifts to its far-reaching ecological and atmospheric consequences, this investigation reveals that geological disruptions do not merely collide with biological systems. Volcanism plays a role in designing the physical architecture of the Earth through a means of destruction and structural rebirth. Looking forward, one must recognize how the connections between the geological forces and biological networks at play are essential for understanding modern ecological conservation. Being able to bridge my biology background with the principles of geosciences has fundamentally transformed my understanding of the natural world around me. Analyzing this eruption forced me to step outside the traditional approaches I am accustomed to and has shown me just how fragile and resilient life truly is. After spending the past few weeks researching and putting together this project, I find it really incredible how the vibrant, subtropical rainforests of Hawai’i are entirely a byproduct of such violent volcanic eruptions.
==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T21:40:18Z

JenniferLam: /* Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts */

== Summary/Overview ==
The 2018 Kilauea Eruption represents a recent, real-time demonstration of the inseparable relationship between Earth’s geological forces and biological systems. This catastrophic event was driven by a series of subterranean shifts, beginning with increased magma pressurization and the subsequent collapse of the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent on April 30, 2018. A structural failure of this size forced a massive underground magma intrusion down the Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ), triggering a historic Mw 6.9 earthquake that dilated the rift and unleashed a destructive effusive eruption through 24 open fissures. Over a three-month period, molten basaltic lava flows completely reshaped the landscape, burying over 14 square miles of lush, subtropical rainforest while the summit caldera underwent massive collapses.

While devastating, this geological upheaval acts as a reset button for the biosphere. By erasing existing habitats and replacing them with completely sterile rock, the eruption provides a blank canvas for ecological primary succession, paving the way for specialized pioneer species to slowly rebuild a new, highly resilient biological community from the ground up. The immense volumes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released during the eruption altered atmospheric chemistry, generating persistent ash fall, volcanic fog (VOG), and laze directly challenged localized biodiversity and human respiratory health. The goal of this page is to analyze the geological triggers and environmental aftermath of the 2018 Kilauea eruption, illustrating how violent planetary disruptions actively dictate the colonization, evolution, and long-term sustainability of various living ecosystems.

== Statement of Connection and why you chose it ==
My desire to investigate the biological consequences of volcanic activity stems from a desire to explore how geology and biology can dictate the rules of life, a relationship that is seen by the 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawai'i. From the many biology classes I have taken throughout my undergraduate journey, I found that we often study cellular, physiological, and environmental ecosystems as established systems. However, in EOSC courses, that is not always the case. By focusing on volcanic events, it forces us to analyze ecological assembly from absolute zero. Volcanism serves as the ultimate geological catalyst for primary succession as it provides a barren canvas where the fundamental rules of life are explicitly visible. Geology and Biology are heavily intertwined as the geological concepts provide an explanation for the physical and chemical foundations for life, while biology actively reshapes the geological landscapes. By centering our project on Hawai'i's unique island ecosystem, we can directly bridge the gap between the Earth's systems and living networks. The 2018 Kilauea Eruption is a clear example of how a violent physical Earth process is not just a force of destruction, but also the starting point for new biodiversity to accumulate. This allows us to track how a singular geological disruption can have ripple effects that fundamentally reshape global climate patterns and biodiversity, drive localized evolutionary adaptation, alter atmospheric and land chemistry through volcanic gases and lava, dictate the long-term sustainability of ecological communities, and present the immediate public health challenges for human health.

[[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates a cross-section of the tectonic plate mechanism of the Hawaiian Hotspot. As the Pacific Plate moves northwestward over a fixed mantle plume, it creates a chronological chain of volcanoes, where island age increases as it moves away from the magma source. |399x399px]]

== '''Brief Overview of Hawaiian Topography''' ==
The Hawaiian Islands form a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean consisting of eight major islands - Hawai’i, Maui, O’ahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lāna’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe. These series of islands are the result of volcanism associated with a hot spot, which is associated with persistent volcanic activity. This hotspot remains stationary while the tectonic plates, specifically in this case the Pacific Plate, move northwest over the hotspot, leading to the formation of the various Hawaiian Islands<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Geology and Ecology of National Parks|title=Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park|url=https://www.usgs.gov/geology-and-ecology-of-national-parks/geology-hawaii-volcanoes-national-park|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. As the plates continue to move, this on-going movement creates new islands in the process as magma rises and erupts on the seafloor. Volcanoes further away from the hot spot are considered to be older and inactive, as they lack a continuous stream of magma, while volcanoes closer to the hot spot are younger and pose more of a threat due to the increase in their activity and abundant supply of magma<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 16, 2024|title=How did the Hawaiian Islands form?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hawaii.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. Typically, shield volcanoes are found on the Hawaiian Islands. These volcanoes are characterized by their broad, shallow sloping profiles with mafic lava flows and effusive eruptions.

== '''Volcanic Activity on the Hawaiian Islands''' ==
[[File:Location Hawaii Volcanoes.svg|thumb|This geological map of the Island of Hawai'i displays the geographic boundaries of the five major shield volcanos that form the island: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. ]]
Due to the movement of the Pacific Plate over a stationary mantle hotspot, the islands exhibit a distinct age progression where the youngest volcanoes are found on the southeastern end of the Hawaiian chain, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Island of Hawaii is composed of five major shield volcanoes, each representing a different stage in the life cycle of a hotspot island. Moving northwestward away from the primary hotspot, the islands transition to its older, less active structures known as Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Hualālai. Kohala is the oldest and the only extinct volcano of these five major volcanoes as it is believed to have last erupted 120, 000 years ago, sometime during the late Pleistocene epoch <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=January 13, 2026|title=How Many Volcanoes Make Up the Big Island of Hawaii?|url=https://biologyinsights.com/how-many-volcanoes-make-up-the-big-island-of-hawaii/|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=biologyinsights}}</ref>. It is anchored at the northern tip of the island and its deeply eroded valleys and dramatic sea cliffs demonstrate the fate of these volcanoes, as the tectonic forces shift away from the hotspot. Mauna Kea is located in the northern part of the island. It is a giant volcano that is dormant and last erupted somewhere from 6,000 to 4,500 years ago <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2025|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. This volcano is culturally sacred to the Native Hawaiians and from the oceanic floor, it stands at an impressive height of over 10, 210 meters (33, 500 feet) tall <ref name=":1" />. To the west lies Hualālai. This volcano is the third most active on the island and has erupted 3 times in the past 1,000 years <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Currently, it remains dormant, but still poses dangerous risks and requires monitoring as the last eruption occurred in 1801 and rising magma is believed to be the cause of an earthquake in 1929 <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=June 10, 2026|title=Big Island Hawaii Volcanoes|url=https://www.explore-the-big-island.com/hawaii-volcanoes.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=Explore The Big Island}}</ref>. Others may consider it an active volcano as there is a possibility that it may erupt in the future.

At the island’s southeastern core lies Mauna Loa and Kilauea. These volcanoes are the most active volcanoes in the region where Mauna Loa has erupted 34 times since 1843 and Kilauea has experienced near-continuous eruptive activity from 1983 to 2018 <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano, in terms of its volume and area, as it accounts for 51% of Hawai’i’s landmass <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. In 2022, the volcano erupted for a span of two weeks where its lava flows came within 2.8 kilometers of the Daniel K. Inouye Highway and due to this recent eruption, the volcano is still deemed to pose severe threats <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Kilauea is the youngest and by far the most active volcano of the five major ones found on Hawai’i. Located on the island’s southeastern part, this is the most dangerous volcano as its continuous eruptions, especially from 1983 until 2018, have resulted in severe environmental impacts for both various animal species and humans<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />.

== '''Case Study: Mt. Kilauea 2018 Volcano Eruption''' ==

=== '''Introduction to Kilauea''' ===
Mt. Kilauea, or simply known as Kilauea, is an active basaltic shield volcano located on the Island of Hawaii. It is the youngest and most active volcano in the Hawaii islands. Due to its frequent eruptions over the past century, much of the volcano's surface is geologically young; only 10% of the Kilauea’s surface consists of rock older than 1000 years, while around 90% of the volcano's surface is covered by lava flows younger than 1000 years <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Kyle R.|last2=Shea|first2=Thomas|last3=Lynn|first3=Kendra J.|last4=Montgomery-Brown|first4=Emily K.|last5=Swanson|first5=Donald A.|last6=Patrick|first6=Matthew R.|last7=Shiro|first7=Brian R.|last8=Neal|first8=Christina A.|date=2023|title=The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea: Insights, puzzles, and opportunities for Volcano Science|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075925|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|via=USGS Publications Warehouse}}</ref>. For the past 100 years, Kilauea has erupted almost continuously, interrupted only by short periods of repose. Among those eruptions, Kilauea’s 2018 eruption is considered as the most impactful volcanic eruption in centuries as it coincided with a massive summit collapse <ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawai’i.|date=2025, March 20|title=Eruptions of Kīlauea|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/eruptions.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June 16|website=National Parks Service}}</ref>. This makes Kilauea’s 2018 eruption an important event for studying volcanic processes and its immediate effect on human health, biodiversity, ecological communities, and more.

=== '''Geological Triggers Leading to the Eruption''' ===
While Kilauea’s eruption caught public attention in May 2018, the geological and tectonic triggers behind it had been accumulating immense structural stress for decades until the system eventually met its breaking point and collapsed. Deep down in the mantle, intense heat melts rock into magma and since it is hot and buoyant, magma can force its way upward toward the surface. Before an eruption occurs, the magma pools into a reservoir complex, a tank that directly sits underneath the volcano’s summit caldera, roughly 1-5 km beneath the surface <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick|first=M.R.|last2=Houghton|first2=B.F.|last3=Anderson|first3=K.R.|last4=Poland|first4=M.P.|last5=Montgomery-Brown|first5=E.|last6=Johanson|first6=I.|last7=Thelen|first7=W.|last8=Elias|first8=T.|date=2020|title=The cascading origin of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption and implications for future forecasting|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2471544946?pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|pages=1-14}}</ref>. From here, the magma is able to either pump straight up to feed the active vents inside the main summit crater or it can be pushed and stored sideways into long, weak structural cracks into rift zones. Given Kilauea’s history, where its East Rift Zone is active, its south flank continuously slid seaward at a rate of up to 8 centimeters per year <ref name=":4" />. This long-term movement resulted in immense extensional stress on the shallow rift zones, which steadily reduced the amount of internal magma pressure required to split the rift open and result in dike intrusions and fissure eruptions <ref name=":4" />. Prior to 2018, Kilauea had constant eruptions since 1983 at or near the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent in the Middle East Rift Zone (MERZ) while its last eruptions in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) occurred in 1961 <ref name=":4" />. Following the Pu’u’Ōʻō eruption in 1983, the summit magma reservoir deflated for decades due to fluctuating internal pressure. It wasn’t until 2010 when the entire shallow magmatic plumbing system underwent sustained inflation and this pattern continued for years afterward, directly causing the Halema’uma’u lava lake to steadily rise until Kilauea’s massive eruption in 2018. In the first quarter of 2018, tilt and GPS instruments recorded the highest levels of magma pressurization seen at Kilauea in at least two decades and because 57 years had passed since the last LERZ eruption, the region was structurally compromised for a major opening <ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Kilauea eastern rift zone fissure eruption May 2018.jpg|thumb|366x366px|The early stages of the May 2018 Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced explosive lava fountains from newly opened fissures. This intense activity rapidly generated wildfires and smothered local flora, illustrating Kilauea's immediate, destructive force. ]]
In March and April of 2018, the rate of system pressurization accelerated dramatically, while the volume of lava exiting the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent was actively waning. This created “magma backup”, where the volcano lacked an efficient exit point so the bottled-up magma intensified and caused lava lakes at both the summit and the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent to rise to unusually high levels <ref name=":4" />. In the weeks leading to the Kilauea eruption, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) issued various early warning signs starting on April 17 based on new data demonstrating changes in lava lakes, ground swelling, and increased seismic activity <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Youhua|last2=Tong|first2=Daniel Q.|last3=Yang|first3=Kai|last4=Lee|first4=Pius|last5=Baker|first5=Barry|last6=Crawford|first6=Alice|last7=Luke|first7=Winston|last8=Stein|first8=Ariel|last9=Campbell|first9=Patrick C.|displayauthors=et al.|date=September 15, 2020|title=Air quality impacts of the 2018 Mt. Kilauea Volcano eruption in Hawaii: A regional chemical transport model study with satellite-constrained emissions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020303800|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=237}}</ref>. The tipping point occurred on April 30, 2018 when a small fissure eruption developed into the west flank of the Pu’u’Ōʻō, which led to the vent collapsing <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />. Over the course of the next several days, after this collapse, magma began migrating down rift and many earthquakes were recorded. On May 3, the advancing magma breached the surface, opening the first of 24 eruptive fissures within the Leilani Estates subdivision <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2023|title=2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption and Summit Collapse at Kīlauea|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/2018-lower-east-rift-zone-eruption-and-summit-collapse-kilauea|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. The following day, on May 4, the intense stress of this massive subsurface magma injection triggered a (moment magnitude) Mw 6.9 earthquake along Kilauea’s south flank, which further opened up the rift <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />. This event marked the largest recorded earthquake in Hawai’i in 43 years where this tectonic shift caused 5 meters of sudden fault slip, characterizing this as the largest LERZ eruption and summit collapse within the past 200 years<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

According to a NASA-funded study, it was found that potentially a prolonged duration of heavy rainfall in the months preceding the eruption could have been a culprit in this eruption. As rainfall increased, water was able to infiltrate into the Earth’s shallow crust, which in turn weakened rock formations and made it easier for magma to break through to the surface <ref name=":6" />. That being said, this hypothesis is highly debated among many volcanologists as extrinsic triggers, such as heavy rainfall, are not the main reason as to why this eruption occurred <ref name=":4" />. Ground data collected in the weeks prior to the event reveal that there were exceptionally high rates of widespread inflation and dramatic lava lake level rises. So while rainwater may have altered the rock’s fracturing threshold, the increased pressure in magma had led to the structural breaking point <ref name=":4" />.

=== '''Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts (Air and Climate)''' ===
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2062.jpg|thumb|392x392px|Helicopter overflight view of Kilauea Volcano's Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) captured on May 19, 2018. Sourced from fissures 16-20, this volcanic discharge overruns local roads and vegetation, demonstrating its sheer destruction and devastation. ]]
Kilauea’s eruption unleashed massive volumes of lava, ash, and volcanic gases that radically altered the biosphere. This eruption officially commenced when lava and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emerged from fissures within the Eastern Rift Zone (ERZ) <ref name=":5" />.The advancing lava flows from Kilauea acted as an immediate, devastating force that rapidly eradicated both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As molten lava moves across a landscape, its intense heat instantly kills any and all flora and fauna in its path, while the cooling, thickening lava crust extinguishes the underlying soil <ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Hodges|first=Meghan|date=Oct 18, 2025|title=Kilauea's Eruptions: Environmental Impacts And Ecosystem Changes Explored|url=https://shunwaste.com/article/how-does-kilauea-affect-the-environment|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Shun Waste}}</ref>. All of the affected areas transformed into basaltic, barren, and inhospitable terrain. This new environment now lacked the proper nutrients, minerals, soil, and moisture needed to sustain various life forms and any specialized species, especially endemic Hawaiian plants and animals, faced intensified competition for shrinking food and shelter resources <ref name=":7" />.

During the month of May, the eruption advanced further down rift into dramatic lava fountain eruptions from newly opened fissures <ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously, the summit reservoir drained, causing the lava lake levels to drop, the crater walls gave way in a massive summit collapse, and a hazardous mixture of ash and SO2 ejected into the atmosphere <ref name=":6" />. By mid-May, the LERZ eruption resulted in an increase in hotter and additional magma from multiple vents, which in turn produced faster lava flows <ref name=":6" />. Since the lava was able to travel faster and farther out, these basaltic flows not only buried tropical forests and extinguished wildlife habitats, but its destruction crossed into a major highway extending into the ocean on May 19 near the Mackenzie State Recreational Area <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />.
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2069.jpg|thumb|397x397px|As the fast flowing lava meets the coastal waters, the resulting interaction produces laze, triggering severe environmental stress for nearshore marine organisms and coastal food chains. ]]
[[File:Kilauea Fissure 8 cone erupting on 6-28-2018.jpg|thumb|398x398px|Aerial view of the active fissure 8 during the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, which would eventually account for two-thirds of the total volume erupted during this event. ]]
On May 27, eruptive activity returned to fissure 8 and within a 24 hour window, an 80 meter high lava fountain rapidly built a surrounding tephra cone which produced a channelized lava flow that advanced northeast and entered the ocean at Kapoho Bay on June 3 <ref name=":6" />. With fissure 8’s lava flow expanded, it was able to enter the sea at multiple locations. As a result, molten lava formed new lava deltas. The interaction between Kilauea’s molten lava and the ocean generated a hazardous phenomenon known as laze, which is a toxic mixture of water vapor, hydrochloric acid, and fine volcanic particles <ref name=":7" />. Laze drastically lowered the pH of the surrounding water, producing acidic conditions, altered salinity levels, and shifts in temperature. This destruction subjected local marine life, such as fish, plankton, sea turtles, sea birds, and delicate coral reef populations, to extreme thermal stress, decreased oxygen levels, chemical pollution, and displacement from vital nesting grounds <ref name=":7" />. Ultimately, these compounding hazards presented severe physical challenges for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

While many species perished, those that survived were forced into smaller habitable regions where vegetation and shelter became scarce. As time went on, competition for resources increased and long-term population declined as reproductive rates lowered and local extinctions grew. By the time the eruption ended in early August, Kilauea expelled roughly 1 cubic kilometer of lava, with two-thirds of that total volume originating solely from fissure 8 <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 14, 2026|title=2018 Eruption|url=https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/resources/2018-eruption|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Kilauea Eruption Recovery}}</ref>. This ecological erasure completely reshaped the landscape where 8,488 acres of land was flooded with lava, destroying 500 acres of protected forest reserve and several marine ecosystems <ref name=":8" />.
Beyond the immediate destruction caused by molten lava, Kilauea’s atmospheric emissions imposed severe tolls on the region’s air quality and terrestrial ecosystems through ash fallout and volcanic fog (VOG). When Kilauea erupted, it released vast amounts of fine volcanic ash that settled over the surrounding landscape, forming a dense, opaque layer. These ash fallouts physically crushed smaller vegetation and stunted the growth of larger plants, while its chemical composition of sulfur and heavy metals, toxified and altered the soil’s pH <ref name=":7" />. The drastic chemical changes turned the soil acidic, which further stressed the plants, disrupted nutrient uptake, and led to soil degradation <ref name=":7" />. Simultaneously, the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other volcanic gases created VOG. Due to its high toxicity load, during the LERZ eruption, extreme traces of SO2 in the air required mandatory evacuations even for individuals far from the initial impacted lava flow zones <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Zinkova|first=Mila|date=August 6, 2019|title=2018 Kīlauea eruption|url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wea.3589|journal=Weather|volume=75|pages=214-220}}</ref>. Driven by shifting wind patterns, these choking fumes frequently bypassed nearby cities like Hilo and pushed over 100 kilometers away to cities such as Kona and others found on the opposite end of the island <ref name=":9" />.[[File:May 9, 2018- Halemaumau ash cloud (49888154838).jpg|thumb|Volcanic ash clouds from the Halema'uma'u crater at the summit of Kilauea on May 9, 2018. The plume was generated by frequent rockfalls and debris collapsing into the receding lava lake. |397x397px]]The reach of the ash fall and VOG produced from Kilauea was massive and posed serious health risks. However, the blockage of sunlight by volcanic ash created both physical and environmental barriers that disrupted photosynthesis. As ash fall coats leaf surfaces, this barrier reflects and absorbs incoming solar radiation, completely blocking sunlight from penetrating the leaf tissue. Since plants were unable to convert light into usable energy, many suffered from a drastic reduction in food production, stunted growth, and weakened resilience. Given that plants form the foundational base of the ecosystem, the reduction of sunlight triggered a devastating domino effect throughout the food chain where herbivores suffered from severe food scarcity, which subsequently starved predators, and overall impacted regional biodiversity <ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Ecological Destruction and Biodiversity Reset''' ===

=== '''Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts''' ===
[[File:Kīlauea.jpg|left|thumb|Lava from a fissure near Kilauea, Hawaiʻi, on May 6, 2018. The eruption destroyed homes and infrastructure, prompting mandatory evacuations for the immediate area.]]
The 2018 Kilauea eruption had significant social and economic impacts on communities across Hawaii Island, especially the lower Puna district <ref name=":10">{{Cite web|first=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|date=March 31, 2022|title=Volcano Watch - The 2018 eruption of Kilauea was big on a global scale|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. Lava flows destroyed 612 homes, displaced more than 3000 residents, and caused an estimated $236.5 million in damage to roads, community facilities, and other critical infrastructure. In addition, more than 1337 acres of agricultural land were affected by the eruption <ref name=":8" />. Although many residents were eventually able to access housing, food, water, and other necessities, damage to infrastructure and disruptions to essential services forced many to relocate. Many affected residents also required unemployment, financial, and health assistance during the recovery process <ref>{{Cite web|first=UH News|date=October 22, 2018|title=UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/10/22/kilauea-eruption-agricultural-survey/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=University of Hawaii News}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ludwig|first=K. A.|last2=Pennaz|first2=Alice B.|last3=Wilkins|first3=Aleeza|date=2019|title=Results from the Department of the Interior Strategic Sciences Group Technical Support for the 2018 Kīlauea Eruption: Cooperator Report|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70205097|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>.

The local economy was also severely affected. Hawaii’s economy is highly dependent on tourism, yet the eruption led to closure of businesses, agricultural operations, and tourist attractions across Hawaii Island, while also significantly reducing tourism on neighboring islands <ref>{{Cite web|last=Rott|first=Nathan|date=May 27, 2018|title=Kilauea Volcano Disrupts Big Island's Tourist-Dependent Economy|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/27/614886508/kilauea-volcano-disrupts-big-island-s-tourist-dependent-economy|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=Vermont Public News}}</ref>. As a result, Hawaii Island alone experienced an estimated economic loss of ~$542.3 million, largely due to major decline in local job opportunities, tourism revenue, and agriculture production <ref name=":8" />.

In addition to its social and economic consequences, the eruption posed significant risks on human health. At its peak, Kilauea emitted ~100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per day. This gas contributed to the formation of volcanic smog (vog), which contains acidic sulfuric acid droplets that can irritate the skin, lungs, and mucous membranes while degrading air pollution in downwind communities, creating persistent health concerns for residents. Furthermore, the volcano released ~77,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per day. Because cooled CO2 is heavier than air, it can accumulate in low-lying areas and reach hazardous concentrations under certain atmospheric conditions. This posed serious health risks for human and animal populations in the downwind of the Kilauea volcano, as exposure to air containing more than 3% CO2 can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate, and breathing difficulties, while concentrations above 15% can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death <ref>{{Cite web|first=Volcano Hazards Program|title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 5, 2026|title=How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-sulfur-dioxide-so2-gas-does-kilauea-emit|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

Beyond the physical hazards, the prolonged eruption, frequent earthquakes, displacement of residents, and uncertainty surrounding future volcanic activity contributed to social tensions and fatigue among affected residents, local government officials, and emergency responders <ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ewert|first=John W.|last2=Diefenbach|first2=Angela K.|last3=Ramsey|first3=David W.|date=2018|title=2018 Update to the U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2018/5140/sir20185140.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>. These impacts demonstrate that volcanic disasters, like the 2018 Kilauea eruption, can have long-lasting effects that extend far beyond the eruption itself, creating ongoing challenges for community recovery, public health, and economic resilience.

==Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections==

==References==
<references />

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[[Category:EOSC311]]

File:Kīlauea.jpg

2026-06-17T21:37:09Z

JenniferLam: Uploaded a work by Bruce Omori from https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/national/amp-stories/before-and-after-kilaueas-wrath-on-hawaiis-big-island/ with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lava from a fissure near Pāhoa, Hawaiʻi, on May 6, 2018. The eruption destroyed homes and infrastructure, prompting mandatory evacuations for the immediate area.}}
|date=May 6, 2018
|source=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/national/amp-stories/before-and-after-kilaueas-wrath-on-hawaiis-big-island/
|author=Bruce Omori
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Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T20:53:59Z

JenniferLam: /* Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts */

== Summary/Overview ==
The 2018 Kilauea Eruption represents a recent, real-time demonstration of the inseparable relationship between Earth’s geological forces and biological systems. This catastrophic event was driven by a series of subterranean shifts, beginning with increased magma pressurization and the subsequent collapse of the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent on April 30, 2018. A structural failure of this size forced a massive underground magma intrusion down the Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ), triggering a historic Mw 6.9 earthquake that dilated the rift and unleashed a destructive effusive eruption through 24 open fissures. Over a three-month period, molten basaltic lava flows completely reshaped the landscape, burying over 14 square miles of lush, subtropical rainforest while the summit caldera underwent massive collapses.

While devastating, this geological upheaval acts as a reset button for the biosphere. By erasing existing habitats and replacing them with completely sterile rock, the eruption provides a blank canvas for ecological primary succession, paving the way for specialized pioneer species to slowly rebuild a new, highly resilient biological community from the ground up. The immense volumes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released during the eruption altered atmospheric chemistry, generating persistent ash fall, volcanic fog (VOG), and laze directly challenged localized biodiversity and human respiratory health. The goal of this page is to analyze the geological triggers and environmental aftermath of the 2018 Kilauea eruption, illustrating how violent planetary disruptions actively dictate the colonization, evolution, and long-term sustainability of various living ecosystems.

== Statement of Connection and why you chose it ==
My desire to investigate the biological consequences of volcanic activity stems from a desire to explore how geology and biology can dictate the rules of life, a relationship that is seen by the 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawai'i. From the many biology classes I have taken throughout my undergraduate journey, I found that we often study cellular, physiological, and environmental ecosystems as established systems. However, in EOSC courses, that is not always the case. By focusing on volcanic events, it forces us to analyze ecological assembly from absolute zero. Volcanism serves as the ultimate geological catalyst for primary succession as it provides a barren canvas where the fundamental rules of life are explicitly visible. Geology and Biology are heavily intertwined as the geological concepts provide an explanation for the physical and chemical foundations for life, while biology actively reshapes the geological landscapes. By centering our project on Hawai'i's unique island ecosystem, we can directly bridge the gap between the Earth's systems and living networks. The 2018 Kilauea Eruption is a clear example of how a violent physical Earth process is not just a force of destruction, but also the starting point for new biodiversity to accumulate. This allows us to track how a singular geological disruption can have ripple effects that fundamentally reshape global climate patterns and biodiversity, drive localized evolutionary adaptation, alter atmospheric and land chemistry through volcanic gases and lava, dictate the long-term sustainability of ecological communities, and present the immediate public health challenges for human health.

[[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates a cross-section of the tectonic plate mechanism of the Hawaiian Hotspot. As the Pacific Plate moves northwestward over a fixed mantle plume, it creates a chronological chain of volcanoes, where island age increases as it moves away from the magma source. |399x399px]]

== '''Brief Overview of Hawaiian Topography''' ==
The Hawaiian Islands form a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean consisting of eight major islands - Hawai’i, Maui, O’ahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lāna’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe. These series of islands are the result of volcanism associated with a hot spot, which is associated with persistent volcanic activity. This hotspot remains stationary while the tectonic plates, specifically in this case the Pacific Plate, move northwest over the hotspot, leading to the formation of the various Hawaiian Islands<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Geology and Ecology of National Parks|title=Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park|url=https://www.usgs.gov/geology-and-ecology-of-national-parks/geology-hawaii-volcanoes-national-park|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. As the plates continue to move, this on-going movement creates new islands in the process as magma rises and erupts on the seafloor. Volcanoes further away from the hot spot are considered to be older and inactive, as they lack a continuous stream of magma, while volcanoes closer to the hot spot are younger and pose more of a threat due to the increase in their activity and abundant supply of magma<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 16, 2024|title=How did the Hawaiian Islands form?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hawaii.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. Typically, shield volcanoes are found on the Hawaiian Islands. These volcanoes are characterized by their broad, shallow sloping profiles with mafic lava flows and effusive eruptions.

== '''Volcanic Activity on the Hawaiian Islands''' ==
[[File:Location Hawaii Volcanoes.svg|thumb|This geological map of the Island of Hawai'i displays the geographic boundaries of the five major shield volcanos that form the island: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. ]]
Due to the movement of the Pacific Plate over a stationary mantle hotspot, the islands exhibit a distinct age progression where the youngest volcanoes are found on the southeastern end of the Hawaiian chain, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Island of Hawaii is composed of five major shield volcanoes, each representing a different stage in the life cycle of a hotspot island. Moving northwestward away from the primary hotspot, the islands transition to its older, less active structures known as Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Hualālai. Kohala is the oldest and the only extinct volcano of these five major volcanoes as it is believed to have last erupted 120, 000 years ago, sometime during the late Pleistocene epoch <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=January 13, 2026|title=How Many Volcanoes Make Up the Big Island of Hawaii?|url=https://biologyinsights.com/how-many-volcanoes-make-up-the-big-island-of-hawaii/|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=biologyinsights}}</ref>. It is anchored at the northern tip of the island and its deeply eroded valleys and dramatic sea cliffs demonstrate the fate of these volcanoes, as the tectonic forces shift away from the hotspot. Mauna Kea is located in the northern part of the island. It is a giant volcano that is dormant and last erupted somewhere from 6,000 to 4,500 years ago <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2025|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. This volcano is culturally sacred to the Native Hawaiians and from the oceanic floor, it stands at an impressive height of over 10, 210 meters (33, 500 feet) tall <ref name=":1" />. To the west lies Hualālai. This volcano is the third most active on the island and has erupted 3 times in the past 1,000 years <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Currently, it remains dormant, but still poses dangerous risks and requires monitoring as the last eruption occurred in 1801 and rising magma is believed to be the cause of an earthquake in 1929 <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=June 10, 2026|title=Big Island Hawaii Volcanoes|url=https://www.explore-the-big-island.com/hawaii-volcanoes.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=Explore The Big Island}}</ref>. Others may consider it an active volcano as there is a possibility that it may erupt in the future.

At the island’s southeastern core lies Mauna Loa and Kilauea. These volcanoes are the most active volcanoes in the region where Mauna Loa has erupted 34 times since 1843 and Kilauea has experienced near-continuous eruptive activity from 1983 to 2018 <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano, in terms of its volume and area, as it accounts for 51% of Hawai’i’s landmass <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. In 2022, the volcano erupted for a span of two weeks where its lava flows came within 2.8 kilometers of the Daniel K. Inouye Highway and due to this recent eruption, the volcano is still deemed to pose severe threats <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Kilauea is the youngest and by far the most active volcano of the five major ones found on Hawai’i. Located on the island’s southeastern part, this is the most dangerous volcano as its continuous eruptions, especially from 1983 until 2018, have resulted in severe environmental impacts for both various animal species and humans<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />.

== '''Case Study: Mt. Kilauea 2018 Volcano Eruption''' ==

=== '''Introduction to Kilauea''' ===
Mt. Kilauea, or simply known as Kilauea, is an active basaltic shield volcano located on the Island of Hawaii. It is the youngest and most active volcano in the Hawaii islands. Due to its frequent eruptions over the past century, much of the volcano's surface is geologically young; only 10% of the Kilauea’s surface consists of rock older than 1000 years, while around 90% of the volcano's surface is covered by lava flows younger than 1000 years <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Kyle R.|last2=Shea|first2=Thomas|last3=Lynn|first3=Kendra J.|last4=Montgomery-Brown|first4=Emily K.|last5=Swanson|first5=Donald A.|last6=Patrick|first6=Matthew R.|last7=Shiro|first7=Brian R.|last8=Neal|first8=Christina A.|date=2023|title=The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea: Insights, puzzles, and opportunities for Volcano Science|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075925|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|via=USGS Publications Warehouse}}</ref>. For the past 100 years, Kilauea has erupted almost continuously, interrupted only by short periods of repose. Among those eruptions, Kilauea’s 2018 eruption is considered as the most impactful volcanic eruption in centuries as it coincided with a massive summit collapse <ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawai’i.|date=2025, March 20|title=Eruptions of Kīlauea|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/eruptions.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June 16|website=National Parks Service}}</ref>. This makes Kilauea’s 2018 eruption an important event for studying volcanic processes and its immediate effect on human health, biodiversity, ecological communities, and more.

=== '''Geological Triggers Leading to the Eruption''' ===
While Kilauea’s eruption caught public attention in May 2018, the geological and tectonic triggers behind it had been accumulating immense structural stress for decades until the system eventually met its breaking point and collapsed. Deep down in the mantle, intense heat melts rock into magma and since it is hot and buoyant, magma can force its way upward toward the surface. Before an eruption occurs, the magma pools into a reservoir complex, a tank that directly sits underneath the volcano’s summit caldera, roughly 1-5 km beneath the surface <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick|first=M.R.|last2=Houghton|first2=B.F.|last3=Anderson|first3=K.R.|last4=Poland|first4=M.P.|last5=Montgomery-Brown|first5=E.|last6=Johanson|first6=I.|last7=Thelen|first7=W.|last8=Elias|first8=T.|date=2020|title=The cascading origin of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption and implications for future forecasting|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2471544946?pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|pages=1-14}}</ref>. From here, the magma is able to either pump straight up to feed the active vents inside the main summit crater or it can be pushed and stored sideways into long, weak structural cracks into rift zones. Given Kilauea’s history, where its East Rift Zone is active, its south flank continuously slid seaward at a rate of up to 8 centimeters per year <ref name=":4" />. This long-term movement resulted in immense extensional stress on the shallow rift zones, which steadily reduced the amount of internal magma pressure required to split the rift open and result in dike intrusions and fissure eruptions <ref name=":4" />. Prior to 2018, Kilauea had constant eruptions since 1983 at or near the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent in the Middle East Rift Zone (MERZ) while its last eruptions in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) occurred in 1961 <ref name=":4" />. Following the Pu’u’Ōʻō eruption in 1983, the summit magma reservoir deflated for decades due to fluctuating internal pressure. It wasn’t until 2010 when the entire shallow magmatic plumbing system underwent sustained inflation and this pattern continued for years afterward, directly causing the Halema’uma’u lava lake to steadily rise until Kilauea’s massive eruption in 2018. In the first quarter of 2018, tilt and GPS instruments recorded the highest levels of magma pressurization seen at Kilauea in at least two decades and because 57 years had passed since the last LERZ eruption, the region was structurally compromised for a major opening <ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Kilauea eastern rift zone fissure eruption May 2018.jpg|thumb|366x366px|The early stages of the May 2018 Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced explosive lava fountains from newly opened fissures. This intense activity rapidly generated wildfires and smothered local flora, illustrating Kilauea's immediate, destructive force. ]]
In March and April of 2018, the rate of system pressurization accelerated dramatically, while the volume of lava exiting the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent was actively waning. This created “magma backup”, where the volcano lacked an efficient exit point so the bottled-up magma intensified and caused lava lakes at both the summit and the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent to rise to unusually high levels <ref name=":4" />. In the weeks leading to the Kilauea eruption, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) issued various early warning signs starting on April 17 based on new data demonstrating changes in lava lakes, ground swelling, and increased seismic activity <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Youhua|last2=Tong|first2=Daniel Q.|last3=Yang|first3=Kai|last4=Lee|first4=Pius|last5=Baker|first5=Barry|last6=Crawford|first6=Alice|last7=Luke|first7=Winston|last8=Stein|first8=Ariel|last9=Campbell|first9=Patrick C.|displayauthors=et al.|date=September 15, 2020|title=Air quality impacts of the 2018 Mt. Kilauea Volcano eruption in Hawaii: A regional chemical transport model study with satellite-constrained emissions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020303800|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=237}}</ref>. The tipping point occurred on April 30, 2018 when a small fissure eruption developed into the west flank of the Pu’u’Ōʻō, which led to the vent collapsing <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />. Over the course of the next several days, after this collapse, magma began migrating down rift and many earthquakes were recorded. On May 3, the advancing magma breached the surface, opening the first of 24 eruptive fissures within the Leilani Estates subdivision <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2023|title=2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption and Summit Collapse at Kīlauea|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/2018-lower-east-rift-zone-eruption-and-summit-collapse-kilauea|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. The following day, on May 4, the intense stress of this massive subsurface magma injection triggered a (moment magnitude) Mw 6.9 earthquake along Kilauea’s south flank, which further opened up the rift <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />. This event marked the largest recorded earthquake in Hawai’i in 43 years where this tectonic shift caused 5 meters of sudden fault slip, characterizing this as the largest LERZ eruption and summit collapse within the past 200 years<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

According to a NASA-funded study, it was found that potentially a prolonged duration of heavy rainfall in the months preceding the eruption could have been a culprit in this eruption. As rainfall increased, water was able to infiltrate into the Earth’s shallow crust, which in turn weakened rock formations and made it easier for magma to break through to the surface <ref name=":6" />. That being said, this hypothesis is highly debated among many volcanologists as extrinsic triggers, such as heavy rainfall, are not the main reason as to why this eruption occurred <ref name=":4" />. Ground data collected in the weeks prior to the event reveal that there were exceptionally high rates of widespread inflation and dramatic lava lake level rises. So while rainwater may have altered the rock’s fracturing threshold, the increased pressure in magma had led to the structural breaking point <ref name=":4" />.

=== '''Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts (Air and Climate)''' ===
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2062.jpg|thumb|392x392px|Helicopter overflight view of Kilauea Volcano's Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) captured on May 19, 2018. Sourced from fissures 16-20, this volcanic discharge overruns local roads and vegetation, demonstrating its sheer destruction and devastation. ]]
Kilauea’s eruption unleashed massive volumes of lava, ash, and volcanic gases that radically altered the biosphere. This eruption officially commenced when lava and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emerged from fissures within the Eastern Rift Zone (ERZ) <ref name=":5" />.The advancing lava flows from Kilauea acted as an immediate, devastating force that rapidly eradicated both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As molten lava moves across a landscape, its intense heat instantly kills any and all flora and fauna in its path, while the cooling, thickening lava crust extinguishes the underlying soil <ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Hodges|first=Meghan|date=Oct 18, 2025|title=Kilauea's Eruptions: Environmental Impacts And Ecosystem Changes Explored|url=https://shunwaste.com/article/how-does-kilauea-affect-the-environment|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Shun Waste}}</ref>. All of the affected areas transformed into basaltic, barren, and inhospitable terrain. This new environment now lacked the proper nutrients, minerals, soil, and moisture needed to sustain various life forms and any specialized species, especially endemic Hawaiian plants and animals, faced intensified competition for shrinking food and shelter resources <ref name=":7" />.

During the month of May, the eruption advanced further down rift into dramatic lava fountain eruptions from newly opened fissures <ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously, the summit reservoir drained, causing the lava lake levels to drop, the crater walls gave way in a massive summit collapse, and a hazardous mixture of ash and SO2 ejected into the atmosphere <ref name=":6" />. By mid-May, the LERZ eruption resulted in an increase in hotter and additional magma from multiple vents, which in turn produced faster lava flows <ref name=":6" />. Since the lava was able to travel faster and farther out, these basaltic flows not only buried tropical forests and extinguished wildlife habitats, but its destruction crossed into a major highway extending into the ocean on May 19 near the Mackenzie State Recreational Area <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />.
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2069.jpg|thumb|397x397px|As the fast flowing lava meets the coastal waters, the resulting interaction produces laze, triggering severe environmental stress for nearshore marine organisms and coastal food chains. ]]
[[File:Kilauea Fissure 8 cone erupting on 6-28-2018.jpg|thumb|398x398px|Aerial view of the active fissure 8 during the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, which would eventually account for two-thirds of the total volume erupted during this event. ]]
On May 27, eruptive activity returned to fissure 8 and within a 24 hour window, an 80 meter high lava fountain rapidly built a surrounding tephra cone which produced a channelized lava flow that advanced northeast and entered the ocean at Kapoho Bay on June 3 <ref name=":6" />. With fissure 8’s lava flow expanded, it was able to enter the sea at multiple locations. As a result, molten lava formed new lava deltas. The interaction between Kilauea’s molten lava and the ocean generated a hazardous phenomenon known as laze, which is a toxic mixture of water vapor, hydrochloric acid, and fine volcanic particles <ref name=":7" />. Laze drastically lowered the pH of the surrounding water, producing acidic conditions, altered salinity levels, and shifts in temperature. This destruction subjected local marine life, such as fish, plankton, sea turtles, sea birds, and delicate coral reef populations, to extreme thermal stress, decreased oxygen levels, chemical pollution, and displacement from vital nesting grounds <ref name=":7" />. Ultimately, these compounding hazards presented severe physical challenges for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

While many species perished, those that survived were forced into smaller habitable regions where vegetation and shelter became scarce. As time went on, competition for resources increased and long-term population declined as reproductive rates lowered and local extinctions grew. By the time the eruption ended in early August, Kilauea expelled roughly 1 cubic kilometer of lava, with two-thirds of that total volume originating solely from fissure 8 <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 14, 2026|title=2018 Eruption|url=https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/resources/2018-eruption|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Kilauea Eruption Recovery}}</ref>. This ecological erasure completely reshaped the landscape where 8,488 acres of land was flooded with lava, destroying 500 acres of protected forest reserve and several marine ecosystems <ref name=":8" />.
Beyond the immediate destruction caused by molten lava, Kilauea’s atmospheric emissions imposed severe tolls on the region’s air quality and terrestrial ecosystems through ash fallout and volcanic fog (VOG). When Kilauea erupted, it released vast amounts of fine volcanic ash that settled over the surrounding landscape, forming a dense, opaque layer. These ash fallouts physically crushed smaller vegetation and stunted the growth of larger plants, while its chemical composition of sulfur and heavy metals, toxified and altered the soil’s pH <ref name=":7" />. The drastic chemical changes turned the soil acidic, which further stressed the plants, disrupted nutrient uptake, and led to soil degradation <ref name=":7" />. Simultaneously, the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other volcanic gases created VOG. Due to its high toxicity load, during the LERZ eruption, extreme traces of SO2 in the air required mandatory evacuations even for individuals far from the initial impacted lava flow zones <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Zinkova|first=Mila|date=August 6, 2019|title=2018 Kīlauea eruption|url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wea.3589|journal=Weather|volume=75|pages=214-220}}</ref>. Driven by shifting wind patterns, these choking fumes frequently bypassed nearby cities like Hilo and pushed over 100 kilometers away to cities such as Kona and others found on the opposite end of the island <ref name=":9" />.[[File:May 9, 2018- Halemaumau ash cloud (49888154838).jpg|thumb|Volcanic ash clouds from the Halema'uma'u crater at the summit of Kilauea on May 9, 2018. The plume was generated by frequent rockfalls and debris collapsing into the receding lava lake. |397x397px]]The reach of the ash fall and VOG produced from Kilauea was massive and posed serious health risks. However, the blockage of sunlight by volcanic ash created both physical and environmental barriers that disrupted photosynthesis. As ash fall coats leaf surfaces, this barrier reflects and absorbs incoming solar radiation, completely blocking sunlight from penetrating the leaf tissue. Since plants were unable to convert light into usable energy, many suffered from a drastic reduction in food production, stunted growth, and weakened resilience. Given that plants form the foundational base of the ecosystem, the reduction of sunlight triggered a devastating domino effect throughout the food chain where herbivores suffered from severe food scarcity, which subsequently starved predators, and overall impacted regional biodiversity <ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Ecological Destruction and Biodiversity Reset''' ===

=== '''Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts''' ===
The 2018 Kilauea eruption had significant social and economic impacts on communities across Hawaii Island, especially the lower Puna district <ref name=":10">{{Cite web|first=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|date=March 31, 2022|title=Volcano Watch - The 2018 eruption of Kilauea was big on a global scale|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. Lava flows destroyed 612 homes, displaced more than 3000 residents, and caused an estimated $236.5 million in damage to roads, community facilities, and other critical infrastructure. In addition, more than 1337 acres of agricultural land were affected by the eruption <ref name=":8" />. Although many residents were eventually able to access housing, food, water, and other necessities, damage to infrastructure and disruptions to essential services forced many to relocate. Many affected residents also required unemployment, financial, and health assistance during the recovery process <ref>{{Cite web|first=UH News|date=October 22, 2018|title=UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/10/22/kilauea-eruption-agricultural-survey/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=University of Hawaii News}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ludwig|first=K. A.|last2=Pennaz|first2=Alice B.|last3=Wilkins|first3=Aleeza|date=2019|title=Results from the Department of the Interior Strategic Sciences Group Technical Support for the 2018 Kīlauea Eruption: Cooperator Report|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70205097|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>.

The local economy was also severely affected. Hawaii’s economy is highly dependent on tourism, yet the eruption led to closure of businesses, agricultural operations, and tourist attractions across Hawaii Island, while also significantly reducing tourism on neighboring islands <ref>{{Cite web|last=Rott|first=Nathan|date=May 27, 2018|title=Kilauea Volcano Disrupts Big Island's Tourist-Dependent Economy|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/27/614886508/kilauea-volcano-disrupts-big-island-s-tourist-dependent-economy|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=Vermont Public News}}</ref>. As a result, Hawaii Island alone experienced an estimated economic loss of ~$542.3 million, largely due to major decline in local job opportunities, tourism revenue, and agriculture production <ref name=":8" />.

In addition to its social and economic consequences, the eruption posed significant risks on human health. At its peak, Kilauea emitted ~100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per day. This gas contributed to the formation of volcanic smog (vog), which contains acidic sulfuric acid droplets that can irritate the skin, lungs, and mucous membranes while degrading air pollution in downwind communities, creating persistent health concerns for residents. Furthermore, the volcano released ~77,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per day. Because cooled CO2 is heavier than air, it can accumulate in low-lying areas and reach hazardous concentrations under certain atmospheric conditions. This posed serious health risks for human and animal populations in the downwind of the Kilauea volcano, as exposure to air containing more than 3% CO2 can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate, and breathing difficulties, while concentrations above 15% can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death <ref>{{Cite web|first=Volcano Hazards Program|title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 5, 2026|title=How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-sulfur-dioxide-so2-gas-does-kilauea-emit|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

Beyond the physical hazards, the prolonged eruption, frequent earthquakes, displacement of residents, and uncertainty surrounding future volcanic activity contributed to social tensions and fatigue among affected residents, local government officials, and emergency responders <ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ewert|first=John W.|last2=Diefenbach|first2=Angela K.|last3=Ramsey|first3=David W.|date=2018|title=2018 Update to the U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2018/5140/sir20185140.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>. These impacts demonstrate that volcanic disasters, like the 2018 Kilauea eruption, can have long-lasting effects that extend far beyond the eruption itself, creating ongoing challenges for community recovery, public health, and economic resilience.

==Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections==

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T20:53:37Z

JenniferLam: /* Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts */

== Summary/Overview ==
The 2018 Kilauea Eruption represents a recent, real-time demonstration of the inseparable relationship between Earth’s geological forces and biological systems. This catastrophic event was driven by a series of subterranean shifts, beginning with increased magma pressurization and the subsequent collapse of the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent on April 30, 2018. A structural failure of this size forced a massive underground magma intrusion down the Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ), triggering a historic Mw 6.9 earthquake that dilated the rift and unleashed a destructive effusive eruption through 24 open fissures. Over a three-month period, molten basaltic lava flows completely reshaped the landscape, burying over 14 square miles of lush, subtropical rainforest while the summit caldera underwent massive collapses.

While devastating, this geological upheaval acts as a reset button for the biosphere. By erasing existing habitats and replacing them with completely sterile rock, the eruption provides a blank canvas for ecological primary succession, paving the way for specialized pioneer species to slowly rebuild a new, highly resilient biological community from the ground up. The immense volumes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) released during the eruption altered atmospheric chemistry, generating persistent ash fall, volcanic fog (VOG), and laze directly challenged localized biodiversity and human respiratory health. The goal of this page is to analyze the geological triggers and environmental aftermath of the 2018 Kilauea eruption, illustrating how violent planetary disruptions actively dictate the colonization, evolution, and long-term sustainability of various living ecosystems.

== Statement of Connection and why you chose it ==
My desire to investigate the biological consequences of volcanic activity stems from a desire to explore how geology and biology can dictate the rules of life, a relationship that is seen by the 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawai'i. From the many biology classes I have taken throughout my undergraduate journey, I found that we often study cellular, physiological, and environmental ecosystems as established systems. However, in EOSC courses, that is not always the case. By focusing on volcanic events, it forces us to analyze ecological assembly from absolute zero. Volcanism serves as the ultimate geological catalyst for primary succession as it provides a barren canvas where the fundamental rules of life are explicitly visible. Geology and Biology are heavily intertwined as the geological concepts provide an explanation for the physical and chemical foundations for life, while biology actively reshapes the geological landscapes. By centering our project on Hawai'i's unique island ecosystem, we can directly bridge the gap between the Earth's systems and living networks. The 2018 Kilauea Eruption is a clear example of how a violent physical Earth process is not just a force of destruction, but also the starting point for new biodiversity to accumulate. This allows us to track how a singular geological disruption can have ripple effects that fundamentally reshape global climate patterns and biodiversity, drive localized evolutionary adaptation, alter atmospheric and land chemistry through volcanic gases and lava, dictate the long-term sustainability of ecological communities, and present the immediate public health challenges for human health.

[[File:Hawaii hotspot cross-sectional diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates a cross-section of the tectonic plate mechanism of the Hawaiian Hotspot. As the Pacific Plate moves northwestward over a fixed mantle plume, it creates a chronological chain of volcanoes, where island age increases as it moves away from the magma source. |399x399px]]

== '''Brief Overview of Hawaiian Topography''' ==
The Hawaiian Islands form a volcanic archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean consisting of eight major islands - Hawai’i, Maui, O’ahu, Kaua’i, Moloka’i, Lāna’i, Ni’ihau, and Kaho’olawe. These series of islands are the result of volcanism associated with a hot spot, which is associated with persistent volcanic activity. This hotspot remains stationary while the tectonic plates, specifically in this case the Pacific Plate, move northwest over the hotspot, leading to the formation of the various Hawaiian Islands<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Geology and Ecology of National Parks|title=Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park|url=https://www.usgs.gov/geology-and-ecology-of-national-parks/geology-hawaii-volcanoes-national-park|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. As the plates continue to move, this on-going movement creates new islands in the process as magma rises and erupts on the seafloor. Volcanoes further away from the hot spot are considered to be older and inactive, as they lack a continuous stream of magma, while volcanoes closer to the hot spot are younger and pose more of a threat due to the increase in their activity and abundant supply of magma<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 16, 2024|title=How did the Hawaiian Islands form?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hawaii.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 2, 2026|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. Typically, shield volcanoes are found on the Hawaiian Islands. These volcanoes are characterized by their broad, shallow sloping profiles with mafic lava flows and effusive eruptions.

== '''Volcanic Activity on the Hawaiian Islands''' ==
[[File:Location Hawaii Volcanoes.svg|thumb|This geological map of the Island of Hawai'i displays the geographic boundaries of the five major shield volcanos that form the island: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualālai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. ]]
Due to the movement of the Pacific Plate over a stationary mantle hotspot, the islands exhibit a distinct age progression where the youngest volcanoes are found on the southeastern end of the Hawaiian chain, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Island of Hawaii is composed of five major shield volcanoes, each representing a different stage in the life cycle of a hotspot island. Moving northwestward away from the primary hotspot, the islands transition to its older, less active structures known as Kohala, Mauna Kea, and Hualālai. Kohala is the oldest and the only extinct volcano of these five major volcanoes as it is believed to have last erupted 120, 000 years ago, sometime during the late Pleistocene epoch <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=January 13, 2026|title=How Many Volcanoes Make Up the Big Island of Hawaii?|url=https://biologyinsights.com/how-many-volcanoes-make-up-the-big-island-of-hawaii/|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=biologyinsights}}</ref>. It is anchored at the northern tip of the island and its deeply eroded valleys and dramatic sea cliffs demonstrate the fate of these volcanoes, as the tectonic forces shift away from the hotspot. Mauna Kea is located in the northern part of the island. It is a giant volcano that is dormant and last erupted somewhere from 6,000 to 4,500 years ago <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2025|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. This volcano is culturally sacred to the Native Hawaiians and from the oceanic floor, it stands at an impressive height of over 10, 210 meters (33, 500 feet) tall <ref name=":1" />. To the west lies Hualālai. This volcano is the third most active on the island and has erupted 3 times in the past 1,000 years <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Currently, it remains dormant, but still poses dangerous risks and requires monitoring as the last eruption occurred in 1801 and rising magma is believed to be the cause of an earthquake in 1929 <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=June 10, 2026|title=Big Island Hawaii Volcanoes|url=https://www.explore-the-big-island.com/hawaii-volcanoes.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 10, 2026|website=Explore The Big Island}}</ref>. Others may consider it an active volcano as there is a possibility that it may erupt in the future.

At the island’s southeastern core lies Mauna Loa and Kilauea. These volcanoes are the most active volcanoes in the region where Mauna Loa has erupted 34 times since 1843 and Kilauea has experienced near-continuous eruptive activity from 1983 to 2018 <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Mauna Loa is the world’s largest volcano, in terms of its volume and area, as it accounts for 51% of Hawai’i’s landmass <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. In 2022, the volcano erupted for a span of two weeks where its lava flows came within 2.8 kilometers of the Daniel K. Inouye Highway and due to this recent eruption, the volcano is still deemed to pose severe threats <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />. Kilauea is the youngest and by far the most active volcano of the five major ones found on Hawai’i. Located on the island’s southeastern part, this is the most dangerous volcano as its continuous eruptions, especially from 1983 until 2018, have resulted in severe environmental impacts for both various animal species and humans<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />.

== '''Case Study: Mt. Kilauea 2018 Volcano Eruption''' ==

=== '''Introduction to Kilauea''' ===
Mt. Kilauea, or simply known as Kilauea, is an active basaltic shield volcano located on the Island of Hawaii. It is the youngest and most active volcano in the Hawaii islands. Due to its frequent eruptions over the past century, much of the volcano's surface is geologically young; only 10% of the Kilauea’s surface consists of rock older than 1000 years, while around 90% of the volcano's surface is covered by lava flows younger than 1000 years <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Kyle R.|last2=Shea|first2=Thomas|last3=Lynn|first3=Kendra J.|last4=Montgomery-Brown|first4=Emily K.|last5=Swanson|first5=Donald A.|last6=Patrick|first6=Matthew R.|last7=Shiro|first7=Brian R.|last8=Neal|first8=Christina A.|date=2023|title=The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea: Insights, puzzles, and opportunities for Volcano Science|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-earth-031621-075925|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|via=USGS Publications Warehouse}}</ref>. For the past 100 years, Kilauea has erupted almost continuously, interrupted only by short periods of repose. Among those eruptions, Kilauea’s 2018 eruption is considered as the most impactful volcanic eruption in centuries as it coincided with a massive summit collapse <ref>{{Cite web|first=National Park Hawai’i.|date=2025, March 20|title=Eruptions of Kīlauea|url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/nature/eruptions.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June 16|website=National Parks Service}}</ref>. This makes Kilauea’s 2018 eruption an important event for studying volcanic processes and its immediate effect on human health, biodiversity, ecological communities, and more.

=== '''Geological Triggers Leading to the Eruption''' ===
While Kilauea’s eruption caught public attention in May 2018, the geological and tectonic triggers behind it had been accumulating immense structural stress for decades until the system eventually met its breaking point and collapsed. Deep down in the mantle, intense heat melts rock into magma and since it is hot and buoyant, magma can force its way upward toward the surface. Before an eruption occurs, the magma pools into a reservoir complex, a tank that directly sits underneath the volcano’s summit caldera, roughly 1-5 km beneath the surface <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick|first=M.R.|last2=Houghton|first2=B.F.|last3=Anderson|first3=K.R.|last4=Poland|first4=M.P.|last5=Montgomery-Brown|first5=E.|last6=Johanson|first6=I.|last7=Thelen|first7=W.|last8=Elias|first8=T.|date=2020|title=The cascading origin of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption and implications for future forecasting|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2471544946?pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|pages=1-14}}</ref>. From here, the magma is able to either pump straight up to feed the active vents inside the main summit crater or it can be pushed and stored sideways into long, weak structural cracks into rift zones. Given Kilauea’s history, where its East Rift Zone is active, its south flank continuously slid seaward at a rate of up to 8 centimeters per year <ref name=":4" />. This long-term movement resulted in immense extensional stress on the shallow rift zones, which steadily reduced the amount of internal magma pressure required to split the rift open and result in dike intrusions and fissure eruptions <ref name=":4" />. Prior to 2018, Kilauea had constant eruptions since 1983 at or near the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent in the Middle East Rift Zone (MERZ) while its last eruptions in the lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) occurred in 1961 <ref name=":4" />. Following the Pu’u’Ōʻō eruption in 1983, the summit magma reservoir deflated for decades due to fluctuating internal pressure. It wasn’t until 2010 when the entire shallow magmatic plumbing system underwent sustained inflation and this pattern continued for years afterward, directly causing the Halema’uma’u lava lake to steadily rise until Kilauea’s massive eruption in 2018. In the first quarter of 2018, tilt and GPS instruments recorded the highest levels of magma pressurization seen at Kilauea in at least two decades and because 57 years had passed since the last LERZ eruption, the region was structurally compromised for a major opening <ref name=":4" />.
[[File:Kilauea eastern rift zone fissure eruption May 2018.jpg|thumb|366x366px|The early stages of the May 2018 Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced explosive lava fountains from newly opened fissures. This intense activity rapidly generated wildfires and smothered local flora, illustrating Kilauea's immediate, destructive force. ]]
In March and April of 2018, the rate of system pressurization accelerated dramatically, while the volume of lava exiting the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent was actively waning. This created “magma backup”, where the volcano lacked an efficient exit point so the bottled-up magma intensified and caused lava lakes at both the summit and the Pu’u’Ōʻō vent to rise to unusually high levels <ref name=":4" />. In the weeks leading to the Kilauea eruption, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) issued various early warning signs starting on April 17 based on new data demonstrating changes in lava lakes, ground swelling, and increased seismic activity <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Tang|first=Youhua|last2=Tong|first2=Daniel Q.|last3=Yang|first3=Kai|last4=Lee|first4=Pius|last5=Baker|first5=Barry|last6=Crawford|first6=Alice|last7=Luke|first7=Winston|last8=Stein|first8=Ariel|last9=Campbell|first9=Patrick C.|displayauthors=et al.|date=September 15, 2020|title=Air quality impacts of the 2018 Mt. Kilauea Volcano eruption in Hawaii: A regional chemical transport model study with satellite-constrained emissions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020303800|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=237}}</ref>. The tipping point occurred on April 30, 2018 when a small fissure eruption developed into the west flank of the Pu’u’Ōʻō, which led to the vent collapsing <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />. Over the course of the next several days, after this collapse, magma began migrating down rift and many earthquakes were recorded. On May 3, the advancing magma breached the surface, opening the first of 24 eruptive fissures within the Leilani Estates subdivision <ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=November 24, 2023|title=2018 lower East Rift Zone Eruption and Summit Collapse at Kīlauea|url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/science/2018-lower-east-rift-zone-eruption-and-summit-collapse-kilauea|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. The following day, on May 4, the intense stress of this massive subsurface magma injection triggered a (moment magnitude) Mw 6.9 earthquake along Kilauea’s south flank, which further opened up the rift <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />. This event marked the largest recorded earthquake in Hawai’i in 43 years where this tectonic shift caused 5 meters of sudden fault slip, characterizing this as the largest LERZ eruption and summit collapse within the past 200 years<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />.

According to a NASA-funded study, it was found that potentially a prolonged duration of heavy rainfall in the months preceding the eruption could have been a culprit in this eruption. As rainfall increased, water was able to infiltrate into the Earth’s shallow crust, which in turn weakened rock formations and made it easier for magma to break through to the surface <ref name=":6" />. That being said, this hypothesis is highly debated among many volcanologists as extrinsic triggers, such as heavy rainfall, are not the main reason as to why this eruption occurred <ref name=":4" />. Ground data collected in the weeks prior to the event reveal that there were exceptionally high rates of widespread inflation and dramatic lava lake level rises. So while rainwater may have altered the rock’s fracturing threshold, the increased pressure in magma had led to the structural breaking point <ref name=":4" />.

=== '''Atmospheric and Environmental Impacts (Air and Climate)''' ===
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2062.jpg|thumb|392x392px|Helicopter overflight view of Kilauea Volcano's Lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) captured on May 19, 2018. Sourced from fissures 16-20, this volcanic discharge overruns local roads and vegetation, demonstrating its sheer destruction and devastation. ]]
Kilauea’s eruption unleashed massive volumes of lava, ash, and volcanic gases that radically altered the biosphere. This eruption officially commenced when lava and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emerged from fissures within the Eastern Rift Zone (ERZ) <ref name=":5" />.The advancing lava flows from Kilauea acted as an immediate, devastating force that rapidly eradicated both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As molten lava moves across a landscape, its intense heat instantly kills any and all flora and fauna in its path, while the cooling, thickening lava crust extinguishes the underlying soil <ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Hodges|first=Meghan|date=Oct 18, 2025|title=Kilauea's Eruptions: Environmental Impacts And Ecosystem Changes Explored|url=https://shunwaste.com/article/how-does-kilauea-affect-the-environment|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Shun Waste}}</ref>. All of the affected areas transformed into basaltic, barren, and inhospitable terrain. This new environment now lacked the proper nutrients, minerals, soil, and moisture needed to sustain various life forms and any specialized species, especially endemic Hawaiian plants and animals, faced intensified competition for shrinking food and shelter resources <ref name=":7" />.

During the month of May, the eruption advanced further down rift into dramatic lava fountain eruptions from newly opened fissures <ref name=":5" />. Simultaneously, the summit reservoir drained, causing the lava lake levels to drop, the crater walls gave way in a massive summit collapse, and a hazardous mixture of ash and SO2 ejected into the atmosphere <ref name=":6" />. By mid-May, the LERZ eruption resulted in an increase in hotter and additional magma from multiple vents, which in turn produced faster lava flows <ref name=":6" />. Since the lava was able to travel faster and farther out, these basaltic flows not only buried tropical forests and extinguished wildlife habitats, but its destruction crossed into a major highway extending into the ocean on May 19 near the Mackenzie State Recreational Area <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />.
[[File:USGS Kīlauea multimediaFile-2069.jpg|thumb|397x397px|As the fast flowing lava meets the coastal waters, the resulting interaction produces laze, triggering severe environmental stress for nearshore marine organisms and coastal food chains. ]]
[[File:Kilauea Fissure 8 cone erupting on 6-28-2018.jpg|thumb|398x398px|Aerial view of the active fissure 8 during the 2018 Kilauea Eruption, which would eventually account for two-thirds of the total volume erupted during this event. ]]
On May 27, eruptive activity returned to fissure 8 and within a 24 hour window, an 80 meter high lava fountain rapidly built a surrounding tephra cone which produced a channelized lava flow that advanced northeast and entered the ocean at Kapoho Bay on June 3 <ref name=":6" />. With fissure 8’s lava flow expanded, it was able to enter the sea at multiple locations. As a result, molten lava formed new lava deltas. The interaction between Kilauea’s molten lava and the ocean generated a hazardous phenomenon known as laze, which is a toxic mixture of water vapor, hydrochloric acid, and fine volcanic particles <ref name=":7" />. Laze drastically lowered the pH of the surrounding water, producing acidic conditions, altered salinity levels, and shifts in temperature. This destruction subjected local marine life, such as fish, plankton, sea turtles, sea birds, and delicate coral reef populations, to extreme thermal stress, decreased oxygen levels, chemical pollution, and displacement from vital nesting grounds <ref name=":7" />. Ultimately, these compounding hazards presented severe physical challenges for both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

While many species perished, those that survived were forced into smaller habitable regions where vegetation and shelter became scarce. As time went on, competition for resources increased and long-term population declined as reproductive rates lowered and local extinctions grew. By the time the eruption ended in early August, Kilauea expelled roughly 1 cubic kilometer of lava, with two-thirds of that total volume originating solely from fissure 8 <ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 14, 2026|title=2018 Eruption|url=https://recovery.hawaiicounty.gov/resources/2018-eruption|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2026|website=Kilauea Eruption Recovery}}</ref>. This ecological erasure completely reshaped the landscape where 8,488 acres of land was flooded with lava, destroying 500 acres of protected forest reserve and several marine ecosystems <ref name=":8" />.
Beyond the immediate destruction caused by molten lava, Kilauea’s atmospheric emissions imposed severe tolls on the region’s air quality and terrestrial ecosystems through ash fallout and volcanic fog (VOG). When Kilauea erupted, it released vast amounts of fine volcanic ash that settled over the surrounding landscape, forming a dense, opaque layer. These ash fallouts physically crushed smaller vegetation and stunted the growth of larger plants, while its chemical composition of sulfur and heavy metals, toxified and altered the soil’s pH <ref name=":7" />. The drastic chemical changes turned the soil acidic, which further stressed the plants, disrupted nutrient uptake, and led to soil degradation <ref name=":7" />. Simultaneously, the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and other volcanic gases created VOG. Due to its high toxicity load, during the LERZ eruption, extreme traces of SO2 in the air required mandatory evacuations even for individuals far from the initial impacted lava flow zones <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Zinkova|first=Mila|date=August 6, 2019|title=2018 Kīlauea eruption|url=https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wea.3589|journal=Weather|volume=75|pages=214-220}}</ref>. Driven by shifting wind patterns, these choking fumes frequently bypassed nearby cities like Hilo and pushed over 100 kilometers away to cities such as Kona and others found on the opposite end of the island <ref name=":9" />.[[File:May 9, 2018- Halemaumau ash cloud (49888154838).jpg|thumb|Volcanic ash clouds from the Halema'uma'u crater at the summit of Kilauea on May 9, 2018. The plume was generated by frequent rockfalls and debris collapsing into the receding lava lake. |397x397px]]The reach of the ash fall and VOG produced from Kilauea was massive and posed serious health risks. However, the blockage of sunlight by volcanic ash created both physical and environmental barriers that disrupted photosynthesis. As ash fall coats leaf surfaces, this barrier reflects and absorbs incoming solar radiation, completely blocking sunlight from penetrating the leaf tissue. Since plants were unable to convert light into usable energy, many suffered from a drastic reduction in food production, stunted growth, and weakened resilience. Given that plants form the foundational base of the ecosystem, the reduction of sunlight triggered a devastating domino effect throughout the food chain where herbivores suffered from severe food scarcity, which subsequently starved predators, and overall impacted regional biodiversity <ref name=":7" />.

=== '''Ecological Destruction and Biodiversity Reset''' ===

=== '''Socioeconomic and Human Health Impacts''' ===
The 2018 Kilauea eruption had significant social and economic impacts on communities across Hawaii Island, especially the lower Puna district <ref name=":10">{{Cite web|first=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|date=March 31, 2022|title=Volcano Watch - The 2018 eruption of Kilauea was big on a global scale|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-2018-eruption-kilauea-was-big-global-scale|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>. Lava flows destroyed 612 homes, displaced more than 3000 residents, and caused an estimated $236.5 million in damage to roads, community facilities, and other critical infrastructure. In addition, more than 1337 acres of agricultural land were affected by the eruption <ref name=":8" />. Although many residents were eventually able to access housing, food, water, and other necessities, damage to infrastructure and disruptions to essential services forced many to relocate. Many affected residents also required unemployment, financial, and health assistance during the recovery process <ref>{{Cite web|first=UH News|date=October 22, 2018|title=UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/10/22/kilauea-eruption-agricultural-survey/|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=University of Hawaii News}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ludwig|first=K. A.|last2=Pennaz|first2=Alice B.|last3=Wilkins|first3=Aleeza|date=2019|title=Results from the Department of the Interior Strategic Sciences Group Technical Support for the 2018 Kīlauea Eruption: Cooperator Report|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70205097|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>.

The local economy was also severely affected. Hawaii’s economy is highly dependent on tourism, yet the eruption led to closure of businesses, agricultural operations, and tourist attractions across Hawaii Island, while also significantly reducing tourism on neighboring islands <ref>{{Cite web|last=Rott|first=Nathan|date=May 27, 2018|title=Kilauea Volcano Disrupts Big Island's Tourist-Dependent Economy|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/27/614886508/kilauea-volcano-disrupts-big-island-s-tourist-dependent-economy|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=Vermont Public News}}</ref>. As a result, Hawaii Island alone experienced an estimated economic loss of ~$542.3 million, largely due to major decline in local job opportunities, tourism revenue, and agriculture production <ref name=":8" />.

In addition to its social and economic consequences, the eruption posed significant risks on human health. At its peak, Kilauea emitted ~100,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per day. This gas contributed to the formation of volcanic smog (vog), which contains acidic sulfuric acid droplets that can irritate the skin, lungs, and mucous membranes while degrading air pollution in downwind communities, creating persistent health concerns for residents. Furthermore, the volcano released ~77,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) per day. Because cooled CO2 is heavier than air, it can accumulate in low-lying areas and reach hazardous concentrations under certain atmospheric conditions. This posed serious health risks for human and animal populations in the downwind of the Kilauea volcano, as exposure to air containing more than 3% CO2 can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate, and breathing difficulties, while concentrations above 15% can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death <ref>{{Cite web|first=Volcano Hazards Program|title=Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 5, 2026|title=How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-sulfur-dioxide-so2-gas-does-kilauea-emit|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026|website=U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)}}</ref>.

Beyond the physical hazards, the prolonged eruption, frequent earthquakes, displacement of residents, and uncertainty surrounding future volcanic activity contributed to social tensions and fatigue among affected residents, local government officials, and emergency responders <ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ewert|first=John W.|last2=Diefenbach|first2=Angela K.|last3=Ramsey|first3=David W.|date=2018|title=2018 Update to the U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2018/5140/sir20185140.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=June 16, 2026}}</ref>. These impacts demonstrate that volcanic disasters, like the 2018 Kilauea eruption, can have long-lasting effects that extend far beyond the eruption itself, creating ongoing challenges for community recovery, public health, and economic resilience.

==Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections==

==References==
<references />

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[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T03:56:21Z

JenniferLam: /* Introduction to Kilauea */

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T03:55:36Z

JenniferLam: /* Introduction to Kilauea */

Course:EOSC311/2026/Primary Succession on New Volcanic Terrain

2026-06-17T03:54:23Z

JenniferLam: I added the Introduction to Kilauea under the Kilauea 2018 volcano eruption case study