UBC Wiki - User contributions [en]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-16T00:29:04Z

IntajAtwal: /* How Fossil Fuels Develop */

== Summary / Abstract ==
In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

==Statement of connection and why you chose it==

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

==Fossil Fuels==
=== General Information ===

==== How Fossil Fuels Develop ====
The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans.<ref name=":7">University of British Columbia. (2026). Module 3: What's the fuss about fossil fuels? - The formation of oil and gas. Canvas @ UBC. <nowiki>https://canvas.ubc.ca</nowiki></ref> This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.<ref name=":7" /> Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen<ref name=":7" />, eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

* '''Oil Formation:''' Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.<ref name=":7" />

* '''Gas Formation:''' At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.<ref name=":7" />

* '''Coal Formation:''' Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.<ref>University of British Columbia. (2026). Module 3: What's the fuss about fossil fuels? - The formation of coal. Canvas @ UBC. <nowiki>https://canvas.ubc.ca</nowiki></ref>

==== The Role of Plate Tectonics ====
One of the major contributors to the geographical placement of these energy reserves is plate tectonics, which is the movement of the plates (slabs of rock) that make up the Earth’s lithosphere. It is important to note, that as these plates drifted over a long period of time, the regions that currently hold the most fossil fuel reserves were often located in very different climate zones when the organic matter originally accumulated.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Plates tect2 en.svg|thumb|Map of Earth's major tectonic plates and boundary zones.]]
As well, tectonic activity can create the necessary structures to actually trap these resources so they can be extracted in the future. The different types of plate boundaries include:

* '''Divergent Boundaries:''' Plates pull apart and will often create deep sedimentary basins where organic matter can accumulate and be buried over time.<ref name=":6" />

* '''Convergent Boundaries:''' Plates collide which causes the crust to buckle or fold. This deformation can create geological “traps" that catch moving oil and gas, preventing it from seeping to the surface.<ref name=":6" />

* '''Transform Boundaries:''' Plates slide horizontally past one another, this can create complex fault lines that can either seal a reservoir shut or provide vertical pathways for hydrocarbons to migrate.<ref name=":6" />

=== Case Study: Persian Gulf ===
The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 1). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil <ref name=":0">Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303</nowiki></ref>. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?[[File:Persian Gulf EN.PNG|thumb|Figure 1. The Persian Gulf]]

==== Geological Context ====
[[File:Earth During the Jurassic Time Period.PNG|thumb|Figure 2. Earth During the Jurassic Period]]
70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods <ref name=":1">Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. <nowiki>https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/</nowiki></ref>. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 2), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter <ref name=":1" />. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations <ref name=":1" />. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” <ref name=":0" /> — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains <ref name=":1" />. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window <ref name=":0" />. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />.

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did <ref name=":0" />. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify <ref name=":1" />.

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

==== Conflicts ====
The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait <ref name=":2">Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region</nowiki></ref>. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties <ref name=":2" />. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries <ref name=":2" />. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy <ref name=":2" />. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 <ref name=":2" />.

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 <ref name=":3">Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries</nowiki></ref>. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors <ref name=":3" />. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

== Implications of Fossil Fuels ==

=== 1. Environmental Implications ===

==== ''1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases'' ====
Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|isbn=978-1-77420-028-5|location=Victoria|chapter=Climate Change}}</ref>. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide<ref name=":4" />.

* '''Carbon dioxide:''' Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2015|isbn=978-1-989623-71-8|location=Victoria|chapter=Weathering, Sediment, and Soil}}</ref>.

* '''Methane:''' Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture<ref>{{Cite web|last=CCAC|date=2023, Dec 5|title=Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions|url=https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/fossil-fuels-sector-solutions|url-status=live|access-date=2026 June|website=Climate & Clean Air Coalition}}</ref>. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition|last=Panchuk|first=Karla|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|location=Saskatchewan|chapter="Geological Resources"}}</ref>.

* '''Nitrous oxide''': Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Jan 7|title=Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>.

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

* '''Changing Weather Patterns''': Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Savannah|date=2021, Dec 17|title=Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=Environmental and Energy Study Institute}}</ref>. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
* '''Ocean Acidification''': More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean<ref name=":5" />, and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
* '''Sea Levels Rise:''' This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue<ref name=":5" />.

==== ''1.2: Pollution'' ====
'''Air Pollution'''

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as<ref name=":5" />:

* '''Eutrophication''': Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae<ref name=":5" />. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
* '''Acid Rain''': An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Mar 4|title=What is Acid Rain?|url=https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

'''Water Pollution'''

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ted-ED|last2=Nacamulli|first2=Mia|date=2017, Jul 13|title=How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tudal_4x4F0|url-status=live|access-date=June, 2026|website=Youtube}}</ref>. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

=== 2. Social Implications ===
Fossil fuels have been a stable source of energy and electricity since the Industrial revolution. Many industries, transportation systems and households depend on this resource. Providing 332,800 people with employment<ref>{{Cite book|title=Energy Fact Book Spring 2026 Edition|last=Natural Resources Canada|publisher=Government of Canada|year=2026|isbn=23705027|pages=9}}</ref>, the energy sector sustains many communities with income. However, there are costs beyond that of the market prices of fuel. Increased costs from environmental damage and health implications are costly and can impact marginalized communities disproportionately.

An example is the impact the fossil fuel industry has on the Indigenous Peoples of Canada. Although economic opportunities are provided, the impact fossil fuels have on the community as a whole is largely detrimental. Establishing power plant facilities disrupt traditional lifestyles on their ancestral land. Operations restricting access to hunting, fishing and gathering grounds, land and identity loss and escalating tension from internal division leads to overall harm of the communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=Laura|last2=White|first2=Jerry P.|date=2012, Aug|title=Developing Oil and Gas Resources On or Near Indigenous Lands in Canada: An Overview of Laws, Treaties, Regulations and Agreements|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48766863?seq=2|journal=International Indigenous Policy Journal|volume=3|pages=1-18|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Another important aspect is the colonial context that extracting fossil fuels has on the Indigenous people. Canada’s actions that push reconciliation would be nullified by the exploitation of the land and its resources<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Myette|first=Ella|last2=Riva|first2=Mylène|date=2021, June|title=Surveying the complex social-ecological pathways between resource extraction and Indigenous Peoples’ health in Canada: A scoping review with a realist perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X21000460|journal=The Extractive Industries and Society|volume=8|via=Science Direct}}</ref>, taking steps backwards rather than forwards.

=== 3. Health Implications ===
Close proximity and prolonged exposure to fossil fuel emissions has been linked to a multitude of health issues. It has been reported that at least 1.6 billion people live in regions exposed to PM2.5 and other air pollutants<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harvey|first=Fiona|date=2025, Sep 24|title=This article is more than 8 months old
Fossil fuel burning poses threat to health of 1.6bn people, data shows|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/sep/24/fossil-fuel-burning-threat-health-16bn-people-data-shows|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=The Guardian}}</ref>, produced as a byproduct of fossil fuel usage. This is extremely detrimental, especially to those in vulnerable age groups such as children. Air pollution has been linked to around 600,000 child mortalities annually, attributed to air pollution-induced pneumonia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perera|first=Frederica|date=2017, Dec|title=Pollution from Fossil-Fuel Combustion is the Leading Environmental Threat to Global Pediatric Health and Equity: Solutions Exist|url=https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/1/16|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=15|via=MDPI}}</ref>.

=== 4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact ===

==== ''4.1: Land Restoration'' ====

==== ''4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy'' ====

==== ''4.3: Carbon Sequestration'' ====

==Conclusion==

==== Local Connections (BC) ====

==== Connection Between Geography and Geology ====

==== The Future of Fossil Fuels ====

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-16T00:14:13Z

IntajAtwal: /* The Role of Plate Tectonics */

== Summary / Abstract ==
In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

==Statement of connection and why you chose it==

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

==Fossil Fuels==
=== General Information ===

==== How Fossil Fuels Develop ====
The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans. This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.
Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen, eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

* '''Oil Formation:''' Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.

* '''Gas Formation:''' At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.

* '''Coal Formation:''' Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.

==== The Role of Plate Tectonics ====
One of the major contributors to the geographical placement of these energy reserves is plate tectonics, which is the movement of the plates (slabs of rock) that make up the Earth’s lithosphere. It is important to note, that as these plates drifted over a long period of time, the regions that currently hold the most fossil fuel reserves were often located in very different climate zones when the organic matter originally accumulated.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Plates tect2 en.svg|thumb|Map of Earth's major tectonic plates and boundary zones.]]
As well, tectonic activity can create the necessary structures to actually trap these resources so they can be extracted in the future. The different types of plate boundaries include:

* '''Divergent Boundaries:''' Plates pull apart and will often create deep sedimentary basins where organic matter can accumulate and be buried over time.<ref name=":6" />

* '''Convergent Boundaries:''' Plates collide which causes the crust to buckle or fold. This deformation can create geological “traps" that catch moving oil and gas, preventing it from seeping to the surface.<ref name=":6" />

* '''Transform Boundaries:''' Plates slide horizontally past one another, this can create complex fault lines that can either seal a reservoir shut or provide vertical pathways for hydrocarbons to migrate.<ref name=":6" />

=== Case Study: Persian Gulf ===
The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 1). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil <ref name=":0">Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303</nowiki></ref>. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?[[File:Persian Gulf EN.PNG|thumb|Figure 1. The Persian Gulf]]

==== Geological Context ====
[[File:Earth During the Jurassic Time Period.PNG|thumb|Figure 2. Earth During the Jurassic Period]]
70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods <ref name=":1">Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. <nowiki>https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/</nowiki></ref>. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 2), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter <ref name=":1" />. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations <ref name=":1" />. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” <ref name=":0" /> — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains <ref name=":1" />. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window <ref name=":0" />. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />.

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did <ref name=":0" />. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify <ref name=":1" />.

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

==== Conflicts ====
The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait <ref name=":2">Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region</nowiki></ref>. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties <ref name=":2" />. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries <ref name=":2" />. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy <ref name=":2" />. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 <ref name=":2" />.

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 <ref name=":3">Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries</nowiki></ref>. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors <ref name=":3" />. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

== Implications of Fossil Fuels ==

=== 1. Environmental Implications ===

==== ''1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases'' ====
Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|isbn=978-1-77420-028-5|location=Victoria|chapter=Climate Change}}</ref>. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide<ref name=":4" />.

* '''Carbon dioxide:''' Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2015|isbn=978-1-989623-71-8|location=Victoria|chapter=Weathering, Sediment, and Soil}}</ref>.

* '''Methane:''' Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture<ref>{{Cite web|last=CCAC|date=2023, Dec 5|title=Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions|url=https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/fossil-fuels-sector-solutions|url-status=live|access-date=2026 June|website=Climate & Clean Air Coalition}}</ref>. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition|last=Panchuk|first=Karla|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|location=Saskatchewan|chapter="Geological Resources"}}</ref>.

* '''Nitrous oxide''': Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Jan 7|title=Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>.

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

* '''Changing Weather Patterns''': Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Savannah|date=2021, Dec 17|title=Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=Environmental and Energy Study Institute}}</ref>. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
* '''Ocean Acidification''': More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean<ref name=":5" />, and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
* '''Sea Levels Rise:''' This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue<ref name=":5" />.

==== ''1.2: Pollution'' ====
'''Air Pollution'''

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as<ref name=":5" />:

* '''Eutrophication''': Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae<ref name=":5" />. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
* '''Acid Rain''': An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Mar 4|title=What is Acid Rain?|url=https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

'''Water Pollution'''

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ted-ED|last2=Nacamulli|first2=Mia|date=2017, Jul 13|title=How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tudal_4x4F0|url-status=live|access-date=June, 2026|website=Youtube}}</ref>. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

=== 2. Social Implications ===
Fossil fuels have been a stable source of energy and electricity since the Industrial revolution. Many industries, transportation systems and households depend on this resource. Providing 332,800 people with employment<ref>{{Cite book|title=Energy Fact Book Spring 2026 Edition|last=Natural Resources Canada|publisher=Government of Canada|year=2026|isbn=23705027|pages=9}}</ref>, the energy sector sustains many communities with income. However, there are costs beyond that of the market prices of fuel. Increased costs from environmental damage and health implications are costly and can impact marginalized communities disproportionately.

An example is the impact the fossil fuel industry has on the Indigenous Peoples of Canada. Although economic opportunities are provided, the impact fossil fuels have on the community as a whole is largely detrimental. Establishing power plant facilities disrupt traditional lifestyles on their ancestral land. Operations restricting access to hunting, fishing and gathering grounds, land and identity loss and escalating tension from internal division leads to overall harm of the communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=Laura|last2=White|first2=Jerry P.|date=2012, Aug|title=Developing Oil and Gas Resources On or Near Indigenous Lands in Canada: An Overview of Laws, Treaties, Regulations and Agreements|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48766863?seq=2|journal=International Indigenous Policy Journal|volume=3|pages=1-18|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Another important aspect is the colonial context that extracting fossil fuels has on the Indigenous people. Canada’s actions that push reconciliation would be nullified by the exploitation of the land and its resources<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Myette|first=Ella|last2=Riva|first2=Mylène|date=2021, June|title=Surveying the complex social-ecological pathways between resource extraction and Indigenous Peoples’ health in Canada: A scoping review with a realist perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X21000460|journal=The Extractive Industries and Society|volume=8|via=Science Direct}}</ref>, taking steps backwards rather than forwards.

=== 3. Health Implications ===
Close proximity and prolonged exposure to fossil fuel emissions has been linked to a multitude of health issues. It has been reported that at least 1.6 billion people live in regions exposed to PM2.5 and other air pollutants<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harvey|first=Fiona|date=2025, Sep 24|title=This article is more than 8 months old
Fossil fuel burning poses threat to health of 1.6bn people, data shows|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/sep/24/fossil-fuel-burning-threat-health-16bn-people-data-shows|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=The Guardian}}</ref>, produced as a byproduct of fossil fuel usage. This is extremely detrimental, especially to those in vulnerable age groups such as children. Air pollution has been linked to around 600,000 child mortalities annually, attributed to air pollution-induced pneumonia<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perera|first=Frederica|date=2017, Dec|title=Pollution from Fossil-Fuel Combustion is the Leading Environmental Threat to Global Pediatric Health and Equity: Solutions Exist|url=https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/1/16|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=15|via=MDPI}}</ref>.

=== 4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact ===

==== ''4.1: Land Restoration'' ====

==== ''4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy'' ====

==== ''4.3: Carbon Sequestration'' ====

==Conclusion==

==== Local Connections (BC) ====

==== Connection Between Geography and Geology ====

==== The Future of Fossil Fuels ====

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-16T00:02:59Z

IntajAtwal: /* How Fossil Fuels Develop */

== Summary / Abstract ==
In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

==Statement of connection and why you chose it==

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

==Fossil Fuels==
=== General Information ===

==== How Fossil Fuels Develop ====
The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans. This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.
Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen, eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

* '''Oil Formation:''' Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.

* '''Gas Formation:''' At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.

* '''Coal Formation:''' Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.

==== The Role of Plate Tectonics ====
One of the major contributors to the geographical placement of these energy reserves is plate tectonics, which is the movement of the plates (slabs of rock) that make up the Earth’s lithosphere. It is important to note, that as these plates drifted over a long period of time, the regions that currently hold the most fossil fuel reserves were often located in very different climate zones when the organic matter originally accumulated.
[[File:Plates tect2 en.svg|thumb|Map of Earth's major tectonic plates and boundary zones.]]
As well, tectonic activity can create the necessary structures to actually trap these resources so they can be extracted in the future. The different types of plate boundaries include:

* '''Divergent Boundaries:''' Plates pull apart and will often create deep sedimentary basins where organic matter can accumulate and be buried over time.

* '''Convergent Boundaries:''' Plates collide which causes the crust to buckle or fold. This deformation can create geological “traps" that catch moving oil and gas, preventing it from seeping to the surface.

* '''Transform Boundaries:''' Plates slide horizontally past one another, this can create complex fault lines that can either seal a reservoir shut or provide vertical pathways for hydrocarbons to migrate.

=== Case Study: Persian Gulf ===
The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 1). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil <ref name=":0">Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303</nowiki></ref>. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?[[File:Persian Gulf EN.PNG|thumb|Figure 1. The Persian Gulf]]

==== Geological Context ====
[[File:Earth During the Jurassic Time Period.PNG|thumb|Figure 2. Earth During the Jurassic Period]]
70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods <ref name=":1">Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. <nowiki>https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/</nowiki></ref>. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 2), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter <ref name=":1" />. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations <ref name=":1" />. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” <ref name=":0" /> — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains <ref name=":1" />. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window <ref name=":0" />. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />.

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did <ref name=":0" />. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify <ref name=":1" />.

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

==== Conflicts ====
The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait <ref name=":2">Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region</nowiki></ref>. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties <ref name=":2" />. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries <ref name=":2" />. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy <ref name=":2" />. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 <ref name=":2" />.

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 <ref name=":3">Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries</nowiki></ref>. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors <ref name=":3" />. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

== Implications of Fossil Fuels ==

=== 1. Environmental Implications ===

==== ''1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases'' ====
Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|isbn=978-1-77420-028-5|location=Victoria|chapter=Climate Change}}</ref>. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide<ref name=":4" />.

* '''Carbon dioxide:''' Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2015|isbn=978-1-989623-71-8|location=Victoria|chapter=Weathering, Sediment, and Soil}}</ref>.

* '''Methane:''' Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture<ref>{{Cite web|last=CCAC|date=2023, Dec 5|title=Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions|url=https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/fossil-fuels-sector-solutions|url-status=live|access-date=2026 June|website=Climate & Clean Air Coalition}}</ref>. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition|last=Panchuk|first=Karla|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|location=Saskatchewan|chapter="Geological Resources"}}</ref>.

* '''Nitrous oxide''': Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Jan 7|title=Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>.

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

* '''Changing Weather Patterns''': Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Savannah|date=2021, Dec 17|title=Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=Environmental and Energy Study Institute}}</ref>. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
* '''Ocean Acidification''': More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean<ref name=":5" />, and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
* '''Sea Levels Rise:''' This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue<ref name=":5" />.

==== ''1.2: Pollution'' ====
'''Air Pollution'''

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as<ref name=":5" />:

* '''Eutrophication''': Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae<ref name=":5" />. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
* '''Acid Rain''': An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Mar 4|title=What is Acid Rain?|url=https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

'''Water Pollution'''

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ted-ED|last2=Nacamulli|first2=Mia|date=2017, Jul 13|title=How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tudal_4x4F0|url-status=live|access-date=June, 2026|website=Youtube}}</ref>. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

=== 2. Social Implications ===

=== 3. Health Implications ===

=== 4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact ===

==== ''4.1: Land Restoration'' ====

==== ''4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy'' ====

==== ''4.3: Carbon Sequestration'' ====

==Conclusion==

==== Local Connections (BC) ====

==== Connection Between Geography and Geology ====

==== The Future of Fossil Fuels ====

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-15T23:56:13Z

IntajAtwal: /* Fossil Fuels */

== Summary / Abstract ==
In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

==Statement of connection and why you chose it==

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

==Fossil Fuels==
=== General Information ===

==== How Fossil Fuels Develop ====
The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans. This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.
Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen, eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

* '''Oil Formation:''' Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.

* '''Gas Formation:''' At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.

* '''Coal Formation:''' Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.

==== The Role of Plate Tectonics ====
One of the major contributors to the geographical placement of these energy reserves is plate tectonics, which is the movement of the plates (slabs of rock) that make up the Earth’s lithosphere. It is important to note, that as these plates drifted over a long period of time, the regions that currently hold the most fossil fuel reserves were often located in very different climate zones when the organic matter originally accumulated.

As well, tectonic activity can create the necessary structures to actually trap these resources so they can be extracted in the future. The different types of plate boundaries include:

* '''Divergent Boundaries:''' Plates pull apart and will often create deep sedimentary basins where organic matter can accumulate and be buried over time.

* '''Convergent Boundaries:''' Plates collide which causes the crust to buckle or fold. This deformation can create geological “traps" that catch moving oil and gas, preventing it from seeping to the surface.

* '''Transform Boundaries:''' Plates slide horizontally past one another, this can create complex fault lines that can either seal a reservoir shut or provide vertical pathways for hydrocarbons to migrate.

=== Case Study: Persian Gulf ===
The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 1). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil <ref name=":0">Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303</nowiki></ref>. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?[[File:Persian Gulf EN.PNG|thumb|Figure 1. The Persian Gulf]]

==== Geological Context ====
[[File:Earth During the Jurassic Time Period.PNG|thumb|Figure 2. Earth During the Jurassic Period]]
70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods <ref name=":1">Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. <nowiki>https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/</nowiki></ref>. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 2), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter <ref name=":1" />. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations <ref name=":1" />. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” <ref name=":0" /> — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains <ref name=":1" />. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window <ref name=":0" />. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />.

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did <ref name=":0" />. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify <ref name=":1" />.

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

==== Conflicts ====
The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait <ref name=":2">Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region</nowiki></ref>. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties <ref name=":2" />. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries <ref name=":2" />. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy <ref name=":2" />. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 <ref name=":2" />.

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 <ref name=":3">Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries</nowiki></ref>. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors <ref name=":3" />. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

== Implications of Fossil Fuels ==

=== 1. Environmental Implications ===

==== ''1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases'' ====
Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|isbn=978-1-77420-028-5|location=Victoria|chapter=Climate Change}}</ref>. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide<ref name=":4" />.

* '''Carbon dioxide:''' Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2015|isbn=978-1-989623-71-8|location=Victoria|chapter=Weathering, Sediment, and Soil}}</ref>.

* '''Methane:''' Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture<ref>{{Cite web|last=CCAC|date=2023, Dec 5|title=Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions|url=https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/fossil-fuels-sector-solutions|url-status=live|access-date=2026 June|website=Climate & Clean Air Coalition}}</ref>. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition|last=Panchuk|first=Karla|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|location=Saskatchewan|chapter="Geological Resources"}}</ref>.

* '''Nitrous oxide''': Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Jan 7|title=Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>.

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

* '''Changing Weather Patterns''': Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Savannah|date=2021, Dec 17|title=Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=Environmental and Energy Study Institute}}</ref>. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
* '''Ocean Acidification''': More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean<ref name=":5" />, and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
* '''Sea Levels Rise:''' This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue<ref name=":5" />.

==== ''1.2: Pollution'' ====
'''Air Pollution'''

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as<ref name=":5" />:

* '''Eutrophication''': Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae<ref name=":5" />. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
* '''Acid Rain''': An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Mar 4|title=What is Acid Rain?|url=https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

'''Water Pollution'''

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ted-ED|last2=Nacamulli|first2=Mia|date=2017, Jul 13|title=How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tudal_4x4F0|url-status=live|access-date=June, 2026|website=Youtube}}</ref>. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

=== 2. Social Implications ===

=== 3. Health Implications ===

=== 4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact ===

==== ''4.1: Land Restoration'' ====

==== ''4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy'' ====

==== ''4.3: Carbon Sequestration'' ====

==Conclusion==

==== Local Connections (BC) ====

==== Connection Between Geography and Geology ====

==== The Future of Fossil Fuels ====

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-15T23:55:06Z

IntajAtwal: /* General Information */

== Summary / Abstract ==
In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

==Statement of connection and why you chose it==

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

==Fossil Fuels==
[[File:Persian Gulf EN.PNG|thumb|Figure 1. The Persian Gulf]]

=== General Information ===

==== How Fossil Fuels Develop ====
The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans. This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.
Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen, eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

* '''Oil Formation:''' Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.

* '''Gas Formation:''' At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.

* '''Coal Formation:''' Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.

==== The Role of Plate Tectonics ====
One of the major contributors to the geographical placement of these energy reserves is plate tectonics, which is the movement of the plates (slabs of rock) that make up the Earth’s lithosphere. It is important to note, that as these plates drifted over a long period of time, the regions that currently hold the most fossil fuel reserves were often located in very different climate zones when the organic matter originally accumulated.

As well, tectonic activity can create the necessary structures to actually trap these resources so they can be extracted in the future. The different types of plate boundaries include:

* '''Divergent Boundaries:''' Plates pull apart and will often create deep sedimentary basins where organic matter can accumulate and be buried over time.

* '''Convergent Boundaries:''' Plates collide which causes the crust to buckle or fold. This deformation can create geological “traps" that catch moving oil and gas, preventing it from seeping to the surface.

* '''Transform Boundaries:''' Plates slide horizontally past one another, this can create complex fault lines that can either seal a reservoir shut or provide vertical pathways for hydrocarbons to migrate.

=== Case Study: Persian Gulf ===
The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 1). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil <ref name=":0">Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303</nowiki></ref>. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?

==== Geological Context ====
[[File:Earth During the Jurassic Time Period.PNG|thumb|Figure 2. Earth During the Jurassic Period]]
70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods <ref name=":1">Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. <nowiki>https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/</nowiki></ref>. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 2), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter <ref name=":1" />. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations <ref name=":1" />. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” <ref name=":0" /> — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains <ref name=":1" />. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window <ref name=":0" />. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />.

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did <ref name=":0" />. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify <ref name=":1" />.

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

==== Conflicts ====
The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait <ref name=":2">Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region</nowiki></ref>. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties <ref name=":2" />. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries <ref name=":2" />. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy <ref name=":2" />. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 <ref name=":2" />.

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 <ref name=":3">Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries</nowiki></ref>. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors <ref name=":3" />. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

== Implications of Fossil Fuels ==

=== 1. Environmental Implications ===

==== ''1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases'' ====
Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|isbn=978-1-77420-028-5|location=Victoria|chapter=Climate Change}}</ref>. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide<ref name=":4" />.

* '''Carbon dioxide:''' Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2015|isbn=978-1-989623-71-8|location=Victoria|chapter=Weathering, Sediment, and Soil}}</ref>.

* '''Methane:''' Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture<ref>{{Cite web|last=CCAC|date=2023, Dec 5|title=Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions|url=https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/fossil-fuels-sector-solutions|url-status=live|access-date=2026 June|website=Climate & Clean Air Coalition}}</ref>. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition|last=Panchuk|first=Karla|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|location=Saskatchewan|chapter="Geological Resources"}}</ref>.

* '''Nitrous oxide''': Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Jan 7|title=Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>.

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

* '''Changing Weather Patterns''': Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Savannah|date=2021, Dec 17|title=Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=Environmental and Energy Study Institute}}</ref>. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
* '''Ocean Acidification''': More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean<ref name=":5" />, and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
* '''Sea Levels Rise:''' This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue<ref name=":5" />.

==== ''1.2: Pollution'' ====
'''Air Pollution'''

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as<ref name=":5" />:

* '''Eutrophication''': Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae<ref name=":5" />. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
* '''Acid Rain''': An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Mar 4|title=What is Acid Rain?|url=https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

'''Water Pollution'''

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ted-ED|last2=Nacamulli|first2=Mia|date=2017, Jul 13|title=How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tudal_4x4F0|url-status=live|access-date=June, 2026|website=Youtube}}</ref>. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

=== 2. Social Implications ===

=== 3. Health Implications ===

=== 4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact ===

==== ''4.1: Land Restoration'' ====

==== ''4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy'' ====

==== ''4.3: Carbon Sequestration'' ====

==Conclusion==

==== Local Connections (BC) ====

==== Connection Between Geography and Geology ====

==== The Future of Fossil Fuels ====

==References==
<references />

{{Projectbox_EOSC311}}
[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-15T23:53:00Z

IntajAtwal: /* General Information */

== Summary / Abstract ==
In this project, we connect Geographical Sciences to geology by exploring the geopolitics associated with fossil fuels. To start, we inform the distribution of these resources — more specifically the kind of conditions required to form them. Then, we delve into a case study of the Persian Gulf: a region rich in oil and consequently conflict. To conclude, we talk about the implications of fossil fuels, and how the industry is expected to change in the future.

==Statement of connection and why you chose it==

Our modern world is powered by energy, this makes the geological distribution of resources like fossil fuels, a major driving force in global geopolitics. We chose to explore this topic because the political borders we see today were shaped by several years of conflict and resolution. Earth’s resources are scattered according to historical environmental conditions and tectonic movements, not modern treaties or borders.

When profitable resources such as coal, oil, and gas can be found beneath our feet, it eventually leads to conflict between countries, economic disputes, and even war. Understanding where these resources are located can allow us to better understand global geopolitics.

==Fossil Fuels==
[[File:Persian Gulf EN.PNG|thumb|Figure 1. The Persian Gulf]]

=== General Information ===

==== How Fossil Fuels Develop ====
The fossil fuels behind modern geopolitical conflicts originally began to form millions of years ago, requiring very environmental and geological conditions. The process first begins with a large deposition of organic matter, such as plankton in oceans. This organic material then needs to settle in environments with very low oxygen to prevent it from decomposing.
Over millions of years, these organic layers get buried under large amounts of sediment, causing it get compacted. As it gets pushed deeper into the Earth’s crust, the heat and pressure continues to increase. This causes it to form into a waxy substance called kerogen, eventually based on the temperature it can transform into usable fossil fuel.

* '''Oil Formation:''' Usually occurs between 80C to 120C, the kerogen converts into liquid oil.
* '''Gas Formation:''' At higher temperatures (120C+), the oil further breaks down, creating natural gas. It is important that temperatures don’t get too high, otherwise the hydrocarbons crack into methane and will be destroyed.
* '''Coal Formation:''' Terrestrial plant matter goes through a similar process of compaction, first becoming peat and eventually transforming into other types of coal based on their energy density.

=== Case Study: Persian Gulf ===
The Persian Gulf is a sea located in the Middle East, bordering countries Oman, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran (see Fig. 1). This region has become a site of intense geopolitical conflict, as a result of the lucrative resource it harbours. More specifically, the Persian Gulf has a sizable number of oil fields, capable of producing billions of barrels of oil <ref name=":0">Montgomery, S. L. (2026, April 7). Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth. The Conversation. <nowiki>https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303</nowiki></ref>. Only how did so much oil come to be in this region?

==== Geological Context ====
[[File:Earth During the Jurassic Time Period.PNG|thumb|Figure 2. Earth During the Jurassic Period]]
70% of the Gulf’s oil is sourced from sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic era, specifically the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods <ref name=":1">Sorkhabi, R. (2010, August 7). Why so much oil in the Middle East? GEO ExPro. <nowiki>https://geoexpro.com/why-so-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/</nowiki></ref>. At this time, the Persian Gulf was situated in the Tethys ocean near the equator (see Fig. 2), where temperatures were warm and waters were rich in organic matter <ref name=":1" />. Additionally, it was located alongside supercontinent Gondwana, which — during the transition from the Jurassic to the Cretaceous Period — began to split apart, causing intense volcanism that further increased nutrients and proliferated plankton populations <ref name=":1" />. The death and burial of these marine organisms are the very reason why the Persian Gulf has such organically rich source rocks. More specifically, these rocks “have between 1% and 13% organic content” <ref name=":0" /> — with 2% organic material being the requirement for high quality fuel resources.

Moving on, these sediments — transported via the Arabian continental plate — eventually collided with the Eurasian plate during the Neogene period. This commenced the formation of the Zagros Mountains <ref name=":1" />. Eroded sediment from these mountains were deposited on top of the initial Jurassic-Cretaceous materials, burying them to the depths of the oil and gas window <ref name=":0" />. The newly formed resources were then trapped due to folding by compressive tectonic forces <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />.

However, the geology of the Persian Gulf is not uniform. The Western side of the Gulf did not experience the same folding and fracturing as the Eastern side did <ref name=":0" />. Alternatively, the Western side was capped off by dome structures called diapirs, which form when salt intrusions travel up through overlying rock layers and solidify <ref name=":1" />.

Since its discovery, oil has been extracted through reservoir rock made of limestone, as well as fractures created through continental plate collision <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />. However, the ramifications of this process have been more than tangible.

==== Conflicts ====
The Persian Gulf War began on August 2nd, 1990 when Saddam Hussein — president of Iraq at the time — attacked Kuwait <ref name=":2">Ibrahim, A., (2020, August 1). Thirty years on, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait still haunts region. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/1/thirty-years-on-iraqs-invasion-of-kuwait-still-haunts-region</nowiki></ref>. Kuwait and Iraq had previously been allies during the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988. However, the war had put Iraq in tremendous debt, and the country sought to gain control of neighboring Kuwait’s oil reserves to alleviate economic difficulties <ref name=":2" />. Although Iraq was condemned by the UN Security Council and given a deadline to withdraw from Kuwait, the country’s refusal led to the death of thousands of civilians and military personnel, as well as damage to infrastructure and oil wells in both countries <ref name=":2" />. This act — termed Operation Desert Storm — was led by the United States, who worried that hindrances to oil production and distribution would wreak havoc on the interconnected, global economy <ref name=":2" />. Additionally, the Gulf War was an opportunity for the US to establish a presence in the Middle East, which laid the groundwork for the Iraq War that occurred between 2003 and 2011 <ref name=":2" />.

This contestation is not a thing of the past, with Gulf-related conflict occurring today. For instance, after the Gulf War, the UN demarcated the border between Iraq and Kuwait, with maritime boundaries being set in 2013 <ref name=":3">Jamal, U. (2026, February 23). Gulf countries back Kuwait’s sovereignty after Iraq draws new boundaries. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/23/gcc-states-back-kuwait-maritime-sovereignty-after-iraq-draws-new-boundaries</nowiki></ref>. This year, Iraq drew up new boundaries to be reviewed by the UN. This was met with criticism from several Gulf states, as it was consistent with Iraq’s historical behaviour of violating Kuwait’s sovereignty and not being cordial with its neighbors <ref name=":3" />. In addition to this, the Trump administration has currently been leading the US into increasing conflict in the Middle East — particularly Iran — which has yet to be resolved.

== Implications of Fossil Fuels ==

=== 1. Environmental Implications ===

==== ''1.1: Release of Greenhouse Gases'' ====
Burning and producing fossil fuels produce a myriad of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb longwave radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it, with some returning to the planet’s surface<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|isbn=978-1-77420-028-5|location=Victoria|chapter=Climate Change}}</ref>. This induces the greenhouse effect, which warms the Earth. Examples of these gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide<ref name=":4" />.

* '''Carbon dioxide:''' Fossil fuels are made of carbon. Burning them releases the carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. This leads to an acceleration of a phase in the carbon cycle—carbon moves from the lithosphere to the atmosphere at a much faster rate<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology|last=Earle|first=Steven|publisher=BCcampus|year=2015|isbn=978-1-989623-71-8|location=Victoria|chapter=Weathering, Sediment, and Soil}}</ref>.

* '''Methane:''' Fossil fuels are the second largest contributor of methane production, coming after agriculture<ref>{{Cite web|last=CCAC|date=2023, Dec 5|title=Fossil Fuels Sector Solutions|url=https://www.ccacoalition.org/content/fossil-fuels-sector-solutions|url-status=live|access-date=2026 June|website=Climate & Clean Air Coalition}}</ref>. Methane is formed as a byproduct of fossil fuel development. This forms pockets of methane hydrate. When excavating fossil fuels with methods like fracking, the methane escapes into the atmosphere<ref>{{Cite book|title=Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition|last=Panchuk|first=Karla|publisher=BCcampus|year=2019|location=Saskatchewan|chapter="Geological Resources"}}</ref>.

* '''Nitrous oxide''': Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of fossil fuel burning, but the amount emitted depends on the type of fuel, combustion technology, maintenance and operation practices<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Jan 7|title=Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>.

An overabundance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average temperature, which is a main driver of climate change. Consequences if not regulated include:

* '''Changing Weather Patterns''': Warmer ocean waters lead to an increased intensity and frequency of major storms and extreme weather events, ravaging coasts<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Bertrand|first=Savannah|date=2021, Dec 17|title=Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=Environmental and Energy Study Institute}}</ref>. Another example is intense rainstorms in already arid regions, leading to flooding and washing away viable soil.
* '''Ocean Acidification''': More atmospheric carbon dioxide can dissolve into the ocean, creating carbonic acid. This increases the pH of the ocean<ref name=":5" />, and acidic waters are extremely dangerous to marine species—especially those with calcium carbonate shells.
* '''Sea Levels Rise:''' This can occur from increased water content from melting ice sheets, or the expansion of the ocean from warmer temperatures. It has risen 9 inches since the 1800s, and it is predicted that this upwards trend will only continue<ref name=":5" />.

==== ''1.2: Pollution'' ====
'''Air Pollution'''

Burning fossil fuels emit not only greenhouse gases, but potent air pollutants as well, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. Overexposure to these can lead to adverse health effects, to be discussed in a later section. These particles are also attributed to multiple environmentally degrading processes such as<ref name=":5" />:

* '''Eutrophication''': Components like sulphur and nitrogen serve as nutrients for marine organisms. An overabundance of them (i.e. dissolved into the ocean) can lead to explosive growth of microorganisms such as phytoplankton and algae<ref name=":5" />. Their growth consumes an immense amount of oxygen, depleting the source, making it uninhabitable for other organisms moving forward.
* '''Acid Rain''': An overabundance of gases like carbon dioxide can undergo a chemical reaction in the atmosphere and form acid rain<ref>{{Cite web|last=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=2025, Mar 4|title=What is Acid Rain?|url=https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain|url-status=live|access-date=2026, June|website=US EPA}}</ref>. Upon precipitating, immense amounts can contaminate water sources, but more importantly, it causes damage to vegetation as it falls.

'''Water Pollution'''

The extraction, transportation and storage of fossil fuels poses risks of water pollution. Operations like fracking often use chemical fluids to induce high pressure in order to extract the resource. However, the high water usage as well as the residual fluids that remain are often contaminated by substances like heavy metals, salts, and radioactive materials<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ted-ED|last2=Nacamulli|first2=Mia|date=2017, Jul 13|title=How does fracking work? - Mia Nacamulli|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tudal_4x4F0|url-status=live|access-date=June, 2026|website=Youtube}}</ref>. The transportation and storage of fossil fuels has risks of leakage if not maintained properly. All of the above has the potential to pollute water sources such as groundwater aquifers, freshwater water bodies and the ocean. This leads to issues like water shortage/contamination and environmental degradation.

=== 2. Social Implications ===

=== 3. Health Implications ===

=== 4. Reducing Fossil Fuel Impact ===

==== ''4.1: Land Restoration'' ====

==== ''4.2: Investment into Renewable Energy'' ====

==== ''4.3: Carbon Sequestration'' ====

==Conclusion==

==== Local Connections (BC) ====

==== Connection Between Geography and Geology ====

==== The Future of Fossil Fuels ====

==References==
<references />

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[[Category:EOSC311]]

Course:EOSC311/2026/Geographical Implications of Fossil Fuels

2026-06-15T23:50:54Z

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