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Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T23:55:41Z

GracieConway:

== Introduction to Indigenous Amazonian Agroforestry ==
'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''
[[File:Reserva Extrativista Alto Juruá de nível Federal, localizado (a) em Jordão (AC) -05.jpg|thumb|356x356px|''Figure 5. A''mazon rainforest, located on the Alto Juruá de nível Federal reserve, showing mature trees and lianas. ]]
The Amazon rainforest spans over 6.7 million square kilometers across Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=Green Peace USA|date=November 11, 2020|title=Brazil and the Amazon Forest|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/issues/brazil-and-the-amazon-forest/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Green Peace}}</ref>. The majority of the Amazon Basin, 60 percent, exists within the borders of Brazil. Home to 10 percent of all plant and animal species on Earth, the Amazon rainforest is an unparalleled biodiversity hot spot<ref name=":0" />. There are 40,000 species of plants, more than 400 mammal species, 1,300 bird varieties, and millions of insects found in the Amazon<ref name=":0" />.

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that benefits from the biological interactions created by the combination of trees, crops, and sometimes livestock <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=Association for Temperate Agroforestry|date=n.d.|title=What is Agroforestry?|url=https://www.aftaweb.org/about/what-is-agroforestry.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=AFTA}}</ref>.

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

The 400 tribes of the Amazon are incredibly diverse, each with their own territory, culture, and language<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first=Survival International|date=n.d.|title=Amazon tribes|url=https://www.survivalinternational.org/about/amazontribes|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Survival International}}</ref>. In Brazil alone, 195 different languages are spoken among 160 individual Indigenous societies<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Lutz|first=Dave|date=August 29, 2017|title=Indigenous People|url=https://amazonaid.org/indigenous-people/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Amazon Aid Foundation}}</ref>. Today, it is estimated only 1 million Indigenous Amazonian people remain in their ancestral home<ref name=":1" />. Comparatively, prior to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas arrival of colonizers] in the late 15th century, over 6 million Indigenous people resided in the Amazon<ref name=":2" />. Colonization has led to not only the devastating loss of indigenous lives, but also drastic changes to Indigenous livelihoods. Due to the overexploitation of natural resources in the Amazon, traditional ways of living, such as subsistence agriculture, hunting, fishing and gathering, cannot be supported. This has forced a shift towards wage employment, market-oriented agriculture, and migration to cities among Indigenous people<ref>{{Cite web|first=Population Reference Bureau|date=2008|title=Forest Conservation and Population Growth Among Indigenous Peoples of the Amazon|url=https://www.prb.org/indigenouspeople-amazon/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Population Reference Bureau}}</ref>.

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage"'''

The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" encompasses the Western view that Indigenous peoples of the Amazon have an “innate conservation ethic"<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Stearman|first=Allyn MacLean|date=December 1994|title=Only slaves climb trees|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02734165|journal=Human Nature|volume=5|pages=339-357|via=Springer}}</ref>. This view has been criticized for its inaccuracy, offensiveness, and harmful effects on Indigenous ways of life<ref name=":3" />. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kayapo The Kayapó], Indigenous people who inhabit the savannas in central Brazil, have been widely publicised for their use of apetes, which are anthropogenically formed forest resource islands<ref name=":3" />. The Kayapó developed apetes to adapt to the low nutrient capacity of the soil, cycles of heavy rain and extreme dryness, and presence of numerous ecotones in the savannas that make agriculture difficult<ref name=":3" />. However, the Kayapó’s use of apetes rather than cultivation of the land was championed as an act of conservation by the West<ref name=":3" />. When the Kayapó began receiving royalties for gold and timber harvested from their reserve, there was outrage in the conservation community. This outrage helped fuel the movement in Brazil to reduce Indigenous lands and make legalization of territories more difficult<ref name=":3" />. The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" forces the perspective that Indigenous peoples must meet a certain conservationist criteria to have rights to their land rather than be guaranteed their intrinsic rights to land ownership.<ref name=":3" />

'''ii. Construct of wilderness'''

The construct of wilderness was molded by the myth that the Americas upon European arrival were pristine wilderness nearly empty of people<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Denevan|first=W|date=1992|title=The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2563351|journal=Annals of Association of America Geographers|volume=82|pages=369-385|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. This “pristine myth” began with American settler expansion to the West. Although Indigenous peoples of the Americas had built urban centers, roads, and rural settlements, modified vegetation and soil, implemented intensive agriculture, and influenced wildlife populations, by the time American settlers moved West, Indigenous populations had declined by 50%<ref name=":4" />. As American settlers encountered abandoned settlements and inhabited land overtaken by natural forces, they became convinced that the land was “wilderness”<ref name=":4" />. The term “wilderness” was not always used fondly; to colonizers, it often described a “desolate wasteland”<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=January 1996|title=The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature|url=|journal=Oxford University Press|volume=1|pages=7-28|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Since its emergence, the idea of wilderness has transformed, becoming a fundamental part of the environmental movement in the West<ref name=":5" />. “Wilderness” is thought of as the last remaining refuge from the claws of civilization<ref name=":5" />. Early conservationists, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir John Muir], romanticized wilderness, believing it to be sacred and in need of protection from humans. Many see the recovering of wilderness as our only hope to save the planet and preserve "nature" <ref name=":5" />. However, a growing number of researchers, conservationists, and activists have pointed out that “wilderness” is merely a construct of human civilization, a preservation of an unnatural state<ref name=":5" />. The removal of Indigenous peoples from their lands to form “uninhabited wilderness”, or national parks and protected areas, solidifies the constructed nature of this concept<ref name=":5" />.

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

The hunter-gatherer perception encompasses both the idea that all Indigenous peoples are hunter-gatherers and the idea that complex hunter-gather societies do not exist. In the 1980s, the prevalent Western academic model of social organization in the Amazon Basin characterized Amazonian societies as having small populations that lacked hierarchies and social stratification<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R. P.|last2=Nair|first2=P. K. R.|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66|pages=151-164|via=Springer}}</ref>. However, archeological research has found that the Amazon supported large population complexes<ref name=":6" />. These large populations were far from “simple” having developed extensive trade networks along rivers, advanced agricultural systems, and a rich material culture<ref name=":6" />. However, the assertion of agriculture as a prerequisite for a complex society is poorly supported by evidence<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Arnold|first=Jeanne|last2=Sunell|first2=Scott|last3=Nigra|first3=Benjamin T.|last4=Bishop|first4=Katelyn J.|last5=Jones|first5=Terrah|last6=Bongers|first6=Jacob|date=April 21 2015|title=Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-015-9246-y|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|volume=23|pages=448-499|via=Springer}}</ref>. The dominant model for societal progression posits that societies move from being hunters to being farmers, and the society becomes more complex through this linear progression<ref name=":7" />. Yet complex hunter-gatherer societies do exist and exhibit the same modern cultural and political features as agricultural societies<ref name=":7" />.

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous presence in the Amazon ===
Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10,000 BP<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Lehmann|first=J|last2=Kern|first2=D|last3=Glaser|first3=B|last4=Woods|first4=W|date=2004|title=Amazonian Dark Earths|url=10.1002/gea.20152|journal=Kluwer Academic Publishers|volume=22(1)|pages=151-153|via=}}</ref>. Excavations of sites such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caverna_da_Pedra_Pintada Pedra Pintada Cave], which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood, and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by Indigenous Amazonian groups<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R|last2=Nair|first2=P|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66(2)|pages=151–164|via=}}</ref>. This long history of humans in the Amazon has led to important relationships between ecosystem function and traditional land use practices.
[[File:Shifting cultivation Swidden Slash Burn Manmao IMG 9115.jpg|alt=Swidden cultivation. Prescribed fire. Slash burning.|thumb|369x369px|''Figure 1.'' The use of prescribed fire for swidden cultivation. Note that this photo was taken in Manmao, India, and has been included here to exemplify burning as a tool for land management. ]]

=== Forest management by Indigenous peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the Amazon, and are largely responsible for its complex and highly productive ecosystems. Some of these techniques include land clearing, cultural burning, the creation of house gardens, cultivation and genetic selection.

'''i. Land clearing & cultural burning'''

Traditional land clearing by Indigenous peoples involved the selective removal of trees from previously forested areas, creating regions known as swiddens where useful trees were intentionally retained<ref name=":6" />. The selective removal of some trees decreased competition for resources, resulting in higher success rates for spared trees with important human uses. Clearing is known to have been performed as early as 8,000 BP, according to dating results from semi-polished stone axes<ref name=":8" />. Fire was also used to clear land for swidden cultivation through intentional and controlled burning of selected areas<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":8" />. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for native Amazonian plants such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attalea_speciosa babaçu] and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings<ref name=":8" />.

'''ii. House gardens'''
[[File:Patauá.JPG|thumb|313x313px|''Figure 2.'' Patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), a native Amazonian plant, highly valued for its food uses and commonly planted in house gardens. ]]
To create house gardens, Amazonian people transported seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests into areas surrounding dwellings <ref name=":9" />. These gardens were known to contain domesticated tree and root crops <ref name=":9" />. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets<ref name=":9" />. Some of these managed species include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7a%C3%AD_palm açaí] (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenocarpus_bacaba bacaba] (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart.''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenocarpus_bataua patauá] (''Oenocarpus bataua''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactris_gasipaes pupunha] (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrocaryum_vulgare tucumã] (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart.'') <ref name=":8" />. Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed species distribution in tropical rainforests <ref name=":8" />.
[[File:Brazil-00720 - Cashew Nuts (48972282788).jpg|link=|left|thumb|426x426px|''Figure 3.'' Cashews grown in Brazil selected based upon traits such as; color, taste, and fast growth by the Waimiri Atroari people.]]

==== iii. Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10,000 BP, which shows that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized<ref name=":6" /> <ref name=":9" />. The domestication of native fruit trees and staple foods like corn, beans and squash was also practiced. Some examples of known cultivated crops were manioc, sweet potatoes (''Ipomea batata''), yams (''Dioscorea sp''.), cultivated pineapple (''Ananas comosus''), guava (''Psidium guajava''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pouteria_caimito abiu] (''Pouteria caimito''), and Brazil nuts (''Bertholletia excelsa'') <ref name=":8" />.

==== iv. Genetic selection ====
Through the use of cultivation, Amazonian groups selected for different varieties of species with varying traits to grow plants most useful to humans <ref name=":8" />. Evidence for selection is strong in the case of cultivated cashews, which are thought to have been selected for color, size, acidity, and growth rate by the Waimiri Atroari tribe, resulting in a cultivar that fruits only one year following planting <ref name=":9" />. This long-term selection of plant traits by Indigenous peoples is thought to have led to significant genetic improvement of native species with regards to their human uses <ref name=":8" />.
== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== Present legacy ===
Amazonian agroforestry continues to influence the livelihoods, wellbeing, and industry of the populations that depend upon it. Many if not all Indigenous groups living within the Amazon today rely on the legacy of their ancestors in shaping the landscape and honour this legacy by continuing the tradition of land stewardship <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levis|first=C.|date=2018|title=How people domesticated Amazonian forests.|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00171|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|volume=5|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

Amazonian dark soil, also known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_preta terra preta], was created by Indigenous peoples as a product of agroforestry practices. Its extraordinary fertility is still sustaining agricultural industries adjacent to the Amazon. The Kayapó, for example, employ a variety of agricultural techniques, including soil management methods, which have remained more or less intact to the present day. They include practices of composting, burning, mulching, and the direct addition of fertilizers (in the form of special ashes and organic materials) to forest sites <ref>Woods, W. I., and J. M. McCann. “The Anthropogenic Origin and Persistence of Amazonian Dark Earths.” ''Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers Yearbook'', 1999.</ref>. The chemical consequences of these practices remain in situ within much of the Amazon and are responsible in part for increased site productivity.

Agroforestry allows farmers to cultivate a wide variety of species simultaneously, even with restricted land area. These species complement one another as a healthy ecosystem. The diversity of goods harvested from these forests provides secure income even in volatile markets. Biodiverse agricultural ‘plots’ display increased productivity due to synergistic relations between their natural components. Researchers examining 38 Amazonian farms found that all agroforestry systems outperformed pastures and shifting cultivation in income:cost ratios and farmer satisfaction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gómez Cardozo et al.|first=Ernesto|date=2015|title=Species richness increases income in agroforestry systems of eastern Amazonia|url=|journal=Agroforest Syst|volume=89|pages=901-916|via=}}</ref>. In a direct comparison between cacao monocultures and agroforestry systems, the latter had significantly higher revenue and lower cost, as well as smaller differences between conventional and organic outcomes<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Armengot et al.|first=L|date=2016|title=Cacao agroforestry systems have higher return on labor compared to full-sun monocultures|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0406-6|journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development|volume=36|pages=|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:Floresta Nacional do Iquiri Erick Caldas Xavier (9).jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Deforestation (via logging) in Brazil's Amazon rainforest, a major threat to Amazonian ecosystems. ]]

The practice of house gardens continues in the form of Chakra gardens, agroforestry sites located largely in Ecuador and cultivated by the Kichwa people<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Santafe-Troncoso|first=Veronica|date=2021|title=Indigenous food sovereignty and tourism: the Chakra Route in the Amazon region of Ecuador|url=|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=29|pages=|via=}}</ref>. The food they produce, including high-quality cacao, is shared throughout the community<ref name=":13" />. Chakra gardens strengthen community connections and promote cultural practices<ref name=":13" />. They also involve participatory governance, where Kichwa and non-Kichwa people work together on food sovereignty-related goals<ref name=":13" />.

=== Threats ===
Amazonian agroforestry is threatened by the accelerating destruction of the Amazon. Since Jair Bolsonaro assumed power in 2019, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon] has surged to a 12-year high<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/01/amazon-deforestation-surges-to-12-year-high-under-bolsonaro.|title=Amazon Deforestation Surges to 12-Year High under Bolsonaro|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=30 Nov 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. Environmental protections have been systematically weakened and over 3000 requests for commercial mining permits on Indigenous land (a constitutionally prohibited practice) are under consideration by the government<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/11/brazil-sees-record-number-of-bids-to-mine-illegally-on-indigenous-lands/|title=Brazil Sees Record Number of Bids to Mine Illegally on Indigenous Lands|last=Goulart de Andrade et al.|first=Eduardo|date=13 Nov 2020|work=Mongabay|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. The administration’s open and aggressive anti-Indigenous stance has been linked to vast land dispossession and multiple murders<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/02/war-for-survival-brazils-amazon-tribes-despair-as-land-raids-surge-under-bolsonaro|title=‘War for Survival’: Brazil’s Amazon Tribes Despair as Land Raids Surge under Bolsonaro|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=2 Aug 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. In addition, new leadership for the department overseeing isolated and uncontacted tribes is associated with evangelical missionaries, which has been widely perceived as an attempt to accelerate the destruction of Indigenous cultures via imposition of Christian beliefs<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/05/brazil-indigenous-tribes-missionary-agency-ricardo-lopes-dias-christianity-disease|title=‘Genocide’ Fears for Isolated Tribes as Ex-Missionary Named to Head Brazil Agency|last=Phillips|first=Dom|date=5 Feb 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. COVID-19 has seen these efforts come to fruition: over 48,000 infections have resulted in at least 957 Indigenous deaths in Brazil, but missionaries have reportedly spread misinformation to convince Indigenous inhabitants of remote settlements not to take the vaccine<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/11/brazil-missionaries-turning-tribes-against-coronavirus-vaccine|title=Brazil: Missionaries ‘Turning Tribes against Coronavirus Vaccine|last=Reuters in Brasília|first=|date=11 Feb 2021|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. The simultaneous destruction of Amazonian ecosystems, Indigenous rights, and Indigenous peoples themselves bodes poorly for the future of agroforestry, since this complex and ancient body of knowledge is embedded in oral tradition, ongoing practices, and the physical reality of the rainforest itself, all of which are under threat of imminent eradication.

== Broader agricultural implications ==

=== Indigenous self-determination ===
Indigenous agricultural practices, with specific reference to Amazonian agroforestry, provide a blueprint for sustainable land use within the agricultural sector. Agroforestry initiatives that rely more on local knowledge focus more on food security, natural capital (e.g. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_regeneration soil regeneration]), and biodiversity, contributing positively to the environment and providing more stable yields<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jacobi et al.|first=Johanna|date=2017|title=Whose Knowledge, Whose Development? Use and Role of Local and External Knowledge in Agroforestry Projects in Bolivia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-016-0805-0|journal=Environmental Management|volume=59|pages=464-476|via=}}</ref>. The harmonious land-based practices and complex understanding of ecosystem functionality cultivated by Indigenous peoples have created food systems that are sustainable in the long term. Researchers have suggested that scaling and exporting principles of stewardship and natural synergy, including their implementation in agricultural sectors internationally, could address intersecting crises faced by the global food system<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=González et al.|first=Nidia Catherine|date=2020|title=The Potential of Amazon Indigenous Agroforestry Practices and Ontologies for Rethinking Global Forest Governance|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102257|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=118|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

Advoocates and researchers have pointed out that for Indigenous agroforestry practices to be ethically, effectively, and equitably implemented within non-Indigenous food systems, Indigenous peoples must be centred as agents of change<ref name=":12" />. Scaling up Indigenous agroforestry practices both within the Amazon and beyond demands Indigenous self-determination and larger autonomy with respect to land stewardship practices across the globe.

=== Importance in the future of agriculture ===
Land degradation is a serious concern for more than a fifth of cropland and a third of forests, as well as for the 1.5 billion people who directly depend on degraded land<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Davis|first=Marion|date=2014|title=Sharing the land: Restoring degraded ecosystems and improving livelihoods through agroforestry|url=https://www.sei.org/publications/sharing-the-land-restoring-degraded-ecosystems-and-improving-livelihoods-through-agroforestry/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=13 Mar 2021|website=Stockholm Environmental Institute}}</ref>. This process is closely linked to agricultural intensification and the associated use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, a practice which also decreases farmer profit<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gomiero|first=Tiziano|date=2016|title=Soil Degradation, Land Scarcity and Food Security: Reviewing a Complex Challenge|url=https://doi.org/10.3390/su8030281|journal=Sustainability|volume=8|pages=1-41|via=}}</ref>. Like intensive agriculture, intensive reforestation efforts typically involve monocultures, which have low ecosystem value<ref name=":10" />. Agroforestry programs tailored to local environments can guide biodiverse reforestation while generating food and providing income<ref name=":10" />. The demonstrated advantages of agroforestry polycultures over full-sun monocultures for cacao and other important crops indicate that a large-scale shift to these cultivation methods would be beneficial for farmer profits and for the Amazon, where crop production is a major driving force behind deforestation and habitat loss<ref name=":14" />.

Agroforestry is therefore both ecologically and economically promising. Due to the flexibility of polycultures, agroforestry can meet a wide range of human needs. In Brazil, ArcelorMittal BioFlorestas has engaged in agroforestry on 135,000 hectares degraded by cattle farming since 1957<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=ArcelorMittal Brasil|first=|date=Aug 2017|title=Unlocking the Circular Potential of the Steel Industry|url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/case-studies/new-entry|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=15 Apr 2021|website=Ellen MacArthur Foundation}}</ref>. Eucalyptus trees are harvested and processed into charcoal for steelmaking, where they replace [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgical_coal coking coal]<ref name=":11" />. 92 animal species have been reintroduced to the area as a result<ref name=":11" />. Compared to the alternative, mining metallurgical coal, this practice enriches land rather than depleting it and provides long-term job opportunities that are not dependent on a finite quantity of extractable resources.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T23:48:34Z

GracieConway:

== Introduction to Indigenous Amazonian Agroforestry ==
'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''
[[File:Reserva Extrativista Alto Juruá de nível Federal, localizado (a) em Jordão (AC) -05.jpg|thumb|356x356px|''Figure 5. A''mazon rainforest, located on the Alto Juruá de nível Federal reserve, showing mature trees and lianas. ]]
The Amazon rainforest spans over 6.7 million square kilometers across Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=Green Peace USA|date=November 11, 2020|title=Brazil and the Amazon Forest|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/issues/brazil-and-the-amazon-forest/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Green Peace}}</ref>. The majority of the Amazon Basin, 60 percent, exists within the borders of Brazil. Home to 10 percent of all plant and animal species on Earth, the Amazon rainforest is an unparalleled biodiversity hot spot<ref name=":0" />. There are 40,000 species of plants, more than 400 mammal species, 1,300 bird varieties, and millions of insects found in the Amazon<ref name=":0" />.

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that benefits from the biological interactions created by the combination of trees, crops, and sometimes livestock <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=Association for Temperate Agroforestry|date=n.d.|title=What is Agroforestry?|url=https://www.aftaweb.org/about/what-is-agroforestry.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=AFTA}}</ref>.

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

The 400 tribes of the Amazon are incredibly diverse, each with their own territory, culture, and language<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first=Survival International|date=n.d.|title=Amazon tribes|url=https://www.survivalinternational.org/about/amazontribes|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Survival International}}</ref>. In Brazil alone, 195 different languages are spoken among 160 individual Indigenous societies<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Lutz|first=Dave|date=August 29, 2017|title=Indigenous People|url=https://amazonaid.org/indigenous-people/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Amazon Aid Foundation}}</ref>. Today, it is estimated only 1 million Indigenous Amazonian people remain in their ancestral home<ref name=":1" />. Comparatively, prior to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas arrival of colonizers] in the late 15th century, over 6 million Indigenous people resided in the Amazon<ref name=":2" />. Colonization has led to not only the devastating loss of indigenous lives, but also drastic changes to Indigenous livelihoods. Due to the overexploitation of natural resources in the Amazon, traditional ways of living, such as subsistence agriculture, hunting, fishing and gathering, cannot be supported. This has forced a shift towards wage employment, market-oriented agriculture, and migration to cities among Indigenous people<ref>{{Cite web|first=Population Reference Bureau|date=2008|title=Forest Conservation and Population Growth Among Indigenous Peoples of the Amazon|url=https://www.prb.org/indigenouspeople-amazon/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Population Reference Bureau}}</ref>.

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage"'''

The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" encompasses the Western view that Indigenous peoples of the Amazon have an “innate conservation ethic"<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Stearman|first=Allyn MacLean|date=December 1994|title=Only slaves climb trees|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02734165|journal=Human Nature|volume=5|pages=339-357|via=Springer}}</ref>. This view has been criticized for its inaccuracy, offensiveness, and harmful effects on Indigenous ways of life<ref name=":3" />. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kayapo The Kayapó], Indigenous people who inhabit the savannas in central Brazil, have been widely publicised for their use of apetes, which are anthropogenically formed forest resource islands<ref name=":3" />. The Kayapó developed apetes to adapt to the low nutrient capacity of the soil, cycles of heavy rain and extreme dryness, and presence of numerous ecotones in the savannas that make agriculture difficult<ref name=":3" />. However, the Kayapó’s use of apetes rather than cultivation of the land was championed as an act of conservation by the West<ref name=":3" />. When the Kayapó began receiving royalties for gold and timber harvested from their reserve, there was outrage in the conservation community. This outrage helped fuel the movement in Brazil to reduce Indigenous lands and make legalization of territories more difficult<ref name=":3" />. The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" forces the perspective that Indigenous peoples must meet a certain conservationist criteria to have rights to their land rather than be guaranteed their intrinsic rights to land ownership.<ref name=":3" />

'''ii. Construct of wilderness'''

The construct of wilderness was molded by the myth that the Americas upon European arrival were pristine wilderness nearly empty of people<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Denevan|first=W|date=1992|title=The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2563351|journal=Annals of Association of America Geographers|volume=82|pages=369-385|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. This “pristine myth” began with American settler expansion to the West. Although Indigenous peoples of the Americas had built urban centers, roads, and rural settlements, modified vegetation and soil, implemented intensive agriculture, and influenced wildlife populations, by the time American settlers moved West, Indigenous populations had declined by 50%<ref name=":4" />. As American settlers encountered abandoned settlements and inhabited land overtaken by natural forces, they became convinced that the land was “wilderness”<ref name=":4" />. The term “wilderness” was not always used fondly; to colonizers, it often described a “desolate wasteland”<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=January 1996|title=The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature|url=|journal=Oxford University Press|volume=1|pages=7-28|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Since its emergence, the idea of wilderness has transformed, becoming a fundamental part of the environmental movement in the West<ref name=":5" />. “Wilderness” is thought of as the last remaining refuge from the claws of civilization<ref name=":5" />. Early conservationists, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir John Muir], romanticized wilderness, believing it to be sacred and in need of protection from humans. Many see the recovering of wilderness as our only hope to save the planet and preserve "nature" <ref name=":5" />. However, a growing number of researchers, conservationists, and activists have pointed out that “wilderness” is merely a construct of human civilization, a preservation of an unnatural state<ref name=":5" />. The removal of Indigenous peoples from their lands to form “uninhabited wilderness”, or national parks and protected areas, solidifies the constructed nature of this concept<ref name=":5" />.

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

The hunter-gatherer perception encompasses both the idea that all Indigenous peoples are hunter-gatherers and the idea that complex hunter-gather societies do not exist. In the 1980s, the prevalent Western academic model of social organization in the Amazon Basin characterized Amazonian societies as having small populations that lacked hierarchies and social stratification<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R. P.|last2=Nair|first2=P. K. R.|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66|pages=151-164|via=Springer}}</ref>. However, archeological research has found that the Amazon supported large population complexes<ref name=":6" />. These large populations were far from “simple” having developed extensive trade networks along rivers, advanced agricultural systems, and a rich material culture<ref name=":6" />. However, the assertion of agriculture as a prerequisite for a complex society is poorly supported by evidence<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Arnold|first=Jeanne|last2=Sunell|first2=Scott|last3=Nigra|first3=Benjamin T.|last4=Bishop|first4=Katelyn J.|last5=Jones|first5=Terrah|last6=Bongers|first6=Jacob|date=April 21 2015|title=Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-015-9246-y|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|volume=23|pages=448-499|via=Springer}}</ref>. The dominant model for societal progression posits that societies move from being hunters to being farmers, and the society becomes more complex through this linear progression<ref name=":7" />. Yet complex hunter-gatherer societies do exist and exhibit the same modern cultural and political features as agricultural societies<ref name=":7" />.

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous presence in the Amazon ===
Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10,000 BP<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Lehmann|first=J|last2=Kern|first2=D|last3=Glaser|first3=B|last4=Woods|first4=W|date=2004|title=Amazonian Dark Earths|url=10.1002/gea.20152|journal=Kluwer Academic Publishers|volume=22(1)|pages=151-153|via=}}</ref>. Excavations of sites such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caverna_da_Pedra_Pintada Pedra Pintada Cave], which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood, and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by Indigenous Amazonian groups<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R|last2=Nair|first2=P|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66(2)|pages=151–164|via=}}</ref>. This long history of humans in the Amazon has led to important relationships between ecosystem function and traditional land use practices.
[[File:Shifting cultivation Swidden Slash Burn Manmao IMG 9115.jpg|alt=Swidden cultivation. Prescribed fire. Slash burning.|thumb|369x369px|''Figure 1.'' The use of prescribed fire for swidden cultivation. Note that this photo was taken in Manmao, India, and has been included here to exemplify burning as a tool for land management. ]]

=== Forest management by Indigenous peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the Amazon, and are largely responsible for its complex and highly productive ecosystems. Some of these techniques include land clearing, cultural burning, the creation of house gardens, cultivation and genetic selection.

'''i. Land clearing & cultural burning'''

Traditional land clearing by Indigenous peoples involved the selective removal of trees from previously forested areas, creating regions known as swiddens where useful trees were intentionally retained<ref name=":6" />. The selective removal of some trees decreased competition for resources, resulting in higher success rates for spared trees with important human uses. Clearing is known to have been performed as early as 8,000 BP, according to dating results from semi-polished stone axes<ref name=":8" />. Fire was also used to clear land for swidden cultivation through intentional and controlled burning of selected areas<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":8" />. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for native Amazonian plants such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attalea_speciosa babaçu] and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings<ref name=":8" />.

'''ii. House gardens'''
[[File:Patauá.JPG|thumb|313x313px|''Figure 2.'' Patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), a native Amazonian plant, highly valued for its food uses and commonly planted in house gardens. ]]
To create house gardens, Amazonian people transported seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests into areas surrounding dwellings <ref name=":9" />. These gardens were known to contain domesticated tree and root crops <ref name=":9" />. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets<ref name=":9" />. Some of these managed species include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7a%C3%AD_palm açaí] (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenocarpus_bacaba bacaba] (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart.''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenocarpus_bataua patauá] (''Oenocarpus bataua''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactris_gasipaes pupunha] (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrocaryum_vulgare tucumã] (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart.'') <ref name=":8" />. Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed species distribution in tropical rainforests <ref name=":8" />.
[[File:Brazil-00720 - Cashew Nuts (48972282788).jpg|link=|left|thumb|426x426px|''Figure 3.'' Cashews grown in Brazil selected based upon traits such as; color, taste, and fast growth by the Waimiri Atroari people.]]

==== iii. Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10,000 BP, which shows that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized<ref name=":6" /> <ref name=":9" />. The domestication of native fruit trees and staple foods like corn, beans and squash was also practiced. Some examples of known cultivated crops were manioc, sweet potatoes (''Ipomea batata''), yams (''Dioscorea sp''.), cultivated pineapple (''Ananas comosus''), guava (''Psidium guajava''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pouteria_caimito abiu] (''Pouteria caimito''), and Brazil nuts (''Bertholletia excelsa'') <ref name=":8" />.

==== iv. Genetic selection ====
Through the use of cultivation, Amazonian groups selected for different varieties of species with varying traits to grow plants most useful to humans <ref name=":8" />. Evidence for selection is strong in the case of cultivated cashews, which are thought to have been selected for color, size, acidity, and growth rate by the Waimiri Atroari tribe, resulting in a cultivar that fruits only one year following planting <ref name=":9" />. This long-term selection of plant traits by Indigenous peoples is thought to have led to significant genetic improvement of native species with regards to their human uses <ref name=":8" />.
== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== Present legacy ===
Amazonian agroforestry continues to influence the livelihoods, wellbeing, and industry of the populations that depend upon it. Many if not all Indigenous groups living within the Amazon today rely on the legacy of their ancestors in shaping the landscape and honour this legacy by continuing the tradition of land stewardship <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levis|first=C.|date=2018|title=How people domesticated Amazonian forests.|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00171|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|volume=5|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

Amazonian dark soil, also known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_preta terra preta], was created by Indigenous peoples as a product of agroforestry practices. Its extraordinary fertility is still sustaining agricultural industries adjacent to the Amazon. The Kayapó, for example, employ a variety of agricultural techniques, including soil management methods, which have remained more or less intact to the present day. They include practices of composting, burning, mulching, and the direct addition of fertilizers (in the form of special ashes and organic materials) to forest sites <ref>Woods, W. I., and J. M. McCann. “The Anthropogenic Origin and Persistence of Amazonian Dark Earths.” ''Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers Yearbook'', 1999.</ref>. The chemical consequences of these practices remain in situ within much of the Amazon and are responsible in part for increased site productivity.

Agroforestry allows farmers to cultivate a wide variety of species simultaneously, even with restricted land area. These species complement one another as a healthy ecosystem. The diversity of goods harvested from these forests provides secure income even in volatile markets. Biodiverse agricultural ‘plots’ display increased productivity due to synergistic relations between their natural components. Researchers examining 38 Amazonian farms found that all agroforestry systems outperformed pastures and shifting cultivation in income:cost ratios and farmer satisfaction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gómez Cardozo et al.|first=Ernesto|date=2015|title=Species richness increases income in agroforestry systems of eastern Amazonia|url=|journal=Agroforest Syst|volume=89|pages=901-916|via=}}</ref>. In a direct comparison between cacao monocultures and agroforestry systems, the latter had significantly higher revenue and lower cost, as well as smaller differences between conventional and organic outcomes<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Armengot et al.|first=L|date=2016|title=Cacao agroforestry systems have higher return on labor compared to full-sun monocultures|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0406-6|journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development|volume=36|pages=|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:Floresta Nacional do Iquiri Erick Caldas Xavier (9).jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' Deforestation (via logging) in Brazil's Amazon rainforest, a major threat to Amazonian ecosystems. ]]

The practice of house gardens continues in the form of Chakra gardens, agroforestry sites located largely in Ecuador and cultivated by the Kichwa people<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Santafe-Troncoso|first=Veronica|date=2021|title=Indigenous food sovereignty and tourism: the Chakra Route in the Amazon region of Ecuador|url=|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=29|pages=|via=}}</ref>. The food they produce, including high-quality cacao, is shared throughout the community<ref name=":13" />. Chakra gardens strengthen community connections and promote cultural practices<ref name=":13" />. They also involve participatory governance, where Kichwa and non-Kichwa people work together on food sovereignty-related goals<ref name=":13" />.

=== Threats ===
Amazonian agroforestry is threatened by the accelerating destruction of the Amazon. Since Jair Bolsonaro assumed power in 2019, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon] has surged to a 12-year high<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/01/amazon-deforestation-surges-to-12-year-high-under-bolsonaro.|title=Amazon Deforestation Surges to 12-Year High under Bolsonaro|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=30 Nov 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. Environmental protections have been systematically weakened and over 3000 requests for commercial mining permits on Indigenous land (a constitutionally prohibited practice) are under consideration by the government<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/11/brazil-sees-record-number-of-bids-to-mine-illegally-on-indigenous-lands/|title=Brazil Sees Record Number of Bids to Mine Illegally on Indigenous Lands|last=Goulart de Andrade et al.|first=Eduardo|date=13 Nov 2020|work=Mongabay|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. The administration’s open and aggressive anti-Indigenous stance has been linked to vast land dispossession and multiple murders<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/02/war-for-survival-brazils-amazon-tribes-despair-as-land-raids-surge-under-bolsonaro|title=‘War for Survival’: Brazil’s Amazon Tribes Despair as Land Raids Surge under Bolsonaro|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=2 Aug 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. In addition, new leadership for the department overseeing isolated and uncontacted tribes is associated with evangelical missionaries, which has been widely perceived as an attempt to accelerate the destruction of Indigenous cultures via imposition of Christian beliefs<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/05/brazil-indigenous-tribes-missionary-agency-ricardo-lopes-dias-christianity-disease|title=‘Genocide’ Fears for Isolated Tribes as Ex-Missionary Named to Head Brazil Agency|last=Phillips|first=Dom|date=5 Feb 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. COVID-19 has seen these efforts come to fruition: over 48,000 infections have resulted in at least 957 Indigenous deaths in Brazil, but missionaries have reportedly spread misinformation to convince Indigenous inhabitants of remote settlements not to take the vaccine<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/11/brazil-missionaries-turning-tribes-against-coronavirus-vaccine|title=Brazil: Missionaries ‘Turning Tribes against Coronavirus Vaccine|last=Reuters in Brasília|first=|date=11 Feb 2021|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. The simultaneous destruction of Amazonian ecosystems, Indigenous rights, and Indigenous peoples themselves bodes poorly for the future of agroforestry, since this complex and ancient body of knowledge is embedded in oral tradition, ongoing practices, and the physical reality of the rainforest itself, all of which are under threat of imminent eradication.

== Broader agricultural implications ==

=== Indigenous self-determination ===
Indigenous agricultural practices, with specific reference to Amazonian agroforestry, provide a blueprint for sustainable land use within the agricultural sector. Agroforestry initiatives that rely more on local knowledge focus more on food security, natural capital (e.g. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_regeneration soil regeneration]), and biodiversity, contributing positively to the environment and providing more stable yields<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jacobi et al.|first=Johanna|date=2017|title=Whose Knowledge, Whose Development? Use and Role of Local and External Knowledge in Agroforestry Projects in Bolivia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-016-0805-0|journal=Environmental Management|volume=59|pages=464-476|via=}}</ref>. The harmonious land-based practices and complex understanding of ecosystem functionality cultivated by Indigenous peoples have created food systems that are sustainable in the long term. Researchers have suggested that scaling and exporting principles of stewardship and natural synergy, including their implementation in agricultural sectors internationally, could address intersecting crises faced by the global food system<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=González et al.|first=Nidia Catherine|date=2020|title=The Potential of Amazon Indigenous Agroforestry Practices and Ontologies for Rethinking Global Forest Governance|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102257|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=118|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

Advoocates and researchers have pointed out that for Indigenous agroforestry practices to be ethically, effectively, and equitably implemented within non-Indigenous food systems, Indigenous peoples must be centred as agents of change<ref name=":12" />. Scaling up Indigenous agroforestry practices both within the Amazon and beyond demands Indigenous self-determination and larger autonomy with respect to land stewardship practices across the globe.

=== Importance in the future of agriculture ===
Land degradation is a serious concern for more than a fifth of cropland and a third of forests, as well as for the 1.5 billion people who directly depend on degraded land<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Davis|first=Marion|date=2014|title=Sharing the land: Restoring degraded ecosystems and improving livelihoods through agroforestry|url=https://www.sei.org/publications/sharing-the-land-restoring-degraded-ecosystems-and-improving-livelihoods-through-agroforestry/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=13 Mar 2021|website=Stockholm Environmental Institute}}</ref>. This process is closely linked to agricultural intensification and the associated use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers, a practice which also decreases farmer profit<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gomiero|first=Tiziano|date=2016|title=Soil Degradation, Land Scarcity and Food Security: Reviewing a Complex Challenge|url=https://doi.org/10.3390/su8030281|journal=Sustainability|volume=8|pages=1-41|via=}}</ref>. Like intensive agriculture, intensive reforestation efforts typically involve monocultures, which have low ecosystem value<ref name=":10" />. Agroforestry programs tailored to local environments can guide biodiverse reforestation while generating food and providing income<ref name=":10" />.

Agroforestry is therefore both ecologically and economically promising. Due to the flexibility of polycultures, agroforestry can meet a wide range of human needs. In Brazil, ArcelorMittal BioFlorestas has engaged in agroforestry on 135,000 hectares degraded by cattle farming since 1957<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=ArcelorMittal Brasil|first=|date=Aug 2017|title=Unlocking the Circular Potential of the Steel Industry|url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/case-studies/new-entry|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=15 Apr 2021|website=Ellen MacArthur Foundation}}</ref>. Eucalyptus trees are harvested and processed into charcoal for steelmaking, where they replace [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgical_coal coking coal]<ref name=":11" />. 92 animal species have been reintroduced to the area as a result<ref name=":11" />. Compared to the alternative, mining metallurgical coal, this practice enriches land rather than depleting it and provides long-term job opportunities that are not dependent on a finite quantity of extractable resources.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T23:33:00Z

GracieConway: /* History of Amazonian agroforestry */

== Introduction to Indigenous Amazonian Agroforestry ==
'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''

The Amazon rainforest spans over 6.7 million square kilometers across Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=Green Peace USA|date=November 11, 2020|title=Brazil and the Amazon Forest|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/issues/brazil-and-the-amazon-forest/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Green Peace}}</ref>. The majority of the Amazon Basin, 60 percent, exists within the borders of Brazil. Home to 10 percent of all plant and animal species on Earth, the Amazon rainforest is an unparalleled biodiversity hot spot<ref name=":0" />. There are 40,000 species of plants, more than 400 mammal species, 1,300 bird varieties, and millions of insects found in the Amazon<ref name=":0" />.

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that benefits from the biological interactions created by the combination of trees, crops, and sometimes livestock <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=Association for Temperate Agroforestry|date=n.d.|title=What is Agroforestry?|url=https://www.aftaweb.org/about/what-is-agroforestry.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=AFTA}}</ref>.

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

The 400 tribes of the Amazon are incredibly diverse, each with their own territory, culture, and language<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first=Survival International|date=n.d.|title=Amazon tribes|url=https://www.survivalinternational.org/about/amazontribes|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Survival International}}</ref>. In Brazil alone, 195 different languages are spoken among 160 individual Indigenous societies<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Lutz|first=Dave|date=August 29, 2017|title=Indigenous People|url=https://amazonaid.org/indigenous-people/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Amazon Aid Foundation}}</ref>. Today, it is estimated only 1 million Indigenous Amazonian people remain in their ancestral home<ref name=":1" />. Comparatively, prior to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas arrival of colonizers] in the late 15th century, over 6 million Indigenous people resided in the Amazon<ref name=":2" />. Colonization has led to not only the devastating loss of indigenous lives, but also drastic changes to Indigenous livelihoods. Due to the overexploitation of natural resources in the Amazon, traditional ways of living, such as subsistence agriculture, hunting, fishing and gathering, cannot be supported. This has forced a shift towards wage employment, market-oriented agriculture, and migration to cities among Indigenous people<ref>{{Cite web|first=Population Reference Bureau|date=2008|title=Forest Conservation and Population Growth Among Indigenous Peoples of the Amazon|url=https://www.prb.org/indigenouspeople-amazon/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Population Reference Bureau}}</ref>.

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage"'''

The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" encompasses the Western view that Indigenous peoples of the Amazon have an “innate conservation ethic"<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Stearman|first=Allyn MacLean|date=December 1994|title=Only slaves climb trees|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02734165|journal=Human Nature|volume=5|pages=339-357|via=Springer}}</ref>. This view has been criticized for its inaccuracy, offensiveness, and harmful effects on Indigenous ways of life<ref name=":3" />. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kayapo The Kayapó], Indigenous people who inhabit the savannas in central Brazil, have been widely publicised for their use of apetes, which are anthropogenically formed forest resource islands<ref name=":3" />. The Kayapó developed apetes to adapt to the low nutrient capacity of the soil, cycles of heavy rain and extreme dryness, and presence of numerous ecotones in the savannas that make agriculture difficult<ref name=":3" />. However, the Kayapó’s use of apetes rather than cultivation of the land was championed as an act of conservation by the West<ref name=":3" />. When the Kayapó began receiving royalties for gold and timber harvested from their reserve, there was outrage in the conservation community. This outrage helped fuel the movement in Brazil to reduce Indigenous lands and make legalization of territories more difficult<ref name=":3" />. The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" forces the perspective that Indigenous peoples must meet a certain conservationist criteria to have rights to their land rather than be guaranteed their intrinsic rights to land ownership.<ref name=":3" />

'''ii. Construct of wilderness'''

The construct of wilderness was molded by the myth that the Americas upon European arrival were pristine wilderness nearly empty of people<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Denevan|first=W|date=1992|title=The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2563351|journal=Annals of Association of America Geographers|volume=82|pages=369-385|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. This “pristine myth” began with American settler expansion to the West. Although Indigenous peoples of the Americas had built urban centers, roads, and rural settlements, modified vegetation and soil, implemented intensive agriculture, and influenced wildlife populations, by the time American settlers moved West, Indigenous populations had declined by 50%<ref name=":4" />. As American settlers encountered abandoned settlements and inhabited land overtaken by natural forces, they became convinced that the land was “wilderness”<ref name=":4" />. The term “wilderness” was not always used fondly; to colonizers, it often described a “desolate wasteland”<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=January 1996|title=The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature|url=|journal=Oxford University Press|volume=1|pages=7-28|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Since its emergence, the idea of wilderness has transformed, becoming a fundamental part of the environmental movement in the West<ref name=":5" />. “Wilderness” is thought of as the last remaining refuge from the claws of civilization<ref name=":5" />. Early conservationists, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir John Muir], romanticized wilderness, believing it to be sacred and in need of protection from humans. Many see the recovering of wilderness as our only hope to save the planet and preserve "nature" <ref name=":5" />. However, a growing number of researchers, conservationists, and activists have pointed out that “wilderness” is merely a construct of human civilization, a preservation of an unnatural state<ref name=":5" />. The removal of Indigenous peoples from their lands to form “uninhabited wilderness”, or national parks and protected areas, solidifies the constructed nature of this concept<ref name=":5" />.

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

The hunter-gatherer perception encompasses both the idea that all Indigenous peoples are hunter-gatherers and the idea that complex hunter-gather societies do not exist. In the 1980s, the prevalent Western academic model of social organization in the Amazon Basin characterized Amazonian societies as having small populations that lacked hierarchies and social stratification<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R. P.|last2=Nair|first2=P. K. R.|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66|pages=151-164|via=Springer}}</ref>. However, archeological research has found that the Amazon supported large population complexes<ref name=":6" />. These large populations were far from “simple” having developed extensive trade networks along rivers, advanced agricultural systems, and a rich material culture<ref name=":6" />. However, the assertion of agriculture as a prerequisite for a complex society is poorly supported by evidence<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Arnold|first=Jeanne|last2=Sunell|first2=Scott|last3=Nigra|first3=Benjamin T.|last4=Bishop|first4=Katelyn J.|last5=Jones|first5=Terrah|last6=Bongers|first6=Jacob|date=April 21 2015|title=Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-015-9246-y|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|volume=23|pages=448-499|via=Springer}}</ref>. The dominant model for societal progression posits that societies move from being hunters to being farmers, and the society becomes more complex through this linear progression<ref name=":7" />. Yet complex hunter-gatherer societies do exist and exhibit the same modern cultural and political features as agricultural societies<ref name=":7" />.

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous presence in the Amazon ===
Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10,000 BP<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Lehmann|first=J|last2=Kern|first2=D|last3=Glaser|first3=B|last4=Woods|first4=W|date=2004|title=Amazonian Dark Earths|url=10.1002/gea.20152|journal=Kluwer Academic Publishers|volume=22(1)|pages=151-153|via=}}</ref>. Excavations of sites such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caverna_da_Pedra_Pintada Pedra Pintada Cave], which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood, and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by Indigenous Amazonian groups<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R|last2=Nair|first2=P|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66(2)|pages=151–164|via=}}</ref>. This long history of humans in the Amazon has led to important relationships between ecosystem function and traditional land use practices.
[[File:Shifting cultivation Swidden Slash Burn Manmao IMG 9115.jpg|alt=Swidden cultivation. Prescribed fire. Slash burning.|thumb|369x369px|''Figure 1.'' The use of prescribed fire for swidden cultivation. Note that this photo was taken in Manmao, India, and has been included here to exemplify burning as a tool for land management. ]]

=== Forest management by Indigenous peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the Amazon, and are largely responsible for its complex and highly productive ecosystems. Some of these techniques include land clearing, cultural burning, the creation of house gardens, cultivation and genetic selection.

'''i. Land clearing & cultural burning'''

Traditional land clearing by Indigenous peoples involved the selective removal of trees from previously forested areas, creating regions known as swiddens where useful trees were intentionally retained<ref name=":6" />. The selective removal of some trees decreased competition for resources, resulting in higher success rates for spared trees with important human uses. Clearing is known to have been performed as early as 8,000 BP, according to dating results from semi-polished stone axes<ref name=":8" />. Fire was also used to clear land for swidden cultivation through intentional and controlled burning of selected areas<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":8" />. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for native Amazonian plants such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attalea_speciosa babaçu] and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings<ref name=":8" />.

'''ii. House gardens'''
[[File:Patauá.JPG|thumb|313x313px|''Figure 2.'' Patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), a native Amazonian plant, highly valued for its food uses and commonly planted in house gardens. ]]
To create house gardens, Amazonian people transported seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests into areas surrounding dwellings <ref name=":9" />. These gardens were known to contain domesticated tree and root crops <ref name=":9" />. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets<ref name=":9" />. Some of these managed species include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7a%C3%AD_palm açaí] (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenocarpus_bacaba bacaba] (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart.''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenocarpus_bataua patauá] (''Oenocarpus bataua''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactris_gasipaes pupunha] (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrocaryum_vulgare tucumã] (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart.'') <ref name=":8" />. Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed species distribution in tropical rainforests <ref name=":8" />.
[[File:Brazil-00720 - Cashew Nuts (48972282788).jpg|link=|left|thumb|426x426px|''Figure 3.'' Cashews grown in Brazil selected based upon traits such as; color, taste, and fast growth by the Waimiri Atroari people.]]

==== iii. Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10,000 BP, which shows that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized<ref name=":6" /> <ref name=":9" />. The domestication of native fruit trees and staple foods like corn, beans and squash was also practiced. Some examples of known cultivated crops were manioc, sweet potatoes (''Ipomea batata''), yams (''Dioscorea sp''.), cultivated pineapple (''Ananas comosus''), guava (''Psidium guajava''), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pouteria_caimito abiu] (''Pouteria caimito''), and Brazil nuts (''Bertholletia excelsa'') <ref name=":8" />.

==== iv. Genetic selection ====
Through the use of cultivation, Amazonian groups selected for different varieties of species with varying traits to grow plants most useful to humans <ref name=":8" />. Evidence for selection is strong in the case of cultivated cashews, which are thought to have been selected for color, size, acidity, and growth rate by the Waimiri Atroari tribe, resulting in a cultivar that fruits only one year following planting <ref name=":9" />. This long-term selection of plant traits by Indigenous peoples is thought to have led to significant genetic improvement of native species with regards to their human uses <ref name=":8" />.

== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== Present legacy ===
Amazonian agroforestry continues to influence the livelihoods, wellbeing, and industry of the populations that depend upon it. Many if not all Indigenous groups living within the Amazon today rely on the legacy of their ancestors in shaping the landscape and honour this legacy by continuing the tradition of land stewardship <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levis|first=C.|date=2018|title=How people domesticated Amazonian forests.|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00171|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|volume=5|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

Amazonian dark soil, also known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_preta terra preta], was created by Indigenous peoples as a product of agroforestry practices. Its extraordinary fertility is still sustaining agricultural industries adjacent to the Amazon. The Kayapó, for example, employ a variety of agricultural techniques, including soil management methods, which have remained more or less intact to the present day. They include practices of composting, burning, mulching, and the direct addition of fertilizers (in the form of special ashes and organic materials) to forest sites <ref>Woods, W. I., and J. M. McCann. “The Anthropogenic Origin and Persistence of Amazonian Dark Earths.” ''Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers Yearbook'', 1999.</ref>. The chemical consequences of these practices remain in situ within much of the Amazon and are responsible in part for increased site productivity.

Agroforestry allows farmers to cultivate a wide variety of species simultaneously, even with restricted land area. These species complement one another as a healthy ecosystem. The diversity of goods harvested from these forests provides secure income even in volatile markets. Biodiverse agricultural ‘plots’ display increased productivity due to synergistic relations between their natural components. Researchers examining 38 Amazonian farms found that all agroforestry systems outperformed pastures and shifting cultivation in income:cost ratios and farmer satisfaction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gómez Cardozo et al.|first=Ernesto|date=2015|title=Species richness increases income in agroforestry systems of eastern Amazonia|url=|journal=Agroforest Syst|volume=89|pages=901-916|via=}}</ref>. In a direct comparison between cacao monocultures and agroforestry systems, the latter had significantly higher revenue and lower cost, as well as smaller differences between conventional and organic outcomes<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Armengot et al.|first=L|date=2016|title=Cacao agroforestry systems have higher return on labor compared to full-sun monocultures|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0406-6|journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development|volume=36|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

=== Threats ===
Amazonian agroforestry is threatened by the accelerating destruction of the Amazon. Since Jair Bolsonaro assumed power in 2019, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon] has surged to a 12-year high<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/01/amazon-deforestation-surges-to-12-year-high-under-bolsonaro.|title=Amazon Deforestation Surges to 12-Year High under Bolsonaro|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=30 Nov 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. Environmental protections have been systematically weakened and over 3000 requests for commercial mining permits on Indigenous land (a constitutionally prohibited practice) are under consideration by the government<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/11/brazil-sees-record-number-of-bids-to-mine-illegally-on-indigenous-lands/|title=Brazil Sees Record Number of Bids to Mine Illegally on Indigenous Lands|last=Goulart de Andrade et al.|first=Eduardo|date=13 Nov 2020|work=Mongabay|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. The administration’s open and aggressive anti-Indigenous stance has been linked to vast land dispossession and multiple murders<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/02/war-for-survival-brazils-amazon-tribes-despair-as-land-raids-surge-under-bolsonaro|title=‘War for Survival’: Brazil’s Amazon Tribes Despair as Land Raids Surge under Bolsonaro|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=2 Aug 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. In addition, new leadership for the department overseeing isolated and uncontacted tribes is associated with evangelical missionaries, which has been widely perceived as an attempt to accelerate the destruction of Indigenous cultures via imposition of Christian beliefs<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/05/brazil-indigenous-tribes-missionary-agency-ricardo-lopes-dias-christianity-disease|title=‘Genocide’ Fears for Isolated Tribes as Ex-Missionary Named to Head Brazil Agency|last=Phillips|first=Dom|date=5 Feb 2020|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. COVID-19 has seen these efforts come to fruition: over 48,000 infections have resulted in at least 957 Indigenous deaths in Brazil, but missionaries have reportedly spread misinformation to convince Indigenous inhabitants of remote settlements not to take the vaccine<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/11/brazil-missionaries-turning-tribes-against-coronavirus-vaccine|title=Brazil: Missionaries ‘Turning Tribes against Coronavirus Vaccine|last=Reuters in Brasília|first=|date=11 Feb 2021|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 Apr 2021}}</ref>. The simultaneous destruction of Amazonian ecosystems, Indigenous rights, and Indigenous peoples themselves bodes poorly for the future of agroforestry, since this complex and ancient body of knowledge is embedded in oral tradition, ongoing practices, and the physical reality of the rainforest itself, all of which are under threat of imminent eradication.

== Broader agricultural implications ==

=== Indigenous self-determination ===
Indigenous agricultural practices, with specific reference to Amazonian agroforestry, provide a blueprint for sustainable land use within the agricultural sector. Agroforestry initiatives that rely more on local knowledge focus more on food security, natural capital (e.g. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_regeneration soil regeneration]), and biodiversity, contributing positively to the environment and providing more stable yields<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jacobi et al.|first=Johanna|date=2017|title=Whose Knowledge, Whose Development? Use and Role of Local and External Knowledge in Agroforestry Projects in Bolivia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-016-0805-0|journal=Environmental Management|volume=59|pages=464-476|via=}}</ref>. The harmonious land-based practices and complex understanding of ecosystem functionality cultivated by Indigenous peoples have created food systems that are sustainable in the long term. Researchers have suggested that scaling and exporting principles of stewardship and natural synergy, including their implementation in agricultural sectors internationally, could address intersecting crises faced by the global food system<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=González et al.|first=Nidia Catherine|date=2020|title=The Potential of Amazon Indigenous Agroforestry Practices and Ontologies for Rethinking Global Forest Governance|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102257|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=118|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

Advoocates and researchers have pointed out that for Indigenous agroforestry practices to be ethically, effectively, and equitably implemented within non-Indigenous food systems, Indigenous peoples must be centred as agents of change<ref name=":12" />. Scaling up Indigenous agroforestry practices both within the Amazon and beyond demands Indigenous self-determination and larger autonomy with respect to land stewardship practices across the globe.

=== Importance in the future of agriculture ===
Land degradation is a serious concern for more than a fifth of cropland and a third of forests, as well as for the 1.5 billion people who directly depend on degraded land<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Davis|first=Marion|date=2014|title=Sharing the land: Restoring degraded ecosystems and improving livelihoods through agroforestry|url=https://www.sei.org/publications/sharing-the-land-restoring-degraded-ecosystems-and-improving-livelihoods-through-agroforestry/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=13 Mar 2021|website=Stockholm Environmental Institute}}</ref>. This process is closely linked to agricultural intensification and the associated use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers, a practice which also decreases farmer profit<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gomiero|first=Tiziano|date=2016|title=Soil Degradation, Land Scarcity and Food Security: Reviewing a Complex Challenge|url=https://doi.org/10.3390/su8030281|journal=Sustainability|volume=8|pages=1-41|via=}}</ref>. Like intensive agriculture, intensive reforestation efforts typically involve monocultures, which have low ecosystem value<ref name=":10" />. Agroforestry programs tailored to local environments can guide biodiverse reforestation while generating food and providing income<ref name=":10" />.

Agroforestry is therefore both ecologically and economically promising. Due to the flexibility of polycultures, agroforestry can meet a wide range of human needs. In Brazil, ArcelorMittal BioFlorestas has engaged in agroforestry on 135,000 hectares degraded by cattle farming since 1957<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=ArcelorMittal Brasil|first=|date=Aug 2017|title=Unlocking the Circular Potential of the Steel Industry|url=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/case-studies/new-entry|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=15 Apr 2021|website=Ellen MacArthur Foundation}}</ref>. Eucalyptus trees are harvested and processed into charcoal for steelmaking, where they replace [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgical_coal coking coal]<ref name=":11" />. 92 animal species have been reintroduced to the area as a result<ref name=":11" />. Compared to the alternative, mining metallurgical coal, this practice enriches land rather than depleting it and provides long-term job opportunities that are not dependent on a finite quantity of extractable resources.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T04:24:34Z

GracieConway: /* Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon */

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T04:19:54Z

GracieConway: /* Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon */

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T04:18:10Z

GracieConway:

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T03:48:52Z

GracieConway:

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-04-16T03:33:27Z

GracieConway:

'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''

The Amazon rainforest spans over 6.7 million square kilometers across Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=Green Peace USA|date=November 11, 2020|title=Brazil and the Amazon Forest|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/issues/brazil-and-the-amazon-forest/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Green Peace}}</ref>. The majority of the Amazon Basin, 60 percent, exists within the borders of Brazil. Home to 10 percent of all plant and animal species on Earth, the Amazon rainforest is an unparalleled biodiversity hot spot<ref name=":0" />. There are 40,000 species of plants, more than 400 mammal species, 1,300 bird varieties, and millions of insects found in the Amazon<ref name=":0" />.

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that benefits from the biological interactions created by the combination of trees, crops, and sometimes livestock <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=Association for Temperate Agroforestry|date=n.d.|title=What is Agroforestry?|url=https://www.aftaweb.org/about/what-is-agroforestry.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=AFTA}}</ref>.

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

The 400 tribes of the Amazon are incredibly diverse, each with their own territory, culture, and language <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first=Survival International|date=n.d.|title=Amazon tribes|url=https://www.survivalinternational.org/about/amazontribes|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Survival International}}</ref>. In Brazil alone, 195 different languages are spoken among 160 individual Indigenous societies <ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Lutz|first=Dave|date=August 29, 2017|title=Indigenous People|url=https://amazonaid.org/indigenous-people/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Amazon Aid Foundation}}</ref>. Today, it is estimated only 1 million Indigenous Amazonian people remain in their ancestral home <ref name=":1" />. Comparatively, prior to the arrival of colonizers in the late 15th century, over 6 million Indigenous people resided in the Amazon <ref name=":2" />. Colonization has led to not only the devastating loss of indigenous lives, but also drastic changes to Indigenous livelihoods. Due to the overexploitation of natural resources in the Amazon, traditional ways of living, such as subsistence agriculture, hunting, fishing and gathering, cannot be supported forcing a shift towards wage employment, market oriented agriculture, and migration to cities among Indigenous people <ref>{{Cite web|first=Population Reference Bureau|date=2008|title=Forest Conservation and Population Growth Among Indigenous Peoples of the Amazon|url=https://www.prb.org/indigenouspeople-amazon/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Population Reference Bureau}}</ref>.

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage"'''

The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" encompasses the Western view that indigenous peoples of the Amazon have an “innate conservation ethic”. This view misconstrues, offends, and harms Indigenous ways of life. For example, the Kayapo, Indigenous people who inhabit the savannas in central Brazil, have been widely publicised for their use of apetes, which are anthropogenically formed forest resource islands<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Stearman|first=Allyn MacLean|date=December 1994|title=Only slaves climb trees|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02734165|journal=Human Nature|volume=5|pages=339-357|via=Springer}}</ref>. The Kayapo developed apetes to adapt to the low nutrient capacity of the soil, cycles of heavy rain and extreme dryness, and presence of numerous ecotones in the savannas that make agriculture difficult<ref name=":3" />. Yet, the Kayapo’s use of apetes rather than cultivation of the land was championed as an act of conservation by the West<ref name=":3" />. And when the Kayapo began receiving royalties for gold and timber harvested from their reserve, there was outrage in the conservation community <ref name=":3" />. This outrage helped fuel the movement in Brazil to reduce Indigenous lands and make legalization of territories more difficult<ref name=":3" />. The fallacy of the "ecologically noble savage" forces the perspective that Indigenous peoples must meet a certain conservationist criteria to have rights to their land rather than be guaranteed their intrinsic rights to land ownership.

'''ii. Construct of wilderness'''

The construct of wilderness was molded by the myth that the Americas upon European arrival was pristine wilderness nearly empty of people<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Denevan|first=W|date=1992|title=The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2563351|journal=Annals of Association of America Geographers|volume=82|pages=369-385|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. This “pristine myth” began with American settler expansion to the West<ref name=":4" />. Although Indigenous peoples of the Americas had formed urban centers, roads, and rural settlements, modified vegetation and soil, implemented intensive agriculture, and influenced wildlife populations, by the time American settlers moved West, Indigenous populations had declined by 50%<ref name=":4" />. As American settlers encountered abandoned settlements and inhabited land overtaken by natural forces, they became convinced that the land was “wilderness”<ref name=":4" />. The term “wilderness” was not always used fondly; to colonizers, it often described a “desolate wasteland”<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=January 1996|title=The Trouble with Wilderness: Or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature|url=|journal=Oxford University Press|volume=1|pages=7-28|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Since its emergence, the idea of wilderness has transformed, becoming a fundamental part of the environmental movement in the West<ref name=":5" />. “Wilderness” is thought of as the last remaining refuge from the claws of civilization<ref name=":5" />. Early conservationists, such as John Muir, romanticized wilderness, believing it to be sacred and in need of protection from humans. Many see the recovering of wilderness as our only hope to save the planet and preserve "nature" <ref name=":5" />. However, “wilderness” is merely a construct of human civilization, a preservation of an unnatural state<ref name=":5" />. The removal of Indigenous peoples from their lands to form “uninhabited wilderness”, or national parks and protected areas, solidifies how constructed “wilderness” is<ref name=":5" />.

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

The hunter-gatherer perception encompasses both the idea that all Indigenous peoples are hunter-gatherers and the idea that complex hunter-gather societies do not exist. In the 1980s, the prevalent model of social organization in the Amazon Basin characterized Amazonian societies as having small populations and lacking hierarchies and social stratification<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=R. P.|last2=Nair|first2=P. K. R.|date=2006|title=Indigenous agroforestry systems in Amazonia: From prehistory to today|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6074-1|journal=Agroforestry Systems|volume=66|pages=151-164|via=Springer}}</ref>. However, archeological research has found that the Amazon supported large population complexes<ref name=":6" />. These large populations were far from “simple” having developed extensive trade networks along rivers, advanced agricultural systems, and a rich material culture<ref name=":6" />. However, the adoption of agriculture is not a prerequisite for a complex society<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Arnold|first=Jeanne|last2=Sunell|first2=Scott|last3=Nigra|first3=Benjamin T.|last4=Bishop|first4=Katelyn J.|last5=Jones|first5=Terrah|last6=Bongers|first6=Jacob|date=April 21 2015|title=Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-015-9246-y|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|volume=23|pages=448-499|via=Springer}}</ref>. The dominant model for societal progression posits that societies move from being hunters to being farmers, and the society becomes more complex through this linear progression<ref name=":7" />. Yet complex hunter-gather societies do exist and exhibit the same modern cultural and political features as agricultural societies<ref name=":7" />.

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous Presence in the Amazon ===
Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10,000 BP (Lehmann, 2004). Excavations of sites such as the Pedra Pintada Cave, which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by Indigenous Amazonian groups (Miller, 2006). This long history of humans in the Amazon has led to important relationships between ecosystem function and traditional land use practices.

=== Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the amazon, and are largely responsible for its complex and highly productive ecosystems. Some of these techniques include land clearing, cultural burning, the creation of house gardens, cultivation and genetic selection.

'''i. Land Clearing & Cultural Burning'''

Traditional land clearing by Indigenous peoples involved the selective removal of trees from previously forested areas, creating regions known as swiddens where useful trees were intentionally retained (Miller & Nair, 2006). Through the selective removal of some trees, those that were retained often had higher success rates, due to decreased competition for resources. Clearing is known to have been performed as early as 8,000 BP, according to dating research done on semi-polished stone axes (Lehmann, 2004). Fire was also used to clear land for swidden cultivation, through intentional and controlled burning of selected areas. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for native Amazonian plants such as babaçu and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings (Lehmann, 2004).

'''ii. House Gardens'''

To create house gardens, Amazonian people transported seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests into areas surrounding dwellings (Miller, 2004). These gardens were known to contain domesticated tree and root crops. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets. Some of these managed species include açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.), bacaba (Oenocarpus distichus Mart.), patauá (Oenocarpus bataua), pupunha (Bactris gasipaes Kunth.) and tucumã (Astrocaryum vulgare Mart.) (Lehmann, 2004). Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed species distribution in tropical rainforests (Lehmann, 2004).

==== iii. Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10,000 BP, which shows that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized (Miller, 2004). The domestication of native fruit trees and staple foods like corn, beans and squash was also practiced. Some examples of known cultivated crops were manioc, sweet potatoes (Ipomea batata), yams (Dioscorea sp.), cultivated pineapple (Ananas comosus), guava (Psidium guajava), abiu (Pouteria caimito), and Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa) (Lehmann, 2004).

==== iv. Genetic Selection ====
Through the use of cultivation, Amazonian groups selected for different varieties of species, with varying traits, in order to grow plants most useful to humans. Evidence for selection is strong in the case of cultivated cashews, which are thought to have been selected for color, size, acidity and growth rate by the Waimiri Atroari tribe, resulting in a cultivar that fruits only one year following planting (Miller, 2004). This long-term selection of plant traits by Indigenous peoples is thought to have led to significant genetic improvement of native species with regards to their human uses.

== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Broader agricultural implications ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-03-19T23:10:20Z

GracieConway: /* Genetic Selection */

'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "Noble Savage"'''

'''ii. Construct of "Wilderness"'''

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous Occupation in Amazon ===
In order to understand the past and current practices of Amazonian agroforestry, it is imperil to acknowledge the longevity of human existence in the Amazon. Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition, from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10, 000 BP. Excavations of sites such as the Pedra Pintada Cave, which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by indigenous Amazonian groups.

=== Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the amazon, and are largely responsible for the Amazons complex and highly productive ecosystems.

==== Land Clearing & Cultural Burning ====
Land clearing is one techniques of ecosystem management, which is known to have been used as early as 8,000 years BP, thanks to the discovery of semi-polished stone axes, dating back to this time and region. Fire was also used to clear land, and involved the burning of areas for swidden cultivation. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for plants such as Babaçu, and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings, as well as to clear areas of land.

==== House Gardens ====
The creation of House Gardens was a common management technique of Amazonian peoples, involving the transportation of seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests, into areas surrounding dwellings. These gardens were known to contain both domesticated tree and root crops. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets. Some of these managed species include: açaí (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), bacaba (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart''.), patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), pupunha (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and tucumã (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart''.). Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed the species distribution in tropical rain forests.

==== Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10, 000 BP, showing that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized. The domestication of native fruit trees and staple foods like corn, beans and squash was also practiced. Some examples of known cultivated crops were: manioc, sweet potatoes (''Ipomea ba-tata),'' yams (''Dioscorea sp.),'' cultivated pineapple (''Ananas comosus''), guava (''Psidium guajava''), abiu (''Pouteria caimito''), Brazilnuts (''Bertholletia excelsa'').

==== Genetic Selection ====
Through the use of cultivation, Amazonian groups selected for different varieties of species. Evidence for selection is strong in the case of cultivated Cashews, which are thought to have been selected for based off of color, size, acidity and growth rate by the Waimiri Atroari tribe, resulting in a cultivar that fruits only 1 year following planting! This long term selection by indigenous peoples is thought to have lead to significant genetic improvement of native species, with regards to their human uses.

== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Broader agricultural implications ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
<references />
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing better articles|Wikipedia: Writing better articles]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-03-19T22:58:49Z

GracieConway: /* Cultivation */

'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "Noble Savage"'''

'''ii. Construct of "Wilderness"'''

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous Occupation in Amazon ===
In order to understand the past and current practices of Amazonian agroforestry, it is imperil to acknowledge the longevity of human existence in the Amazon. Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition, from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10, 000 BP. Excavations of sites such as the Pedra Pintada Cave, which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by indigenous Amazonian groups.

=== Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the amazon, and are largely responsible for the Amazons complex and highly productive ecosystems.

==== Land Clearing & Cultural Burning ====
Land clearing is one techniques of ecosystem management, which is known to have been used as early as 8,000 years BP, thanks to the discovery of semi-polished stone axes, dating back to this time and region. Fire was also used to clear land, and involved the burning of areas for swidden cultivation. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for plants such as Babaçu, and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings, as well as to clear areas of land.

==== House Gardens ====
The creation of House Gardens was a common management technique of Amazonian peoples, involving the transportation of seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests, into areas surrounding dwellings. These gardens were known to contain both domesticated tree and root crops. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets. Some of these managed species include: açaí (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), bacaba (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart''.), patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), pupunha (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and tucumã (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart''.). Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed the species distribution in tropical rain forests.

==== Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10, 000 BP, showing that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized. The domestication of native fruit trees and staple foods like corn, beans and squash was also practiced. Some examples of known cultivated crops were: manioc, sweet potatoes (''Ipomea ba-tata),'' yams (''Dioscorea sp.),'' cultivated pineapple (''Ananas comosus''), guava (''Psidium guajava''), abiu (''Pouteria caimito''), Brazilnuts (''Bertholletia excelsa'').

==== Genetic Selection ====
Through the use of cultivation, Amazonian groups selected for different varieties of species. Evidence for selection is strong in the case of cultivated Cashews, which are thought to have been selected for based off of color, size, acidity and growth rate by the Waimiri Atroari tribe, resulting in a cultivar that fruits only 1 year following planting. This long term selection by indigenous peoples is thought to have lead to significant genetic improvement of native species, with regards to their human uses.

== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Broader agricultural implications ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
<references />
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing better articles|Wikipedia: Writing better articles]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-03-19T22:35:54Z

GracieConway: /* House Gardens */

'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "Noble Savage"'''

'''ii. Construct of "Wilderness"'''

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous Occupation in Amazon ===
In order to understand the past and current practices of Amazonian agroforestry, it is imperil to acknowledge the longevity of human existence in the Amazon. Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition, from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10, 000 BP. Excavations of sites such as the Pedra Pintada Cave, which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by indigenous Amazonian groups.

=== Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the amazon, and are largely responsible for the Amazons complex and highly productive ecosystems.

==== Land Clearing & Cultural Burning ====
Land clearing is one techniques of ecosystem management, which is known to have been used as early as 8,000 years BP, thanks to the discovery of semi-polished stone axes, dating back to this time and region. Fire was also used to clear land, and involved the burning of areas for swidden cultivation. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for plants such as Babaçu, and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings.

==== House Gardens ====
The creation of House Gardens was a common management technique of Amazonian peoples, involving the transportation of seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests, into areas surrounding dwellings. These gardens were known to contain both domesticated tree and root crops. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets. Some of these managed species include: açaí (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), bacaba (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart''.), patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), pupunha (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and tucumã (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart''.). Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed the species distribution in tropical rain forests.

==== Cultivation ====
There is evidence of cultivation in the Amazon as early as 10, 000 BP and shows that the growth of carbohydrate-rich root and tuber crops were prioritized. The domestication of corn, beans and squash was also done by amazonian groups

== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Broader agricultural implications ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
<references />
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing better articles|Wikipedia: Writing better articles]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-03-19T22:24:08Z

GracieConway: /* Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon */

'''<big>The Amazon</big>'''

'''<big>Agroforestry</big>'''

== Indigenous peoples of the Amazon ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
'''<big>Overview</big>'''

'''<big>Common misconceptions</big>'''

'''i. Fallacy of the "Noble Savage"'''

'''ii. Construct of "Wilderness"'''

'''iii. Hunter-gatherer perception'''

== History of Amazonian agroforestry ==

=== History of Indigenous Occupation in Amazon ===
In order to understand the past and current practices of Amazonian agroforestry, it is imperil to acknowledge the longevity of human existence in the Amazon. Initial human colonization of the Amazon is thought to have occurred during a time of significant climatic transition, from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, around 11,000 to 10, 000 BP. Excavations of sites such as the Pedra Pintada Cave, which saw human occupation around 10,600 BP, reveal carbonized tree fruits, wood and faunal remains, supporting the early use of tropical forest foods by indigenous Amazonian groups.

=== Forest Management by Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon ===
Various land management techniques were used by Indigenous groups in the amazon, and are largely responsible for the Amazons complex and highly productive ecosystems.

==== Land Clearing & Cultural Burning ====
Land clearing is one techniques of ecosystem management, which is known to have been used as early as 8,000 years BP, thanks to the discovery of semi-polished stone axes, dating back to this time and region. Fire was also used to clear land, and involved the burning of areas for swidden cultivation. Additionally, fire is an important regeneration mechanism for plants such as Babaçu, and was intentionally used to stimulate the emergence of these seedlings.

==== House Gardens ====
The creation of House Gardens was a common management technique of Amazonian peoples, involving the transportation of seedlings of edible and medicinal plants from forests, into areas surrounding dwellings. This technique has resulted in high concentrations of valuable species in small geographic pockets. Some of these managed species include: açaí (''Euterpe oleracea Mart''.), bacaba (''Oenocarpus distichus Mart''.), patauá (''Oenocarpus bataua''), pupunha (''Bactris gasipaes Kunth''.) and tucumã (''Astrocaryum vulgare Mart''.). Over long periods of time, these useful resource patches transformed the species distribution in tropical rain forests.

== Present and future Amazonian agroforestry ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Broader agricultural implications ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
<references />
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing better articles|Wikipedia: Writing better articles]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=|title=|url=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
<references />
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2021/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

2021-03-19T21:27:27Z

GracieConway: /* History of Amazonian agroforestry */

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-09T04:32:40Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it is usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Brodeur|first2=R. D.|last3=Okey|first3=T. A.|last4=Pauly|first4=D.|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref><ref name=":19" />. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":19" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lindsey|first=Rebecca|date=August 14, 2020|title=Climate Change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide|url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide#:~:text=Before%20the%20Industrial%20Revolution%20started,the%20Industrial%20Revolution%20in%201750.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=03/08/2021|website=}}</ref> due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|450x450px|
Figure 2. Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
|thumb]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gooding|first=Rebecca|last2=Harley|first2=Christopher|last3=Tang|first3=Emily|date=June 9, 2009|title=Elevated water temperature and carbon dioxide concentration increase the growth of a keystone echinoderm|url=|journal=University of New Mexico|volume=106 (23)|pages=9316-9321|via=}}</ref>, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to higher latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

==== How pervasive is the problem? ====
This problem pervades throughout all aspects of life on earth and affects every type of life and group of organisms. It affects both terrestrial and marine life in similar ways but for the purposes of this article the focus will remain on marine life. In various studies it has been shown that in marine range shifts species range's generally move poleward and this extends to many different species <ref name=":5" />. This also extends to different marine environments around the globe which have wide and varying effects on the ecosystems involved. Some may result in the destruction of entire ecosystems as some studies have shown, one example being the range shift of kelp species resulting in the loss of kelps in certain ecosystems, destroying them.<ref name=":10" />. Therefore range shifts are a pervasive problem which pertains to all levels and facets of marine life.

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Figure 3. The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Figure 4. Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations<ref name=":1" />, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures<ref name=":1" />, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures and species range shifts, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming<ref name=":16" />, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate, and were consequently driven to extinction <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. A unique characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species<ref name=":1" />. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. This narrow tolerance range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.

British Columbian species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon ''(O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature<ref name=":5" /> it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters more suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios.<ref name=":17" /> ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Tomiolo|first=S|last2=Ward|first2=D|date=2018|title=Species migrations and range shifts: A synthesis of causes and consequences|url=|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=33|pages=62-77|via=Science Direct}}</ref> The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.
[[File:Durvillaea_antarctica_washed_up.JPG|left|thumb|350x350px|Figure 6. ''Durvillaea antarctica'' a species of kelp endemic to the southern oceans the range of which is increasing due to warming oceans and melting sea ice.<ref name=":18" />]]
One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=W|last2=Thomseon|first2=Mads|last3=Straub|first3=S|date=2016|title=The Dynamic Biogeography of the Anthropocene The Speed of Recent Range Shifts in Seaweeds|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_3|journal=Seaweed Phylogeography|volume=1|pages=66-93|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to expand their areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region <ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Quatino|first=ML|last2=Deregibus|first2=D|last3=Campana|first3=GL|last4=Latorre|first4=GEJ|last5=Momo|first5=FR|date=2013|title=Evidence of Macroalgal Colonization on Newly Ice-Free Areas following Glacial Retreat in Potter Cove (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica.|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058223|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|pages=|via=PLoS ONE}}</ref>.

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range <ref name=":6" />. This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=JJ|last2=Huang|first2=SH|last3=Liu|first3=ZY|last4=Bi|first4=YX|date=2020|title=Climate-Driven Range Shifts of Brown Seaweed Sargassum horneri in the Northwest Pacific|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.570881/full|journal=Frontiers in Marines Science Marine Evolutionary Biology, Biogeography and species diversity|volume=7|pages=|via=Frontiers in}}</ref>.

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time<ref name=":15" />.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|last2=Cooke|first2=R. S. C|last3=Duncan|first3=M. I|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|last2=Bates|first2=A. E.|last3=Cacciapaglia|first3=C.|last4=Pike|first4=E. P|last5=Armstrup|first5=S. C|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|last2=Caplat|first2=P.|last3=Popy|first3=S.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 7. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the effect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
==== Desynchronization ====
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2019|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|last2=Foggo|first2=A.|last3=Smale|first3=D. A.|last4=Nilsson|first4=C.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a desynchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack (Fig. 7) for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|last2=Kotta|first2=J.|last3=Anderson|first3=H.|last4=Herkül|first4=K.|last5=Virtanen|first5=E.|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|517x517px|Figure 8. Many components come together to reduce genetic diversity, making smaller populations at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|last2=Nowak|first2=C.|last3=Bálint|first3=M.|last4=Pfenninger|first4=M.|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|last2=Krumhansl|first2=K.|last3=Filbee-dexter|first3=K.|last4=Pedersen|first4=M.|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Fig. 8) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 9. Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref> such as to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod (Fig. 9) for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, some fisheries are experiencing a lag in responses or cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

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== References ==
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#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-09T04:31:00Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it is usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Brodeur|first2=R. D.|last3=Okey|first3=T. A.|last4=Pauly|first4=D.|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref><ref name=":19" />. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":19" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|450x450px|
Figure 2. Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
|thumb]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gooding|first=Rebecca|last2=Harley|first2=Christopher|last3=Tang|first3=Emily|date=June 9, 2009|title=Elevated water temperature and carbon dioxide concentration increase the growth of a keystone echinoderm|url=|journal=University of New Mexico|volume=106 (23)|pages=9316-9321|via=}}</ref>, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to higher latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

==== How pervasive is the problem? ====
This problem pervades throughout all aspects of life on earth and affects every type of life and group of organisms. It affects both terrestrial and marine life in similar ways but for the purposes of this article the focus will remain on marine life. In various studies it has been shown that in marine range shifts species range's generally move poleward and this extends to many different species <ref name=":5" />. This also extends to different marine environments around the globe which have wide and varying effects on the ecosystems involved. Some may result in the destruction of entire ecosystems as some studies have shown, one example being the range shift of kelp species resulting in the loss of kelps in certain ecosystems, destroying them.<ref name=":10" />. Therefore range shifts are a pervasive problem which pertains to all levels and facets of marine life.

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Figure 3. The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Figure 4. Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations<ref name=":1" />, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures<ref name=":1" />, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures and species range shifts, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming<ref name=":16" />, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate, and were consequently driven to extinction <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. A unique characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species<ref name=":1" />. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. This narrow tolerance range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.

British Columbian species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon ''(O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature<ref name=":5" /> it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters more suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios.<ref name=":17" /> ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Tomiolo|first=S|last2=Ward|first2=D|date=2018|title=Species migrations and range shifts: A synthesis of causes and consequences|url=|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=33|pages=62-77|via=Science Direct}}</ref> The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.
[[File:Durvillaea_antarctica_washed_up.JPG|left|thumb|350x350px|Figure 6. ''Durvillaea antarctica'' a species of kelp endemic to the southern oceans the range of which is increasing due to warming oceans and melting sea ice.<ref name=":18" />]]
One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=W|last2=Thomseon|first2=Mads|last3=Straub|first3=S|date=2016|title=The Dynamic Biogeography of the Anthropocene The Speed of Recent Range Shifts in Seaweeds|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_3|journal=Seaweed Phylogeography|volume=1|pages=66-93|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to expand their areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region <ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Quatino|first=ML|last2=Deregibus|first2=D|last3=Campana|first3=GL|last4=Latorre|first4=GEJ|last5=Momo|first5=FR|date=2013|title=Evidence of Macroalgal Colonization on Newly Ice-Free Areas following Glacial Retreat in Potter Cove (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica.|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058223|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|pages=|via=PLoS ONE}}</ref>.

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range <ref name=":6" />. This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=JJ|last2=Huang|first2=SH|last3=Liu|first3=ZY|last4=Bi|first4=YX|date=2020|title=Climate-Driven Range Shifts of Brown Seaweed Sargassum horneri in the Northwest Pacific|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.570881/full|journal=Frontiers in Marines Science Marine Evolutionary Biology, Biogeography and species diversity|volume=7|pages=|via=Frontiers in}}</ref>.

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time<ref name=":15" />.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|last2=Cooke|first2=R. S. C|last3=Duncan|first3=M. I|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|last2=Bates|first2=A. E.|last3=Cacciapaglia|first3=C.|last4=Pike|first4=E. P|last5=Armstrup|first5=S. C|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|last2=Caplat|first2=P.|last3=Popy|first3=S.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 7. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the effect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
==== Desynchronization ====
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2019|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|last2=Foggo|first2=A.|last3=Smale|first3=D. A.|last4=Nilsson|first4=C.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a desynchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack (Fig. 7) for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|last2=Kotta|first2=J.|last3=Anderson|first3=H.|last4=Herkül|first4=K.|last5=Virtanen|first5=E.|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|517x517px|Figure 8. Many components come together to reduce genetic diversity, making smaller populations at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|last2=Nowak|first2=C.|last3=Bálint|first3=M.|last4=Pfenninger|first4=M.|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|last2=Krumhansl|first2=K.|last3=Filbee-dexter|first3=K.|last4=Pedersen|first4=M.|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Fig. 8) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 9. Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref> such as to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod (Fig. 9) for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, some fisheries are experiencing a lag in responses or cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

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== References ==
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#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-09T04:29:30Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it is usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Brodeur|first2=R. D.|last3=Okey|first3=T. A.|last4=Pauly|first4=D.|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref><ref name=":19" />. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":19" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|450x450px|
Figure 2. Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
|thumb]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gooding|first=Rebecca|last2=Harley|first2=Christopher|last3=Tang|first3=Emily|date=June 9, 2009|title=Elevated water temperature and carbon dioxide concentration increase the growth of a keystone echinoderm|url=|journal=University of New Mexico|volume=106 (23)|pages=9316-9321|via=}}</ref>, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to higher latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

==== How pervasive is the problem? ====
This problem pervades throughout all aspects of life on earth and affects every type of life and group of organisms. It affects both terrestrial and marine life in similar ways but for the purposes of this article the focus will remain on marine life. In various studies it has been shown that in marine range shifts species range's generally move poleward and this extends to many different species <ref name=":5" />. This also extends to different marine environments around the globe which have wide and varying effects on the ecosystems involved. Some may result in the destruction of entire ecosystems as some studies have shown, one example being the range shift of kelp species resulting in the loss of kelps in certain ecosystems, destroying them.<ref name=":10" />. Therefore range shifts are a pervasive problem which pertains to all levels and facets of marine life.

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Figure 3. The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Figure 4. Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations<ref name=":1" />, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures<ref name=":1" />, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures and species range shifts, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming<ref name=":16" />, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate, and were consequently driven to extinction <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. A unique characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species<ref name=":1" />. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. This narrow tolerance range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.

British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature<ref name=":5" /> it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters more suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios.<ref name=":17" /> ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Tomiolo|first=S|last2=Ward|first2=D|date=2018|title=Species migrations and range shifts: A synthesis of causes and consequences|url=|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=33|pages=62-77|via=Science Direct}}</ref> The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.
[[File:Durvillaea_antarctica_washed_up.JPG|left|thumb|350x350px|Figure 6. ''Durvillaea antarctica'' a species of kelp endemic to the southern oceans the range of which is increasing due to warming oceans and melting sea ice.<ref name=":18" />]]
One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=W|last2=Thomseon|first2=Mads|last3=Straub|first3=S|date=2016|title=The Dynamic Biogeography of the Anthropocene The Speed of Recent Range Shifts in Seaweeds|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_3|journal=Seaweed Phylogeography|volume=1|pages=66-93|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to expand their areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region <ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Quatino|first=ML|last2=Deregibus|first2=D|last3=Campana|first3=GL|last4=Latorre|first4=GEJ|last5=Momo|first5=FR|date=2013|title=Evidence of Macroalgal Colonization on Newly Ice-Free Areas following Glacial Retreat in Potter Cove (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica.|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058223|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|pages=|via=PLoS ONE}}</ref>.

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range <ref name=":6" />. This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=JJ|last2=Huang|first2=SH|last3=Liu|first3=ZY|last4=Bi|first4=YX|date=2020|title=Climate-Driven Range Shifts of Brown Seaweed Sargassum horneri in the Northwest Pacific|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.570881/full|journal=Frontiers in Marines Science Marine Evolutionary Biology, Biogeography and species diversity|volume=7|pages=|via=Frontiers in}}</ref>.

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time<ref name=":15" />.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|last2=Cooke|first2=R. S. C|last3=Duncan|first3=M. I|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|last2=Bates|first2=A. E.|last3=Cacciapaglia|first3=C.|last4=Pike|first4=E. P|last5=Armstrup|first5=S. C|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|last2=Caplat|first2=P.|last3=Popy|first3=S.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 7. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the effect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
==== Desynchronization ====
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2019|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|last2=Foggo|first2=A.|last3=Smale|first3=D. A.|last4=Nilsson|first4=C.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a desynchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack (Fig. 7) for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|last2=Kotta|first2=J.|last3=Anderson|first3=H.|last4=Herkül|first4=K.|last5=Virtanen|first5=E.|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|517x517px|Figure 8. Many components come together to reduce genetic diversity, making smaller populations at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|last2=Nowak|first2=C.|last3=Bálint|first3=M.|last4=Pfenninger|first4=M.|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|last2=Krumhansl|first2=K.|last3=Filbee-dexter|first3=K.|last4=Pedersen|first4=M.|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Fig. 8) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 9. Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref> such as to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod (Fig. 9) for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, some fisheries are experiencing a lag in responses or cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

⠀

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== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-09T02:12:03Z

GracieConway: /* Areas effected by shifting species ranges */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Brodeur|first2=R. D.|last3=Okey|first3=T. A.|last4=Pauly|first4=D.|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref><ref name=":19" />. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":19" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|450x450px|
Figure 2. Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
|thumb]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to higher latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

==== How pervasive is the problem? ====
This problem pervades throughout all aspects of life on earth and affects every type of life and group of organisms. It affects both terrestrial and marine life in similar ways but for the purposes of this article the focus will remain on marine life. In various studies it has been shown that in marine range shifts species range's generally move poleward and this extends to many different species <ref name=":5" />. This also extends to different marine environments around the globe which have wide and varying effects on the ecosystems involved. Some may result in the destruction of entire ecosystems as some studies have shown, one example being the range shift of kelp species resulting in the loss of kelps in certain ecosystems, destroying them.<ref name=":10" />. Therefore range shifts are a pervasive problem which pertains to all levels and facets of marine life.

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Figure 3. The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Figure 4. Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations<ref name=":1" />, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures<ref name=":1" />, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures and species range shifts, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming<ref name=":16" />, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate, and were consequently driven to extinction <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. A unique characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species<ref name=":1" />. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. This narrow tolerance range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.

British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature<ref name=":5" /> it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters more suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios.<ref name=":17" /> ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Tomiolo|first=S|last2=Ward|first2=D|date=2018|title=Species migrations and range shifts: A synthesis of causes and consequences|url=|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=33|pages=62-77|via=Science Direct}}</ref> The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.
[[File:Durvillaea_antarctica_washed_up.JPG|left|thumb|350x350px|Figure 6. ''Durvillaea antarctica'' a species of kelp endemic to the southern oceans the range of which is increasing due to warming oceans and melting sea ice.<ref name=":18" />]]
One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=W|last2=Thomseon|first2=Mads|last3=Straub|first3=S|date=2016|title=The Dynamic Biogeography of the Anthropocene The Speed of Recent Range Shifts in Seaweeds|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_3|journal=Seaweed Phylogeography|volume=1|pages=66-93|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to expand their areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region <ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Quatino|first=ML|last2=Deregibus|first2=D|last3=Campana|first3=GL|last4=Latorre|first4=GEJ|last5=Momo|first5=FR|date=2013|title=Evidence of Macroalgal Colonization on Newly Ice-Free Areas following Glacial Retreat in Potter Cove (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica.|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058223|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|pages=|via=PLoS ONE}}</ref>.

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range <ref name=":6" />. This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=JJ|last2=Huang|first2=SH|last3=Liu|first3=ZY|last4=Bi|first4=YX|date=2020|title=Climate-Driven Range Shifts of Brown Seaweed Sargassum horneri in the Northwest Pacific|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.570881/full|journal=Frontiers in Marines Science Marine Evolutionary Biology, Biogeography and species diversity|volume=7|pages=|via=Frontiers in}}</ref>.

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time<ref name=":15" />.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|last2=Cooke|first2=R. S. C|last3=Duncan|first3=M. I|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|last2=Bates|first2=A. E.|last3=Cacciapaglia|first3=C.|last4=Pike|first4=E. P|last5=Armstrup|first5=S. C|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|last2=Caplat|first2=P.|last3=Popy|first3=S.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 7. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the effect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
==== Desynchronization ====
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2019|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|last2=Foggo|first2=A.|last3=Smale|first3=D. A.|last4=Nilsson|first4=C.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a desynchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack (Fig. 7) for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|last2=Kotta|first2=J.|last3=Anderson|first3=H.|last4=Herkül|first4=K.|last5=Virtanen|first5=E.|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|517x517px|Figure 8. Many components come together to reduce genetic diversity, making smaller populations at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|last2=Nowak|first2=C.|last3=Bálint|first3=M.|last4=Pfenninger|first4=M.|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|last2=Krumhansl|first2=K.|last3=Filbee-dexter|first3=K.|last4=Pedersen|first4=M.|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Fig. 8) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 9. Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref> such as to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod (Fig. 9) for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, some fisheries are experiencing a lag in responses or cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

⠀

⠀

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T04:50:03Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|561x561px|
Figure 2. Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Figure 3. The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Figure 4. Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations<ref name=":1" />, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures<ref name=":1" />, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures and species range shifts, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming<ref name=":16" />, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate, and were consequently driven to extinction <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. A unique characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species<ref name=":1" />. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. This narrow tolerance range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.

British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature<ref name=":5" /> it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters more suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Tomiolo|first=S|last2=Ward|first2=D|date=2018|title=Species migrations and range shifts: A synthesis of causes and consequences|url=|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=33|pages=62-77|via=Science Direct}}</ref> The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=W|last2=Thomseon|first2=Mads|last3=Straub|first3=S|date=2016|title=The Dynamic Biogeography of the Anthropocene The Speed of Recent Range Shifts in Seaweeds|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_3|journal=Seaweed Phylogeography|volume=1|pages=66-93|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to expand their areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Quatino|first=ML|last2=Deregibus|first2=D|last3=Campana|first3=GL|last4=Latorre|first4=GEJ|last5=Momo|first5=FR|date=2013|title=Evidence of Macroalgal Colonization on Newly Ice-Free Areas following Glacial Retreat in Potter Cove (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica.|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058223|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|pages=|via=PLoS ONE}}</ref>.

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range <ref name=":6" />. This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=JJ|last2=Huang|first2=SH|last3=Liu|first3=ZY|last4=Bi|first4=YX|date=2020|title=Climate-Driven Range Shifts of Brown Seaweed Sargassum horneri in the Northwest Pacific|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.570881/full|journal=Frontiers in Marines Science Marine Evolutionary Biology, Biogeography and species diversity|volume=7|pages=|via=Frontiers in}}</ref>.

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time<ref name=":15" />.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 6. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2019|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure 7. Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure 8. Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T04:47:14Z

GracieConway: /* Latitudinal Vulnerability */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|561x561px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations<ref name=":1" />, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures<ref name=":1" />, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures and species range shifts, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming<ref name=":16" />, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate, and were consequently driven to extinction <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. A unique characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species<ref name=":1" />. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. This narrow tolerance range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.

British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature<ref name=":5" /> it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters more suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Tomiolo|first=S|last2=Ward|first2=D|date=2018|title=Species migrations and range shifts: A synthesis of causes and consequences|url=|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=33|pages=62-77|via=Science Direct}}</ref> The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=W|last2=Thomseon|first2=Mads|last3=Straub|first3=S|date=2016|title=The Dynamic Biogeography of the Anthropocene The Speed of Recent Range Shifts in Seaweeds|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7534-2_3|journal=Seaweed Phylogeography|volume=1|pages=66-93|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to expand their areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Quatino|first=ML|last2=Deregibus|first2=D|last3=Campana|first3=GL|last4=Latorre|first4=GEJ|last5=Momo|first5=FR|date=2013|title=Evidence of Macroalgal Colonization on Newly Ice-Free Areas following Glacial Retreat in Potter Cove (South Shetland Islands), Antarctica.|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0058223|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|pages=|via=PLoS ONE}}</ref>.

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range <ref name=":6" />. This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=JJ|last2=Huang|first2=SH|last3=Liu|first3=ZY|last4=Bi|first4=YX|date=2020|title=Climate-Driven Range Shifts of Brown Seaweed Sargassum horneri in the Northwest Pacific|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.570881/full|journal=Frontiers in Marines Science Marine Evolutionary Biology, Biogeography and species diversity|volume=7|pages=|via=Frontiers in}}</ref>.

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time<ref name=":15" />.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2019|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T04:26:40Z

GracieConway: /* References */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|561x561px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T04:12:57Z

GracieConway: /* Poleward Shifts */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|561x561px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Global surveys also showed this trend, with 75% of monitored species ranges shifting in the poleward direction<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sorte|first=Cascade|last2=Williams|first2=Susan|last3=Carlton|first3=James|date=April 9, 2010|title=Marine range shifts and species introductions: comparative spread rates and community impacts|url=https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00519.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=19|pages=303-316|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T04:01:43Z

GracieConway: /* Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|561x561px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==

==== Poleward Shifts ====
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures<ref name=":12" />, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T03:57:12Z

GracieConway: /* Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|382x382px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the excessive release of greenhouse gases over recent decades <ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hegerl. et al.|first=Gabriele|date=|title=Causes of climate change over historical record|url=https://iopscience-iop-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4557/pdf|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref>. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns and the industrial revolution<ref name=":15" />. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|561x561px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts<ref name=":6" />, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe<ref name=":12" />. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached<ref name=":1" />. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water<ref name=":0" />. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach<ref name=":6" />, forcing species to Northerly waters<ref name=":1" />, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring<ref name=":6" />. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits<ref name=":12" />.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T02:55:06Z

GracieConway: /* Areas effected by shifting species ranges */

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|400x400px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the release of greenhouse gases. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns, which began the industrial revolution. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|371x371px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue <ref name=":2" />. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water . High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach, forcing species to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T02:48:51Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|400x400px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hastings|first=Reuben|last2=Rutterford|first2=Lousie|last3=Freer|first3=Jennifer|last4=Collins|first4=Rupert|last5=Simpson|first5=Stephen|last6=Genner|first6=Martin|date=2020|title=Climate Change Drives Poleward Increases and Equatorward Declines in Marine Species|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.043.|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|pages=1572-1577|via=}}</ref>. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the release of greenhouse gases. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns, which began the industrial revolution. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|371x371px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue . That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water . High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach, forcing species to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T02:40:14Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==
[[File:Average shift in suitable habitat by 2100.jpg|left|thumb|400x400px|Figure 1. Shifts in suitable habitat for North American marine species, by region. Arrows indicate the average distance that the center of species’ suitable habitat shifted, not the actual locations.]]

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>, some which may follow the trends in Figure 1. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

==== Human actions responsible for shifting species ranges ====
The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the release of greenhouse gases. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns, which began the industrial revolution. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|371x371px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]

==== Areas effected by shifting species ranges ====
Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are few locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue . That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable as species physiological limits are reached. This means that species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water . High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerance thresholds approach, forcing species to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. Research done on the Northeast Continental shelf suggests that shelf ecosystems are experiencing warming at a faster rate than the global ocean, and consequently, are seeing large changes in species distributions to Northerly physiological limits.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal & Community Impacts ====
British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Other organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. British Columbian species such as pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), coho salmon (O. kisutch) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems<ref name=":1" /> .

Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions would help solve the issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing CO₂ emissions, and halting deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== De-synchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in determining smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. As mentioned above, warm-water species are displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />. This could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. The bladder wrack for example, cannot shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive bladder wrack numbers down and would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.
[[File:Extinction_vortex.png|left|thumb|453x453px|Figure (). Smaller populations are at risk of getting even smaller until extinction.]]

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed of integration into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events favouring a population over another. These effects would be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />. ⠀
[[File:Atlantic cod.jpg|center|thumb|400x400px|Figure (). Atlantic cod is one of the key commercial fishes on the watch for range shifts.]]
=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For instance, to follow the continued northward shift of Atlantic cod for colder spawning areas<ref name=":14" />. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-03-02T00:38:38Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==

==== What is a species range shift? ====
Species range shifts occur when there is a shift in distribution of a species beyond their previously recorded area of where it’s usually found during its lifetime. The issue is very pertinent to marine ecosystems because 85% of animal phyla are found in marine habitats and 45% are exclusively marine. For example, climate change has had an effect on the direction of shifts in latitude and depth of more than 300 species in North America alone<ref name=":6" />. The shifts in the abundances of some species or groups of species in certain areas are likely to result in “winners” and “losers”<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kleisner|first=K. M.|date=2017|title=Marine species distribution shifts on the U.S. northeast continental shelf under continued ocean warming|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=153|pages=24-36|via=}}</ref>. Winners being able to remain stable or grow in abundance while expanding their distribution while losers face drops in population and distribution<ref name=":12" />. It is a complex problem with many things at play including, but not limited, to climate change, species interactions and fishing patterns<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" />.

· What human actions cause the problem?

The issue of shifting species ranges is a one that lives in tandem with that of climate change. Their close linkage means they share a common set of human causes, primarily surrounding the release of greenhouse gases. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels<ref name=":6" />, resulting from increases in consumption patterns, which began the industrial revolution. [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|371x371px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]· Where does the problem occur?

Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are no locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable, and species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerances of these species are reached, forcing them to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. It is also likely that coastal ecosystems will see more immediate impacts from this issue of shifting species ranges, as compared to species living in paleagic ecosystems of shifting species ranges. This distinction is due to the reliance of many coastal species on benthic habitats, in which they have evolved a deeply linked relationship. This heavy reliance of coastal species on their benthic habitats means that their Northerly movement is more challenging that species with lower levels of dependence on benthic habitat.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus).jpg|thumb|350x350px|
Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') top-left where it is home to many marine organisms and under the affect of rapid ocean warming.
]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization in species composition could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. For example, the Atlantic cod projected to move northwards for colder spawning areas. However, fisheries are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|last2=Watson|first2=R.|last3=Pauly|first3=D.|date=2013|title=Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch|url=|journal=Nature (London)|volume=497(7449)|pages=365-368|via=}}</ref>. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but needing to find, or even possibly create a new market for a new commercial fish species adds another layer to the situation. It could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-28T19:59:25Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

Since warming ocean temperatures due to human caused climate change are driving these shifting species ranges, the human actions that have lead to this ecological issue, are those responsible for the increasing atmospheric carbon concentrations currently being seen. As is wildly discussed, current climate instability is a result of increased atmospheric carbon concentrations due to the excessive burning of fossil fuels, resulting from increases in consumption patterns, beginning after the industrail revolution [[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|alt=Map of global ocean surface temperatures.|frame|371x371px|
Map displaying global ocean surface temperature gradients, showing gradual shift from warm equatorial waters (orange) at low latitudes to cold polar waters (purple) located at high latitudes.
]]· Where does the problem occur?

Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are no locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable, and species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerances of these species are reached, forcing them to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. It is also likely that coastal ecosystems will see more immediate impacts from this issue of shifting species ranges, as compared to species living in paleagic ecosystems of shifting species ranges. This distinction is due to the reliance of many coastal species on benthic habitats, in which they have evolved a deeply linked relationship. This heavy reliance of coastal species on their benthic habitats means that their Northerly movement is more challenging that species with lower levels of dependence on benthic habitat.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-28T19:03:56Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

Overwhelming evidence of human

· Where does the problem occur?

Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are no locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable, and species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerances of these species are reached, forcing them to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. It is also likely that coastal ecosystems will see more immediate impacts from this issue of shifting species ranges, as compared to species living in paleagic ecosystems of shifting species ranges. This distinction is due to the reliance of many coastal species on benthic habitats, in which they have evolved a deeply linked relationship. This heavy reliance of coastal species on their benthic habitats means that their Northerly movement is more challenging that species with lower levels of dependence on benthic habitat.
[[File:SurfaceTemperature.jpg|thumb]]

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-28T19:01:39Z

GracieConway: /* What is the problem? */

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

Overwhelming evidence of human

· Where does the problem occur?

Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are no locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable, and species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerances of these species are reached, forcing them to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. It is also likely that coastal ecosystems will see more immediate impacts from this issue of shifting species ranges, as compared to species living in paleagic ecosystems of shifting species ranges. This distinction is due to the reliance of many coastal species on benthic habitats, in which they have evolved a deeply linked relationship. This heavy reliance of coastal species on their benthic habitats means that their Northerly movement is more challenging that species with lower levels of dependence on benthic habitat.

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

File:Global Ocean Warming.jpg

2021-02-28T18:57:35Z

GracieConway: User created page with UploadWizard

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Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-28T18:14:23Z

GracieConway: /* What is the problem? */

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

· Where does the problem occur?

Given the global extent of shifting climatic conditions, which are driving species range shifts, there are no locations on earth that will be exempt from this pervasive issue. That being said, the impacts and their severities will not be evenly distributed across the globe. As ocean temperatures warm, the world's warmest waters, located at low latitudes, will gradually become uninhabitable, and species living in these equatorial ecosystems will be forced to lower latitudes in search of colder water. High latitude, cold water regions will also suffer greatly from shifting species ranges, both directly - as thermal tolerances of these species are reached, forcing them to Northerly waters, and indirectly - as tropical species move into these cold water regions and create new competition, leading to community re-structuring. It is also likely that species living in coastal areas will have more significant

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-26T22:37:25Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

· Where does the problem occur?

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of these species approach. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that fish species circumvent living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance <ref name=":1" />. The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species <ref name=":1" />. This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into British Columbia’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-26T22:32:31Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

· Where does the problem occur?

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|242x242px|
Fig. 1 The Pacific Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|262x262px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan, invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, resulting in competition with British Columbia's native Pacific Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Organismal Impacts ====
Organisms seeing the greatest impacts of shifting species ranges are those best suited to live in cold water. Species such as pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), chum salmon (''O. keta''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and capelin (''Mallotus villosus'') are some of these cold-water species being most heavily impacted within BC’s marine ecosystems <ref name=":1" />.

==== Cold-Water Species Vulnerability ====
Cold water species are being most heavily impacted by shifting species ranges because as ocean temperatures increase, the upper thermal tolerances of many of these species are growing nearer. In tandem with this, is the observed pattern that “wild fish avoid living in habitats at the edge of their temperature tolerance” (Cheung et al., 2014). The infringement of ocean temperatures on thermal limits of cold-water species will likely lead to higher mortality rates and lower levels of reproductive success, or their re-location to colder water. A unique Characteristic that makes cold-water species particularly vulnerable to shifting species ranges is their narrower temperature preference range relative to warm water species (Cheung et al., 2014). This narrow range makes cold-water species more sensitive to ocean warming, giving them a selective disadvantage against the many warm-water species moving upwards into BC’s marine ecosystems. Additionally, the reality that increasing global temperatures are making cold water areas less abundant, means that cold-water species have a significantly smaller range of area that could support their relocation.
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

2021-02-26T22:20:54Z

GracieConway:

== What is the problem? ==

· Clearly identify what the problem is

· What human actions cause the problem?

· Where does the problem occur?

· How pervasive is the problem?

== Ecosystem Impacts in British Columbia ==
The poleward shift of marine fish and invertebrate ranges occurring in British Columbia’s marine systems, due to increasing ocean temperatures, are influencing these ecosystems through their reorganization of species assemblages and consequent shifts in species interactions <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Meyer-Gutbrod|first=E|last2=Greene|first2=C|date=2018|title=Marine species range shifts necessitate advanced policy planning: the case of the North Atlantic right whale|url=doi:10.5670/oceanog.2018.209|journal=Oceanography|volume=31 (2)|pages=|via=}}</ref>. These observed distribution shifts are driven by the relationship between species physiology, reproduction, and dispersal to temperature and patterns of ocean current <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L.|last2=Lam|first2=V.W.Y|last3=Sarmineto|first3=J.L.|last4=Kearney|first4=K.|last5=Watson|first5=R.|last6=Pauly|first6=D.|date=2009|title=Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios|url=|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=10|pages=235-251|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:FMIB 34798 Shell of Paphya staminea, the 'Little Neck Clam,' from Yaquina Bay.jpeg|frame|260x260px|
Fig. 1 The Little Neck Clam (''Leukoma staminea),'' an important species in Coastal British Columbia's marine ecosystems.
]]
[[File:Venerupis philippinarum.jpg|frame|269x269px|Fig. 2 Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum), native to Japan and invasive in British Columbian waters and showing Northward movement, creating competition with British Columbia's native Little Neck Clam.]]

==== Latitudinal Vulnerability ====
An important quality making British Columbian marine ecosystems particularly vulnerable to the impacts of species range shifts is its high latitude. Given the pattern of shifting species ranges to Northerly locations, an increased dominance of warmer-water species is being observed <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kurihara|first=T.|last2=Takami|first2=H|last3=Kosuge|first3=T.|last4=Chiba|first4=S|last5=Iseda|first5=M|last6=Sasaki|first6=T|date=2011|title=Area-specific temporal changes of species composition and species-specific range shifts in rocky-shore mollusks associated with warming Kuroshio current|url=doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1717-4|journal=Marine Biology|volume=158(9)|pages=2095-2107|via=UBC Summon}}</ref>. This shift in dominance is driven by the high tolerance of low latitude species to warm water temperatures, which favor their growth and trigger an acceleration in their reproductive success, allowing for their continued Northerly movement and domination <ref name=":1" />. Studies have observed this trend of increasing warm-water species dominance in invertebrate populations in the Northeast Pacific, and mollusk populations in the Northwest Pacific <ref name=":2" />.

British Columbia’s coastal ecosystems have seen the impact of shifting dominance of warm water species, through alterations of the natural trophic order, and consequent shifts in community structure <ref name=":1" />. An example of this has been observed with Manila Clams (''Venerupis philippinarum''), originally from Japan, whose Northerly population expansion in British Columbian Waters<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=|date=2012|title=Canada's state of the oceans report|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/publications/soto-rceo/2012/page06-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=Fisheries and Oceans Canada}}</ref>, has led to its competition with native species such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam (''Leukoma staminea)'' <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bendell|first=L.I.|date=2014|title=Evidence for declines in the native Leukoma staminea as a result of the international introduction of the non-native venerupis philippinarum in coastal British Columbia, Canada|url=10.1007/s12237-013-9677-1|journal=Estuaries and Coasts|volume=37|pages=369-380|via=}}</ref>. It is highly likely that the increasing domination of the Manila Clam in British Columbia's warming waters, is tied to the low latitude of its origin (Japan, 32° N)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maps of World|first=|date=2020|title=Japan Latitude and Longitude Map|url=https://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/japan-lat-long.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=mapsofworld.com}}</ref>, and its consequent tolerance to warmer ocean temperatures. The competitive impacts of warmer water species such as the Manila Clam, aren't restricted to the species with which they directly compete with, such as the Pacific Littleneck Clam, but they also influence all predator, prey relationships within that system. A decline in Pacific Littleneck Clam populations, for example, would likely influence their many natural predators, such as: leafy hornmouth snails (''Ceratostoma foliatum),'' moon snails (''Euspira lewisii),'' Octopus (''Enteroctopus dofleini)'', sea otters and crabs (''Metacarcinus magister'' and ''Cancer productus)'' <ref>{{Cite web|last=Dave|first=Cowles|date=2007|title=Leukoma staminea|url=https://inverts.wallawalla.edu/Mollusca/Bivalvia/Veneroida/Veneridae/Protothaca_staminea.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=02/25/2021|website=}}</ref>. This example communicates the wide ecosystem re-organization resulting from expanding ranges of species, due to warming ocean temperatures.

This idea of increased vulnerability of high latitude species and ecosystems, to warming ocean temperatures, is supported by extinction data recorded during end-Permian warming, which showed disproportionate extinction rates among high-latitude taxa, indicating that these species ran out of space possessing a habitable climate <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Penn|first=JL|last2=Deutsch|first2=C|last3=Payne|first3=JL|last4=Sperling|first4=EA|date=2018|title=Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction|url=|journal=Science|volume=362|pages=1327|via=}}</ref>.

==== Coastal Vulnerability ====
* How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

· Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

· What organisms does it impact?

· How and why does it impact this organism/s?

· Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
==== What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred? ====
There are many examples of species range shifts that have occurred as a result of changes in climate. In an annual review of relevant literature by, (Pinsky et al. 2019), it was shown by many studies that various species saw an increase in their ranges poleward compared to their historical ranges. The review touched upon three different species from three separate studies which all concluded that these species had experienced an increase in their Latitudinal range. This study found that across those three species, American Lobster, Humboldt Squid and the cushion star, their ranges almost always moved into cooler waters mor suitable for them. These changes have been associated to warming ocean temperatures and organismal responses to them by seeking out more favorable thermal environments(Pinsky et al. 2019).
[[File:Fmars-07-570881-g002.jpg|thumb|Fig 2. Predicted changes in two in the suitable habitat for the kelp species ''Sargassum horneri'' in the East and South China sea over time for two standardized climate scenarios. ]]

==== What is the present status compared to the past? ====
While there are currently more efforts to combat species range shifts across both marine and terrestrial environments across the world. Progress is being made on some fronts, that being reintroduction of species to native environments, and elimination of invasive species, but there are still large-scale environmental changes, ie. Global warming, ocean acidification, and human factors, which means this is a pervasive and growing problem as was described in a study that reviewed species range shifts from across the world. (Tomiolo Ward, 2018). The general conclusion from this study is that compared to the past species ranges' are shifting at a more aggressive rate and this is mostly due to anthropogenic factors, specifically in regards to climate.

One example of a group of organisms currently going through a range shift are kelps and the larger species of brown algae. Compared to historical data there is an increase in the speed of brown algal, specifically kelp, range shifts (Wernberg et al. 2016). This can be a devastating range shift for some ecosystems since many kelps are keystone species and are required for many types of ecosystems to exist. It is important to note however that this also includes the introduction of kelp species into new habitats as their ranges expand poleward. For example, certain kelp species have begun to colonize new areas in the Antarctic, as warming temperatures and the melting of Sea Ice lead to new suitable habitat for kelps in the region (Quartino et al. 2013).

==== What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory? ====
There are a few measurable changes in species range shifts that are projected to occur along the current trajectory. One such example is the changing distribution of pelagic fish species. One study that analyzed this examined 28 species of pelagic fish native to the West Coast of British Columbia, and their latitudinal range (Cheung et al. 2015.). This study found that the general range of these species was shifting north at an average rate of 30.1 ± 2.34 (S.E.) km decade-1. This is a measurement of the center of species distribution and its shift northwards over time, which is an example of species range shift. In this study this measurement is based off a model of predicted ocean conditions as the climate changes over time. Studies have found a similar trend of poleward range shifts in Algae as well. A study done on algae in China predicted the changes in the habitable zone for a species of brown algae over time if the changes in ocean temperature seen now carry on (Li et al. 2020).

Overall, the current prognosis should this problem persist based on the research done by (Tomiolo Ward, 2018) is that without major intervention in the mitigation of anthropogenic factors such as overfishing and climate change, species range shifts will only become more aggressive over time.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==

=== Global scale solutions ===
Climate change is the main driver in species range shifts, so some suggest reducing greenhouse gas emissions to solve this issue<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=A. E|date=2019|title=Climate resilience in marine protected areas and the ‘Protection paradox’|url=|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=236|pages=305-314|via=}}</ref>. Switching to clean energy resources, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and halting of deforestation are all steps the world should be taking to reduce emissions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bruno|first=J.F.|date=2018|title=Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas|url=|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=8(6)|pages=499-503|via=}}</ref>. However according to IPCC projections, given the current state, even if humans stopped all emissions immediately, global temperatures would still increase until reaching an equilibrium with the new gas concentrations centuries later because of the long lifetimes of greenhouse gases and the ocean’s ability to absorb heat<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change FAQ|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2020/05/WGI_AR5_FAQ_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>. Additional studies bring up land use as something equally influential in latitudinal and elevational range shifts, hence studies should be less focused on climate change only<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Sirami|first=C.|date=2017|title=Impacts of global change on species distributions: Obstacles and solutions to integrate climate and land use|url=|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=26(4)|pages=385-394|via=}}</ref>. Habitat connectivity and landscapes affect whether species can shift their range, so removing any anthropogenic barriers in the way of species distribution and changing our land use should be investigated<ref name=":4" />.

=== Local scale solutions ===

==== Desynchronization ====
[[File:Bladder wrack on beach of Baltic Sea.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') on beach of Baltic Sea.]]
Using models to predict species range shifts and conducting more research on species interactions are important in order to determine smaller scale solutions<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M|last2=Selden|first2=R. L.|last3=Kitchel|first3=Z. J.|date=2020|title=Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: Scaling from organisms to communities|url=|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science|volume=12(1)|pages=153-179|via=}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />. Cold-water species have a smaller range of temperatures that they can survive in compared to species that can live in warmer waters<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cheung|first=W.W.L|date=2015|title=Projecting future changes in distributions of pelagic fish species of northeast pacific shelf seas|url=|journal=Progress in Oceanography|volume=130|pages=19-31|via=}}</ref>. This can lead to warm-water species displacing or replacing cold-water species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pessarrodona|first=A.|date=2019|title=Can ecosystem functioning be maintained despite climate‐driven shifts in species composition? insights from novel marine forests|url=|journal=The Journal of Ecology|volume=107(1)|pages=91-104|via=}}</ref>. In addition, highly mobile species such as pelagic fish are observed to be shifting poleward<ref name=":6" />, and this could result in a de-synchronization in species composition because the sessile organisms cannot displace themselves to a more favourable area<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Reusch|first=T. B. H.|date=2014|title=Climate change in the oceans: Evolutionary versus phenotypically plastic responses of marine animals and plants|url=|journal=Evolutionary Applications|volume=7(1)|pages=104-122|via=}}</ref>. For example, the bladder wrack (''fucus vesiculosus'') cannot displace and shift its range fast enough to escape the rapid warming in the Baltic Sea. This combined with habitat fragmentation and eutrophication would drive Bladder wrack numbers down and it would endanger organisms such as fish, other algae, and many invertebrates that rely on the canopy-forming seaweed for habitat<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Jonnson|first=P|date=2018|title=High climate velocity and population fragmentation may constrain climate-driven range shift of the key habitat former Fucus vesiculosus|url=|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=24(7/8)|pages=892-905|via=JSTOR}}</ref>'''.''' By predicting the possible species compositions using models, research could be done on the interactions between them to identify geographic priorities where desynchronization could be an urgent issue under global climate change<ref name=":5" />.

==== Genetic variation ====
Species that cannot shift their biological range at the pace of the changing environment must persist in the new environmental conditions or perish<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Pauls|first=S. U|date=2013|title=The impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species|url=|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=22(4)|pages=925-946|via=}}</ref><ref name=":7" />. From a local perspective, increasing the genetic variation and the speed at which it is integrated into the species would be crucial<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Wernberg|first=T|date=2019|title=Status and Trends for the World’s Kelp Forests|url=|journal=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation|volume=|pages=57-78|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8" />. This has been considered by introducing greater genetic variation through individuals from better adapted populations to the given conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Somero|first=G. N|date=2010|title=The physiology of climate change: How potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'|url=|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=213(6)|pages=912-920|via=}}</ref>. For example, seeding kelps in areas of dwindling kelp populations such as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence<ref name=":10" />. Another solution is to increase the habitat to increase population size. This would lessen the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding depression and environmental random chance events that could favour a population over another would otherwise be fatal to small populations (Figure 1) or partial populations moving into a new habitat<ref name=":9" />.

=== Fisheries ===
From a human-centric view, fisheries now need to move their fishing areas mostly poleward to follow the movement of species<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Pinsky|first=M. L|last2=Fogarty|first2=M.|date=2012|title=Lagged social-ecological responses to climate and range shifts in fisheries|url=|journal=Climatic Change|volume=115(3-4)|pages=883-891|via=}}</ref>. However, some are experiencing lag in responses or they cannot move as quickly as the species ranges are shifting. To solve this issue some fisheries are expanding or changing the list of species they are fishing for<ref name=":11" />. Doing so could prolong the existence of a fishery and allow them to transition to a new species, but it could also run the risk of overfishing the population if it is done without considering what competing companies are fishing<ref name=":11" />.

== References ==
<references responsive="0" />
#

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

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GracieConway: Reference list development

Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

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Course:EOSC270/2021/Shifting Species Ranges in Marine Ecosystems: Drivers, Status and Implications

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GracieConway: Created page with " == What is the problem? == · Clearly identify what the problem is · What human actions cause the problem? · Where does the problem occur? · ..."

File:Proportion of Species Movement to Cooler, Warmer and Similar Water Temperatures.png

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=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Blue bars show species moving to cooler water (following current and expected warming trends), pink bars show species moving to warmer waters, and grey bars represent species that have not moved in response to temperature change.}}
|date=2021-02-25
|source=Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2020.12:153-179. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
|author=Access provided by the University of British Columbia.
|permission=
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=={{int:license-header}}==
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[[Category:Climate Change]]
[[Category:Species Ranges]]
[[Category:Marine Ecosystems]]

Course:CONS200/2020/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

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GracieConway:

Add your introduction here<ref>Sample Reference</ref>, covering general background information about the topic (e.g. location, duration).

== Nature of the issue or problem ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
Include the scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of negative impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue.

== Current remedial action(s) ==
A description of the solutions or efforts that are currently underway to tackle the issue or problem.

== Options for future remedial action(s) ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Conclusion ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references />

{{Projectbox CONS200|names=|share=yes}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2020/Indigenous Amazonian agroforestry

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GracieConway: Added name, to create page

Gracie Conway

Add your introduction here<ref>Sample Reference</ref>, covering general background information about the topic (e.g. location, duration).

== Nature of the issue or problem ==
[[File:Crepuscular_Rays_in_GGP.jpg|right|thumb|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
Include the scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of negative impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue.

== Current remedial action(s) ==
A description of the solutions or efforts that are currently underway to tackle the issue or problem.

== Options for future remedial action(s) ==
An evaluation of solutions from technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations). If relevant, add any policy recommendations.

== Conclusion ==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic, and if possible, state a policy or other type of recommendation.

== References ==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references />

{{Projectbox CONS200|names=|share=yes}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

User:GracieConway

2021-01-14T21:11:43Z

GracieConway:

[[File:Diving - Seychelles 2019.jpg|thumb|Invertebrate Surveying, Seychelles 2019 ]]
I am an undergraduate student at the University of British Columbia in the Faculty of Forestry, studying Natural Resource Conservation. Though my studies focus primarily on plant biology and forest systems, my participation in several marine conservation efforts in Greece and the Seychelles have provided me foundations in marine conservation. I am a passionate environmentalist, actively advocating for climate action through collective organizing with groups such as [https://xrvancouver.ca/ Extinction Rebellion]. My recent work at the [https://discovery-centre.ca/ Kootenay Columbia Discovery Center] as a wetland naturalist, introduced me to working with public and planet to build connections that prioritize sustainability. In my free time I love to listen to music and watch the world.

== Projects ==
* Organizer with Extinction Rebellion UBC<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Extinction Rebellion Vancouver|url=https://xrvancouver.ca/?fbclid=IwAR0mE6sKgozmPBNhTFrztVor_e8ieuE1JPKY8XcuNk4C1K36HLqZYKO2qXE|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
* President of UBC Hoop and Flow Club
<references />