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Documentation:Tipping Point – ChatGPT and Assessment

2026-08-05T17:14:36Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Recommendations */

== Introduction ==
Like many tools before it, the introduction of publicly available Generative Artificial Intelligence models incited panic, outrage, and reflection in the world of education. It forced many educators to revaluate their assessment methods to account for a tool that can fluently provide an answer to any question, generate written material on any subject, and do so with such convincing quality that it is indiscernible from human output.

This revaluation was particularly evident in higher education, where term papers and take-home assignments are commonplace. Teachers throughout the world were abruptly forced to grapple with a tool that completely upended their current assessment approach, as it rendered academic integrity essentially unenforceable. Thus, this case study delves into the introduction of Chat-GPT and its characteristics as a “tipping point” in higher education assessment practices. We will provide an explanation of the tool’s functionality and capability, an analysis of educators’ response to its release, and a discussion of the future implications its existence will hold.

== Background ==

=== Purpose of Assessment ===
There are multiple purposes for assessment. One is to collect data from students to improve their learning and development. The second is to demonstrate that graduates have developed skills valuable to society. The third is to maintain quality and standards in university teaching (Brown & Knight, 1998). Therefore, preventing academic misconduct during the assessment process is important in order to maintain the integrity of the University and the equity of assessment as a whole.

=== Chat-GPT ===
Machine Learning (ML) and its wider umbrella, Artificial Intelligence (AI), are not new concepts, and have been leveraged extensively for technical and scientific purposes since the birth of computing (Samuel, 1959). The recent, intense acceleration that can be observed in the field of AI can be traced to a 2017 paper, published by researchers at Google, titled “Attention is All You Need” (Vaswani et al., 2017). This research outlined a novel approach to machine learning called transformers. At its core, the transformer concept allows machines to perform Natural Language Processing much more accurately and efficiently.

OpenAI leveraged transformers to develop their Large Language Model (LLM), Generative Pre-trained transformer, or GPT. Through unsupervised training, GPT is fed immense amounts of text data scraped off of the internet, allowing it to learn a variety of language patterns, facts, and writing styles (Brown et al., 2020). OpenAI’s work was recognized for its novel capabilities, but it remained predominantly sequestered to the tech community, as accessing the models required moderate technical knowledge.

It wasn’t until November 2022, when OpenAI released ChatGPT for free, that the wider world had the opportunity to try interacting with an LLM themselves (Kassorla, 2023). The program’s accessibility, coupled with its ability to generate original text based on any user prompt, launched it to the forefront of the zeitgeist. Its applications were extensive, and both educators and students were quick to realize its potential use and misuse in the context of assessment.

=== Factors Contributing to Student Academic Misconduct ===
So why do students perform academic misconduct? There are several reasons, Choo and Tan (2008) has suggested that the three major factors that can increase students’ academic misconduct are pressure, opportunity, and rationalization. The introduction of AI technologies, such as ChatGPT, significantly affects both opportunity and rationalization, two of the major factors identified by Choo and Tan (2008) that contribute to academic misconduct.

Texts that are outputted by AI such as ChatGPT are hard to be detected by humans (Perkins, 2023). Even with AI detector tools, the tools have a high number of false positives, and their results are very inconsistent, depending on the content of the AI-generated text (Dalalah & Dalalah, 2023). Due to this, it gives opportunities for students to commit academic misconduct, as it is less likely to be caught.

A lack of clarity in AI policies may also contribute to rationalization. When AI policy is ambiguous, it can provide a pretext for students to engage in academic misconduct. For example, if AI utilization is not explicitly forbidden, students might consider it acceptable to have an AI compose an essay for an assignment.

== The Tipping Point ==
The introduction of ChatGPT caused a marked disruption to higher education, particularly assessment and academic integrity. Kassorla (2023) presents an in-depth personal account of the tipping-point that occurred in assessment following the public release of ChatGPT, from the perspective of an English professor at a university. Kassorla’s anecdotes are poignant, and illustrate the air of uncertainty which permeated higher education proceeding ChatGPT’s release:<blockquote>“I remember grading final essays in our last week of classes at Georgia State and noticing that my non-native speakers were suddenly fluent, my basic writers were capable of beautiful phrasing, and my competent writers did not make even the smallest grammatical error.”</blockquote>On November 30th, 2022, ChatGPT was made publicly and freely accessible via an intuitive web-interface. Its transformer-based architecture, trained on 45TB of compressed text scraped from the internet, provided users with the ability to engage in seamless dialogue with the tool (Brown et. al, 2020). Users simply had to create an account before they could immediately begin prompting ChatGPT to generate any form of text for them, be it a recipe, a poem, a joke, or even an entire essay. With these seemingly endless capabilities suddenly available to every student in the world, there is no doubt that some immediately began plagiarizing directly from ChatGPT (CBC, 2023).

Immediately, the mere existence of the tool caused a sense of doubt and distrust to seep into assessors’ perspectives (Kassorla, 2023). Given the tool’s ability to generate novel text indiscernible from original human writing, every take-home assignment was now a potential artifact of machine-driven academic misconduct. Traditional methods of plagiarism detection were now ineffective, as ChatGPTs ability to dynamically generate novel text content made it impossible for tools to compare the text to previous works (Perkins, 2023).

New detection tools emerged, with the aim to automatically identify text produced by ChatGPT. Though these tools provided some utility, they generally could not exceed 80% accuracy (Habibzadeh, 2023). This margin for error significantly reduced their effectiveness in pursuing the maintenance of academic integrity in assessment, as accusations of misconduct are extremely serious and difficult to make without clear proof (Klein, 2023). The very nature of these detectors and ChatGPT is that it is an ever-moving target – ChatGPT is continually improving and refining, and the better it becomes at generating human-like text, the more difficult it is for it to be detected.

== Recommendations ==
Although the introduction of ChatGPT has disrupted the way traditional assessment works, it gave an opportunity for educators to introduce innovative assessment strategies (Rudolph et al., 2023) There are several solutions that one can take when creating assessments:

* '''Ask students to engage with current affairs or events''': Generative AI, such as ChatGPT, relies on the content with which it has been pre-trained (Perkins, 2023). Thus, generative AI is unable to answer questions related to recent events. For instance, when I asked ChatGPT-4 on March 10, 2024, using the prompt, “What is the latest date up to which you can provide information on events?” I received a response saying, “The latest date up to which I can provide information on events is April 2023” (ChatGPT, 2024). Therefore, one strategy could involve asking students to engage with current affairs or events through assessments. An example of this could be writing a reflection on a current news event. Such assessments can also offer opportunities for students to reflect and think critically about their relationship with current affairs. (Kingsbury, 2021).
** '''Note:''' Since AI can now read and search academic articles, this recommendation may become obsolete.
* '''Assessment that requires personal opinion or experience''': This is a tip suggested by Kassorla (2023). Another approach is to create an assessment that requires personal opinion or experience. AI tools such as ChatGPT are dependent on data that are pre-trained, thus the tool is unable to generate the response (Perkins, 2023).
* '''Proctored environment for assessment''': One approach is to create a proctored environment to prevent students from using AI during assessments. However, a proctored environment can stress students, which Choo and Tan (2008) identified as one of the triangulation factors increasing the likelihood of academic misconduct. Therefore, educators must be cautious when deciding to proctor an assessment. For fully online courses, proctored online assessments can pose accessibility challenges for students, such as differences in time zones and limitations in computer bandwidth.
* '''Communicate with students regarding AI and Academic Integrity policy''': The definition of academic integrity can be very broad, making it challenging to draw a line between academic misconduct and the legitimate use of AI (Perkins, 2023). Therefore, it is best to communicate with students beforehand on what the guidelines of using AI tools are, what is permitted and not permitted in the assignment.

== Conclusion ==
The introduction of AI has significantly disrupted traditional assessment methods in higher education, raising many questions about the maintenance of academic integrity. There are multiple strategies educators can try, such as focusing on current events, personal experiences, and proctored environments, while emphasizing clear communication about AI use.

Like the introduction of the calculator or Wikipedia, ChatGPT represents a major disruption to traditional assessment approaches and highlights the need for ongoing adaptation in educational practices. Naturally, many educators will resist this “tipping point”, viewing it as a poisoning of the learning and assessment process, if not outright diminishing critical thinking skills (Choi et al., 2023). Others will adapt their assessment methods to account for this new technology, and many will inevitably leverage the tool to improve their assessments directly. Though this tipping point occurred very recently, its impact reverberated worldwide, and will continue to be felt as the technology quickly improves, and educators adjust to its capabilities.

== References ==
Brown, S., & Knight, P. (1998). Assessing Learners in Higher Education. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203062036

Brown, T. B., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., Agarwal, S., Herbert-Voss, A., Krueger, G., Henighan, T., Child, R., Ramesh, A., Ziegler, D. M., Wu, J., Winter, C., … Amodei, D. (2020). Language Models are Few-Shot Learners (arXiv:2005.14165). arXiv. http://arxiv.org/abs/2005.14165

Choo, F., & Tan, K. (2008). The effect of fraud triangle factors on students’ cheating behaviors. In B. N. Schwartz & A. H. Catanach (Eds.), Advances in Accounting Education (Vol. 9, pp. 205–220). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1085-4622(08)09009-3

Cotton, D. R. E., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2024). Chatting and cheating: Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 61(2), 228–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2023.2190148

Dalalah, D., & Dalalah, O. M. A. (2023). The false positives and false negatives of generative AI detection tools in education and academic research: The case of ChatGPT. The International Journal of Management Education, 21(2), 100822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100822

Habibzadeh, F. (2023). GPTZero Performance in Identifying Artificial Intelligence-Generated Medical Texts: A Preliminary Study. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 38(38), e319. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2023.38.e319

Hristova, B. (2023, February 2). Some students are using ChatGPT to cheat—Here’s how schools are trying to stop it | CBC News. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/chatgpt-school-cheating-1.6734580

Kassorla, M. (2023, December 14). Teaching with GAI in Mind. EDUCAUSE Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2023/12/teaching-with-gai-in-mind

Kingsbury, M. A. (2021). The Pedagogy and Benefits of Using Current Affairs Journals in Introductory International Relations Classes. Journal of Political Science Education, 17(4), 614–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2019.1660986

Klein, A. (2023). ChatGPT Cheating: What to Do When It Happens: Education Week. Education Week, 42(25), 12–13.

OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (Mar 17 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

Perkins, M. (2023). Academic Integrity considerations of AI Large Language Models in the post-pandemic era: ChatGPT and beyond. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.53761/1.20.02.07

Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S. (2023). ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education? Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.9

Samuel, A. L. (1959). Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 3(3), 210–229. https://doi.org/10.1147/rd.33.0210

Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, L., & Polosukhin, I. (2023). Attention Is All You Need (arXiv:1706.03762). arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1706.03762

== License ==
Tipping Point – ChatGPT and Assessment by Rie Namba and Duncan Hamilton is licensed under CC BY 4.0
{{Cc-by-4.0}}
[[Category:MET]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Educational Technology]]

Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Case Studies for Student Teachers/Questionable Comments for NITEP Student Teachers

2026-07-23T21:43:57Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== Theme ==
<blockquote>
When used appropriately, social media can be a source of connection and community for teachers</blockquote>
<div style="border:5px #7DBBFA solid; padding:25px; margin:25px; margin-left: 50px ; margin-right: 50px;
-moz-border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em; border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em;
background-color: #CBE1F7;
-moz-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
width:45%;
font-size:1.0em;
"> <center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>
In groups of 3-4:

1. Read the case study and consider your response to the personal reflection question as you read.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>

== Personal Reflection ==
'''While reading the case study, consider your personal response to the following question:'''

''How would I respond to seeing a fellow teacher or teacher candidate make comments you disagree with on social media?''

== Case Study ==
[[File:Texting-1490691_1920.jpg|link=|alt=someone texting - hand on a cell phone|right|440x440px]]
Before embarking on their educational placements, a cohort of NITEP teacher candidates established a Group Chat on Facebook. They aimed to communicate their daily experiences as student teachers, along with aspects of their personal lives. They chose Facebook rather than posting on a public social media platform.
These teacher candidates were drawn to Facebook because they were familiar with it and could make a private group. They were committed to using this platform responsibly, agreeing not to send inappropriate messages about one another or share any photos or videos deemed unsuitable without permission, especially those involving partying.

As the candidates began their placements, the Facebook Group Chat served as a forum for sharing daily updates on their student lives, discussing their educational experiences, and coordinating meetings and social gatherings. However, as the practicum progressed, some of the candidates found themselves stressed and frustrated. This dissatisfaction began to show up in their conversations, and included complaints about their mentor teachers and administrators and students. The Group Chat evolved into a space to vent and express these feelings.

Joseph, a teacher candidate, began to feel unsupported by his mentor teacher; feeling that he was not receiving enough opportunities to discuss his practicum experiences. He also felt that he was being assigned tasks, such as grading, that he was unprepared for. His frustration spilled over into the Group Chat, where he posted comments like “Another day of don’t know why I’m here” and “Free labour – when your mentor asks you to do her job. I wish I could have an assistant to take up ALL my marking load in the future too.” One day, he shared photos of students’ incorrect answers, commenting, “How these kids perform reflects how their teacher teaches.”

Tina, another candidate in the group, sympathized with Joseph's feelings of frustration but found his comments troubling. She considered them to be unprofessional. Though she did not want to betray the trust of her fellow candidates, especially Joseph, she felt uneasy with the possibility that her silence might be seen as agreement. Her association with the group messages placed her in a difficult position; she was torn between the urge to report the issue to their practicum advisor and the desire to support and protect her colleagues, all while maintaining a sense of professionalism and integrity within the group.
== Discussion Questions ==

'''1. Are Joseph's messages on the Facebook Group Chat a violation of social media policies and/or the Teacher Education Office’s program or practicum guidelines? Can comments like these be grounds for discipline? Who could be impacted by Joseph 's messages?'''

''Alternative Questions: Do you consider Joseph’s posts inappropriate? Why or why not? What could be the impact of Joseph’s messages?''

Consider these resources as you answer:

* UBC Teacher Education Office: [https://teach.educ.ubc.ca/students/policies-and-guides/practicum/ Program Practicum Guidelines]
** Refer to "Professional Conduct" on the second tab. Click "Teacher Candidates,"
* Delta School District: [https://district.public.deltasd.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/07/1196__Procedure146.pdf Social Media Procedure] ***
* Regina Public Schools (SK): [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1lPzNimxhWyE94xwP6cKxKzms_YINKWuw/view Online Communication and Interaction/Social Media] ***
** Read guidelines 1 through 4.4.

<nowiki>*</nowiki>Focus on the two resources with *** for discussion

'''2. What would you do in Tina's situation? Is it reasonable for her to consider sharing the messages she deems inappropriate? What should she consider when making a decision?'''

Consider these resources as you answer:

* British Columbia Teachers' Federation: [https://bctf.ca/ProfessionalResponsibility.aspx?id=4292 BCTF Code of Ethics] ***
* BC Teacher Regulation Branch: [https://teacherregulation.gov.bc.ca/documents/FormsandPublications/ProfConduct/DisciplineOutcomes/SASTRY_CRA_20160623.pdf Consent Resolution Agreement: Sastry]
** Read "Background and Facts" on pages 1-2.

<nowiki>*</nowiki>Focus on the resource with *** for discussion

'''3. To what extent can teachers expect privacy when communicating digitally? Do private messages sent through social media contribute to teachers’ professionalism?'''

Consider these resources as you answer:

* Newfoundland and Labrador Teachers’ Association: [http://files.nlta.nl.ca/wp-content/uploads/public/documents/infosheets/info_26.pdf Cyberconduct and Electronic Communications – Important Information and Guidelines for Teachers] ***
** Read the "Why Be Concerned?" and "Guidelines and Advice" sections.
* Ontario College of Teachers: [https://www.oct.ca/-/media/PDF/Advisory%20Social%20Media/ProfAdvSocMediaENPRINT.pdf Professional Advisory - Use of Electronic Communication and Social Media]
** Read "Minimizing the Risk: Advice to Members" on pages 6-7.
* Ontario College of Teachers: [http://www.oct.ca/ShowDocument.pdf?documentType=Decision&id=1063&lang=E Discipline Summary: Dorothe Joan Fair]
** Read "The Inappropriate E-mail Incident" on page 10.

<nowiki>*</nowiki>Focus on the resource with *** for discussion

'''4. What are the benefits of communicating with other teachers and teacher candidates through social media? How would you use social media to connect with colleagues and how would you ensure that it is used effectively and appropriately?'''

''Alternative Questions: Would you use social media to connect with colleagues? Why or why not?''

Consider these resources as you answer:

''USCRossierOnline blog'': [https://rossieronline.usc.edu/blog/teacher-interviews-social-media/ "How Social Media Enhances Teacher Professional Development: Interviews with Experts"]

== Additional Resources ==
If time allows, explore these additional resources:

* Read Kieran Forde's [https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/graduateresearch/42591/items/1.0380582 "Regulation of Teacher Professionalism and Social Media: An Analysis of Disciplinary Outcomes and Teacher Candidates’ Self-Regulation in British Columbia"; July, 2019.]
* BC Teacher Regulation Branch: [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/education/kindergarten-to-grade-12/teach/learn/learnmagazine_spring_2016.pdf ''Learn'', Spring 2016]

:::* Read "Professional Conduct Advisory: Professional Boundaries and Social Media” on page 14.

* ''The Principal of Change'' blog: [http://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/3432 "Personal and Professional vs. Public and Private"]
* BC Teacher Regulation Branch: [https://teacherregulation.gov.bc.ca/documents/FormsandPublications/ProfConduct/DisciplineOutcomes/CRAWFORD_CRA_20151223.pdf Consent Resolution Agreement: Crawford]

* Read CTV News's [https://bc.ctvnews.ca/wish-they-d-been-nicer-students-in-my-class-b-c-teacher-in-trouble-over-facebook-post-1.5720204 "'Wish they'd been nicer students in my class': B.C. teacher in trouble over Facebook post"; December 2021]

== Sharing Permissions ==
{{cc-by-sa-4.0}}

When re-using this resource, please attribute as follows: ''developed by the University of British Columbia: [[Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Case Studies for Student Teachers/Attribution|Digital Tattoo – Case Studies Project Team]]''.

[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Product Endorsement

2026-07-23T21:43:41Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== '''Case Study 4: Product Endorsement''' ==
<div style="border:5px #222 solid; padding:25px; margin:25px; margin-left: 50px ; margin-right: 50px;
-moz-border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em; border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em;
background-color: #00af89;
-moz-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
width:45%;
font-size:1.0em;
"> <center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>
In groups of 3-4:

1. Read the case study and consider your response to the Essential Question(s) posed below.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the linked resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>
== Themes Addressed ==
* Crowd-sourced medical information
* Personal/professional affiliations
* Implications of public social media accounts
* Professional relationships with stakeholders

== Learning Outcomes ==
By the end of this workshop and upon further reflection, students will ...
# Discuss how professional credentials play out in online spaces
# Examine the relationship between one's professional and personal online presence
# Identify how tensions between civil freedoms and professional obligations apply to online platforms

== Essential Question ==
As you read the case, consider your response to the question:

''What are the key differences and similarities between in-person and online outreach?''
== Case ==
[[File:Blogger on Laptop.jpg|thumb|450x450px]]
Anita is a recent graduate of the UBC Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) Program. She was a high-achieving student during her time at UBC, and was well-liked by her peers and professors. Hoping to live and work in Vancouver after graduation, Anita was fortunate to land a job at an independent pharmacy in the Kerrisdale neighbourhood called "Your Pharmacy." Her colleagues and patients are friendly and supportive, and Anita feels very fortunate to work in such a nurturing environment.

During her undergraduate degree, and subsequent time in the PharmD Program, she amassed a large social media following, particularly on her public Instagram account, which presently has 3K followers. Her account, with the username @PharmacistAnita, is dedicated to promoting health and fitness. Typical posts on Anita’s Instagram include yoga recommendations, homemade protein shakes and vegan recipes, and workout videos. In addition to her username, her Instagram bio reads the following:

'''''Vancouver-based pharmacist dedicated to promoting daily wellness'' | ''Based at "Your Pharmacy"'''''

For Anita, her Instagram account was her outlet during periods of high stress in the PharmD Program. In addition to providing her with a creative outlet, the platform also allowed her to connect to, and befriend, other health and fitness Instagrammers in Vancouver. Presently, her account's popularity also enables her to meet and connect with her followers while at work. Young customers often come into "Your Pharmacy" and recognise Anita from her Instagram account. Anita enjoys these interactions, and feels she is making a positive impact by promoting healthy habits.

Recently, Anita has been approached by several brands—spanning the industries of fitness, skincare, and supplements to endorse their products on her account. She typically accepts these endorsements, as having the extra income helps offset the high cost of living in Vancouver. They also provide her with the opportunity to try new products for free; she is sure not to endorse products that she does not use herself.

One day, Anita is approached by a well-known vitamin and supplement subscription company. Anita is initially hesitant about endorsing their products, as she is aware that certain vitamins and supplements can interact with medications, which can have consequences ranging from reduced effectiveness of medications to other dire effects. Additionally, she has heard pharmacists discuss their worries that certain supplement companies are making claims that lack scientific evidence. After thinking it over for a few days, she ultimately decides to accept the endorsement and post about the company, resolving that people who follow her are informed about their personal health, and can look up interactions between medications themselves, or will seek advice from a pharmacist to check for medication interactions.

On a day when Anita is not working at her pharmacy, her supervisor, Emmet, is approached by a young patient, who follows Anita on Instagram. The patient shares that their hypothyroidism symptoms have worsened, and that they wonders if their dose of levothyroxine should be increased. Emmet conducts a comprehensive medication review and upon further questioning, finds out that they have been taking vitamins containing calcium and iron concomitantly with the levothyroxine. The patient shares that they have recently subscribed to the vitamin and supplement company that Anita recommended.

Surprised to hear that Anita has endorsed this company, Emmet explains to the patient that taking iron and calcium at the same time as levothyroxine can inhibit the proper absorption of the T4 hormone. This means that the patient is not getting the proper dose of their medication, which is resulting in their hypothyroidism worsening. Emmet tells the patient that they should have consulted a physician or pharmacist before starting these supplements. The patient responds that because Anita, a pharmacist, had endorsed the company, they thought it was safe to take them. Emmet feels uneasy about Anita endorsing this vitamin subscription company, both as a pharmacist and as an employee of their Pharmacy.

During Anita’s next shift, Emmet discusses the situation with her. He states that endorsing the vitamin and supplement company, while also having a public affiliation with "Your Pharmacy," does not reflect their organization's values. Emmet adds that the supplements may harm patients if they start taking them without consulting a healthcare professional.

Anita feels a combination of guilt and defensiveness: she understands that the company is not promoted by the pharmacy, but also feels she has a right to support brands outside of work. She has also already accepted monetary support from the company, and will be in violation of the agreement she signed with the company if she deletes the post.

Anita is worried she will be fired as a result of the incident. Additionally, if she is not fired, she is concerned that Emmet will be skeptical about her priorities and dedication to the profession.

== Discussion Questions ==
# Can your personal and professional personas be separated online? Would this situation have been different if Anita had ''not'' noted her institutional affiliation, or profession, on her accounts? Why or why not?
#* [https://www.fiercehealthcare.com/healthcare/nurse-s-firing-over-instagram-photo-spurs-social-media-debate Nurse's Firing Over Instagram Photo Spurs Social Media Debate] (News article)
# As non-experts increasingly create and access user-generated medical knowledge in digital spaces, what role do you think pharmacists play in asserting evidenced-based advice online?
#* [https://www.vox.com/2016/4/27/11502276/teatox-instagram Teatox Party] (Investigative article)
# How might using your professional credentials while discussing health products online benefit patients? What are the drawbacks of engaging in participatory healthcare through the Internet?
#* [https://www.prevention.com/health/a25163228/pharmacy-student-viral-rant-supplements/ Pharmacy Student's Viral Facebook Post About Supplements Could Save Your Life] (News article)
#* [https://www.pharmacytimes.com/news/patients-want-to-interact-with-their-pharmacists-on-social-media Patients Want to Interact with Their Pharmacists on Social Media] (News article)

== Open Access Scholarly Material ==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317957120_Contextualizing_a_professional_social_network_for_health_care_Experiences_from_an_action_design_research_study Contextualizing a Professional Social Network for Health Care: Experiences From an Action Design Research Study] (Journal article)
* [https://go.exlibris.link/2h70fJSH Crowdsourcing of Medical Data] (Journal Article)
* [https://go.exlibris.link/VxlLGrlt Personal Digital Branding as a Professional Asset in the Digital Age] (Journal Article)

== Sharing Permission ==
{{cc-by-sa-4.0}}
When re-using this resource, please attribute as follows: ''developed by the University of British Columbia: [[Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Attribution|Digital Tattoo – Case Studies Project Team]]''.

[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Good Intentions Gone Awry

2026-07-23T21:43:15Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== Case Study 3: Good Intentions Gone Awry ==
<div style="border:5px #222 solid; padding:25px; margin:25px; margin-left: 50px ; margin-right: 50px;
-moz-border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em; border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em;
background-color: #00af89;
-moz-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
width:45%;
font-size:1.0em;
"> <center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>
In groups of 3-4:

1. Read the case study and consider your response to the Essential Question(s) posed below.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the linked resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>
== Themes Addressed ==
* Professional relationships with various stakeholders
* Methods for addressing misinformation online
* Public health advocacy in online spaces
* Limitations of privacy settings

== Learning Outcomes ==
By the end of this workshop and upon further reflection, students will...
# Discuss the significance of virtual collegiality as it pertains to healthcare professionals
# Examine the benefits and limitations of online public discussion boards/forums
# Identify the ways advocacy relates to, and is shaped by, online platforms

== Essential Question ==
As you read the case, consider your response to the question:

''How do the principles of professional accountability and advocacy apply to online spaces?''
== Case ==
[[File:Flu Shot Advertising.jpg|thumb|350x350px]]
Devon is a graduate of the UBC Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) Program. During his time at the Program, he was a top student, actively involved in the UBC Pharmacy Undergraduate Society. Within two years after graduation, and after passing his Pharmacy Examining Board of Canada Qualifying Examination and completing a Pharmacy Practice Residency Program, Devon landed his dream job as a pharmacist at "General Care Hospital" (GCH).

Devon has been working at GCH for 6 months, and has thrived in this fast-paced environment. Devon especially enjoys having the opportunity to collaborate inter-professionally with physicians, nurses, physiotherapists, social workers, and the rest of the patient care team.

Per GCH requirements, with peak flu season approaching, all patients and visitors must receive the flu shot before December 1st, or wear a face mask before entering the facilities. Healthcare providers at GCH have been asked to verify with hospital visitors that they have received the flu shot prior to entering any patient care areas.

Devon is completing rounds with Ryan, a physiotherapist he was worked with a few times before. While stopped outside the room of an immunocompromised patient, Devon asks Ryan to verify that her two visitors have been vaccinated with the flu shot.

Ryan appears hesitant. When Devon inquires further, Ryan tells Devon that he is skeptical about vaccines due to concerns about autism, and that he himself used to get the flu shot yet "still got sick every year.” As a result, Ryan does not feel comfortable discussing the subject with patients nor being an ambassador for the flu vaccination program.

Devon is shocked to learn of Ryan’s stance on the issue, and is inclined to argue with Ryan about this misinformation. Before approaching Ryan, Devon is approached by a physician asking about a different patient. Due to the heavy workload that day, Devon does not get the opportunity to discuss the matter with Ryan before the end of his shift.

In the days following, Devon cannot stop thinking about his interaction with Ryan. He feels shocked that a healthcare professional working in an acute care setting could hold such a misinformed and negative view about vaccines. Finally, after a few days of considering his role as a healthcare provider, and professional obligation to share evidenced-based information, Devon decides to take action. Devon goes on his personal Instagram account to post a story about the incident. He tags a few of his old pharmacy classmates to get their thoughts on the matter. His current privacy settings ensure that his stories can only be viewed by his followers. He shares the following exposition about the importance of vaccines:
[[File:Add_a_little_bit_of_body_text-2.png|alt=|center|thumb|667x667px|Instagram story]]
The story immediately receives multiple reactions from family, friends, pharmacy students,healthcare providers, and non experts alike. Some replies merely express shock (many “wows,” and “I can’t believe this!”), while others make more inflammatory statements (including “what an idiot,” and “this physiotherapist should be fired!”).

Devon feels immediate vindication at the swift response to his story. Devon's former UBC Pharmacy classmate, Stephanie, shares the story on her own Instagram story—with text added above the original story saying “people who don’t believe in science shouldn’t be working as healthcare professionals!”. Devon believes that it is his responsibility to call out such beliefs as Ryan's, and feels pleased that Stephanie is helping to spread the word.

An instagram follower of Stephanie named Ali - who happens to be a personal friend of Ryan's - sees the post on Stephanie's Instagram story. Ali is curious about where the incident took place, and decides to look up Devon on LinkedIn to see where he works.

Ali sees that Devon works at GCH. Knowing that Ryan is a physiotherapist at GCH, he sends a screenshot of the story to Ryan, along with the following message: “Is this about you, LOL?”

Realising that the post is about him, Ryan immediately feels angry and defensive both at Devon, for sharing the experience online, and at the inflammatory statements directed at him on Stephanie’s instagram story.

The next day at work, Ryan displays cold, and passive aggressive behaviour towards Devon throughout the day, making comments like “I better not say anything or it might end up online.”

Devon suspects that Ryan has seen his Instagram story. However, Devon is adamant that it is his duty to advocate for public health, and is pleased that Ryan was “put on blast” for his views online. He decides not to discuss the issue with Ryan.

Devon begins to question what might happen to him as a result of his conflict with Ryan. In particular, he is worried that the standoffishness between them will happen every time they work together, and how this tension may impact his reputation at GCH.

== Discussion Questions ==
# How might collegiality extend to online spaces? Is this covered under the “[https://www.bcpharmacists.org/duty-report Duty to Report]” or does this fall under each professional’s moral decision-making framework? List some potential parameters that could be used to guide direct, and in-direct, interactions with colleagues and classmates online.
#* [https://www.bcpharmacists.org/duty-report Health Professions Act] (Online report)
#**
# In what ways have online discussion boards impacted professional communities? What opportunities and/or consequences do these discussion boards present, particularly in regards to representing the profession?
#* [http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2019/04/online-anti-vax-efforts-prove-daunting-public-health-challenge Online Anti-Vax Efforts Prove Daunting Public Health Challenge] (News article)
#* [https://www.reddit.com/r/pharmacy/ r/pharmacy/] (Discussion Website)
# How might a pharmacist’s role as a public health advocate extend to online spaces? Should there be limits to this advocacy?
#*[https://www.kevinmd.com/blog/2018/08/the-best-way-to-fight-misinformation-in-health-care.html The Best Way to Fight Misinformation in Health Care] (Blog post)
#* [https://www.bbc.com/news/health-48512923?ocid=socialflow_facebook&ns_mchannel=social&ns_campaign=bbcnews&ns_source=facebook Low Trust in Vaccination 'A Global Crisis'] (News article)
#* [https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/tiktok-presents-covid-19-educational-opportunities-alongside-dancing-videos TikTok Presents COVID-19 Educational Opportunities Alongside Dancing Videos] (Pharmacy Times)
#* [https://www.bcpharmacy.ca/tablet/fall-20/expanding-your-reach-through-social-media Expanding your Reach Through Social Media], (BC Pharmacy Association Post)

== Open Access Scholarly Material ==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291690013_How_Your_Colleagues'_Reputation_Impact_Your_Patients'_Odds_of_Posting_Experiences_Evidence_from_an_Online_Health_Community How Your Colleagues’ Reputation Impact Your Patients’ Odds of Posting Experiences: Evidence from an Online Health Community] (Journal article)
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251877968_Virtual_colleagues_virtually_colleagues-_Physicians'_use_of_Twitter_A_population-based_observational_study Virtual colleagues, Virtually Colleagues- Physicians' Use of Twitter: A Population-Based Observational Study] (Journal article)

== Sharing Permission ==
{{cc-by-sa-4.0}}
When re-using this resource, please attribute as follows: ''developed by the University of British Columbia: [[Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Attribution|Digital Tattoo – Case Studies Project Team]]''.

[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Viral Venting

2026-07-23T21:42:59Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== Case Study 2: Viral Venting ==
<div style="border:5px #222 solid; padding:25px; margin:25px; margin-left: 50px ; margin-right: 50px;
-moz-border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em; border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em;
background-color: #00af89;
-moz-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
width:45%;
font-size:1.0em;
"> <center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>
In groups of 3-4:

1. Read the case study and consider your response to the Essential Question(s) posed below.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the linked resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>

== Themes Addressed ==
* Permanence and public nature of the internet
* Patient confidentiality
* Raising the profile of the profession
* Group affiliation
* Interconnectedness of the pharmacy community

== Learning Outcomes ==
By the end of this workshop and upon further reflection, students will ...
# Describe the interface between the private/public nature of online spaces
# Discuss the challenges in presuming anonymity on the internet
# Illustrate the benefits and drawbacks of high-profile social media accounts dedicated to elevating the profession

== Essential Question ==
As you read the case, consider your response to the question:

''How does the term "act conscientiously" apply to digital spaces?''
== Case ==
Sarah is in her second year of the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) program. For the past 2 months she has been working part-time at "Canada Plus Pharmacy" in Vancouver to help offset the high costs of being a student.

Sarah has been active on her personal social media accounts throughout her time in the pharmacy program, specifically Facebook, Snapchat, and Instagram. Since moving to Vancouver from Prince George, social media has helped her stay connected to friends and family. This has helped her feel less isolated in a new city. Since beginning the Pharmacy program, Sarah has actively ensured that all of her social media accounts are private, including Instagram, which she uses the most. As such, only her username and bio - which notes her institutional affiliation - is visible to the public.

These accounts have also allowed her to make new friends and connect to people in her program. She often responds to event invitations on Facebook, and invites classmates to study with her over Snapchat and Facebook Messenger. Additionally, during exam periods, Sarah often checks her classmates' Instagram stories to de-stress.

Because the particular "Canada Plus Pharmacy" branch Sarah works at is centrally located in Vancouver’s downtown core, it tends to be quite busy. Average wait times are approximately 15 minutes, but can often run as long as 30 minutes. Sarah typically enjoys this fast-paced environment, however the past few days have been especially busy and stressful. Sarah is also experiencing high levels of stress outside of work due to an upcoming EOB exam which she is studying for.

A patient named Mandy comes into the pharmacy rushing to pick up her medications for her type 2 diabetes, hypertension, osteoarthritis, and gout. Upon looking up Mandy’s medication profile in the pharmacy’s computer system, Sarah sees that Mandy is 71 years old.

Several patients had been waiting for their prescriptions before Mandy arrived, so Sarah gives her an approximate wait-time of 20 minutes. Mandy, irritated, comments back: “Why does it need 20 minutes, don't you just put a label on the bottle?"

Sarah calmly explains that, due to the number of patients currently waiting for prescriptions, the wait time will be a bit longer than usual. This explanation does not seem to calm Mandy, who angrily stands at the counter, glaring at Sarah and the supervising pharmacist while they work.

Sarah feels frustrated by the comment Mandy made. While she had heard remarks like this from patients in the past, she wished patients would be more understanding of the long wait times, particularly for prescription refills like Mandy’s which involve multiple medications.

While on her lunch break, Sarah takes a picture of one of the vitamin shelves at the pharmacy. She posts the image to her Instagram Story with the following text:
[[File:Emoji screenshot.png|center|thumb|655x655px]]

Sarah elected to make the post on her story rather than on her usual feed, as it will self-delete in 24 hours. She also replaced Mandy’s name with the fake name, “Lisa.”

Finding the post funny and relatable, one of Sarah’s followers, who is also a pharmacy student stressed about the upcoming EOB exam, screenshots it and forwards it to another classmate. This classmate saves it, and direct-messages it to the @pharmacymemes Instagram page, which has over 27k followers. The @pharmacymemes page posts it to their feed with a caption that credits Sarah’s username.

Sarah’s manager, Henry, is a recent graduate of the UBC PharmD Program. He has become friends with her while working together, bonding over their shared experiences in Pharmacy. While a student at UBC, Henry started following @pharmacymemes.

Shortly after Sarah's Instagram post is made, Henry comes across it while on his own Instagram account, and sees that Sarah is tagged in the post. Henry is immediately worried about his Pharmacy’s reputation, and that of himself as manager. He thinks that this does not reflect well on their organization, their patient-centred care philosophy, and violates the patient’s privacy. He is also concerned that the location of his pharmacy will be distinguishable based on the image Sarah used.

Henry confronts Sarah with these concerns. Sarah, whose post on Instagram has already been deleted (since 24 hours have passed), is unsure how to proceed. She immediately feels regretful about her actions and the position she has put Henry in. Henry saves the screenshots on file for future reference. Sarah is now stressed about how the incident may impact her professionally as she moves forward in her career. She is also unsure if she should resign from her job as a result of the incident, and realizes she will be unable to use Henry as a professional reference.
== Discussion Questions ==
# To what extent are private social media accounts truly private? How might the digital path between Sarah's Instagram Story and the @pharmacymemes account impact her relationship with various stakeholders?
#*[https://www.computerworld.com/article/3171669/true-privacy-online-is-not-viable.html True Privacy Online is Not Viable] (News article)
#*[https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/home/my-practice/legal-advisor/social-media-post-prompts-firing/ Social Media Post Prompts Firing] (News Article)
# How has social media complicated the professional relationships between patients and Healthcare providers?
#* [https://www.afro.who.int/publications/legal-frameworks-ehealth Legal Frameworks eHealth - World Health Organization] (Report)
#* To Tweet or not to Tweet: A Social Media Primer for Pharmacists [https://go.exlibris.link/8RmXSDMP (Journal Article UBC elink)]
# Discuss the implications of @pharmacymemes sharing Sarah's post. Did they have the right to share it? What positive and/or negative effects do pharmacy-based social media accounts, like @pharmacymemes, and hashtags like #pharmacyproblems, have on the profession?
#*[https://www.skyword.com/contentstandard/creativity/how-social-media-for-healthcare-marketing-engages-patients-and-boosts-brand-awareness/ How Social Media for Healthcare Marketing Engages and Boosts Brand Awareness] (News Article)
#* [https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/opinion/what-to-do-when-social-media-goes-bad What To Do When Social Media Goes Bad] (Blog post)
#* [https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/white-coats-on-instagram-what-does-pharmacy-look-like White Coats on Instagram: What Does Pharmacy Look Like?] (News Article)
# Can you identify any discrepancies between Henry's handling of the situation and his own online behaviour?
#*[https://www.instagram.com/pharmacymemes/ Pharmacy Instagram Memes]

== Open Access Scholarly Material ==
* [https://www.pharmacytoday.org/article/S1042-0991(17)30083-X/fulltext Social Media and Gossip in the Pharmacy] (Journal Article)

== Scholarly Material ==

* [https://www.academia.edu/22069009/The_use_of_social_media_in_pharmacy_practice_and_education The Use of Social Media in Pharmacy Practice and Education] [https://go.exlibris.link/ZT0fYXWq (UBC Library Link)]
* No filter: A characterization of #pharmacist posts on Instagram [https://go.exlibris.link/B8TKG8g3 (UBC Library Link)]

== Sharing Permission ==
{{cc-by-sa-4.0}}When re-using this resource, please attribute as follows: ''developed by the University of British Columbia: [[Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Attribution|Digital Tattoo – Case Studies Project Team]]''.

[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Screenshot in a Small Town

2026-07-23T21:42:46Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== Case Study 1: Screenshot in a Small Town ==
<div style="border:5px #222 solid; padding:20px; margin:20px; margin-left: 45px ; margin-right: 45px;
-moz-border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em; border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em;
background-color: #00af89;
-moz-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
width:45%;
font-size:1.0em;
"> <center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>
In groups of 3-4:

1. Read the case study and consider your response to the Essential Question(s) posed below.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the linked resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>

== Themes Addressed ==
* Professional and personal boundaries
* Interconnectedness of small communities
* Patient trust
* Off-duty professionalism

== Learning Outcomes ==
By the end of this workshop and upon further reflection, students will ...
# Identify key professional resources for guiding online behaviour
# Describe how accountability operates in the context of private messaging
# Discuss the tension that can arise between one's personal values and those of the profession

== Essential Question ==
As you read the case, consider your response to the question:

''How have online platforms impacted in-person communities?''
== Case ==
[[File:Texting-1490691 1920.jpg|thumb|500x500px]]
Kai has recently begun their 8-week pharmacy practicum at an outpatient pharmacy in a small town in inland BC.

Coming from Vancouver, they are a bit apprehensive about the placement, and feel a little lonely and isolated.

Upon starting their degree, Kai set up a Facebook account for group work and event organizing. They have a group chat with some friends from their graduating class. They use this group chat to stay connected to their friends, which has helped make their stay in this small town a bit less lonely. There is an unspoken assumption that this group chat is a safe space to talk about their work lives, especially now that they are all doing their third year practicums.

Everyone is well aware of the higher social standards to which pharmacists are held, and this is their way of keeping any venting out of public posts on their social media accounts. They are aware of the onus put on pharmacists to maintain society's trust in the profession and have been taking steps to separate their professional and personal life.

A few weeks into their practicum, Kai encounters one of the pharmacy's regular patients named Susan, who is picking up a refill for a calcium channel blocker.

Susan has lived in this community almost all her life, except for a brief interim when she moved to Vancouver about 20 years ago to work in various jobs. That is where Susan first met, in her words, "people like ''you''." She moved back about seven years ago because she didn't like the high costs of living in the city. Kai learns all of this while accessing Susan's patient file in the pharmacy system and obtaining her medical history.

The refill is for Norvasc, which is a branded medication. When Kai inputs the prescription, the system automatically switches it to the generic, amlodipine.

Kai confirms the refill with Susan, reading it out loud. Susan takes exception and says that the doctor said the name 'Norvasc' to her.

Whilst Kai is explaining that the generic is cheaper and essentially no different from Norvasc, Susan interrupts to insist on talking to "the actual pharmacist." However, the pharmacy is pretty busy, and Kai's Practice Educator is currently occupied with giving someone else a set of travel vaccinations.

Apologizing, Kai tries to explain again that the generic has the same active ingredient as the brand name drug, and that manufacturers must prove that they are equal in efficacy and safety, but Susan starts getting loud and says: "Of course, I should have expected ''you'' to be cheap."

As there is a line forming at the pharmacy counter, Kai remains calm and professional, telling Susan that she can have the Norvasc and that there was no intention of cheating of any sort. Kai puts a note on file that Susan prefers brand, and passes the refill along to the filling counter. Susan walks off, muttering something about "who does this kid think he is" to the next person in line.

During a quiet moment towards the end of his shift, Kai retells this encounter in the Facebook group chat.
[[File:Chat .png|center|thumb]]

Unbeknownst to Kai, another friend in the group chat knows someone in the town. This friend, Kyla, screenshots the chat and sends it to ''her'' friend, when talking to them about what living in a small, rural community is like. After learning that edema means swelling, given the small population size and description of the patient, Kyla's friend knows exactly who Kai is talking about.

With good intentions, this friend-of-a-friend tries talking to people they know about making Kai feel more welcome in the community.

Being a small town, the news of the incident makes its way around to Kai's Practice Educator, Carol, pretty quickly.

Carol says to Kai "Hey, so I heard something upsetting happened to you recently here? Something to do with Susan?" and tried encouraging Kai by saying, "I want you to feel supported here. Do you want me to reach out to the university's Office of Experiential Education?"

However, Kai is both taken aback by Carol's knowledge of the situation, and unsure how to respond. Kai feels pretty justified in their emotional response to the situation and wasn't expecting the Practice Educator to find out about what happened, or to know the patient involved. Kai doesn’t know how the Practice Educator found out: did Carol see the actual chat or did she hear about it from someone who was in the pharmacy at the same time?

Now, Kai is worried about their job future, how they will be perceived professionally, and if they have violated the patient's privacy.

== Discussion Questions ==
# What key professional resources outline guidelines for appropriate use of social media? How could such resources have been used to guide Kai's actions in the scenario described above?
#* [https://www.bcpharmacists.org/ College of Pharmacists of British Columbia] (Website)
#* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1gI5fBsD7x_PuF1fQOTrzKOJiUJCmsQtT/view?usp=sharing Code of Ethics - Detailed College of Pharmacists of British Columbia] (PDF)
#* [https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/privacy-topics/privacy-laws-in-canada/the-personal-information-protection-and-electronic-documents-act-pipeda/ The ''Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act''] (PIPEDA Act)
# How does accountability apply to private group chats? How did issues surrounding accountability emerge in the scenario described above?
#* [https://www.hipaajournal.com/hipaa-social-media/ HIPAA Social Media Rules] (Report)
# How has social media impacted the tensions that can arise between one's personal values and those of the profession? List potential ways in which social media has both positively and negatively impacted this relationship.
#* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pa91bHhqd5OfKmyShnrFQ7pqmq-ddoAk/view?usp=sharing Framework of Professional Practice] (PDF)
#* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VkvM28BUnR2OBRZgDmLoPl1-jGzEaDVK/view?usp=sharing The Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Code of Conduct] (PDF)

== Open Access Scholarly Material ==
* [https://academic.oup.com/ajhp/article/69/23/2095/5112116 ASHP Statement on Use of Social Media by Pharmacy Professionals] (Journal Article)
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4587037/ Ethical Issues of Social Media Usage in Healthcare] (Journal Article)
* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nancy_Spector/publication/232085596_Spector_N_Kappel_DM_Guidelines_for_using_electronic_and_social_media_the_regulatory_perspective_Online_J_Issues_Nurs_1731/links/02bfe50da6d287566c000000/Spector-N-Kappel-DM-Guideline Guidelines for Using Electronic and Social Media: The Regulatory Perspective] (Journal Article)

== Sharing Permission ==
{{cc-by-sa-4.0}}
When re-using this resource, please attribute as follows: ''developed by the University of British Columbia: [[Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Pharmacy/Case Studies/Attribution|Digital Tattoo – Case Studies Project Team]]''.

[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Case Study 3: Blurred Boundaries

2026-07-23T21:42:19Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== Blurred Boundaries (CCT 373) ==
<div style="border:5px #7DBBFA solid; padding:25px; margin:25px; margin-left: 50px ; margin-right: 50px;
-moz-border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em; border-radius: 4em 1em 4em 1em;
background-color: #CBE1F7;
-moz-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
-webkit-box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
box-shadow: 3px 3px 5px 6px #ccc;
width:45%;
font-size:1.0em;
"><center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>In groups of 3-4:
1. Read the case study and consider your response to the essential questions posed below.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>

== Themes Addressed ==

* Personal and professional boundaries
* Communication and misunderstanding online
* Gender and power dynamics in the workplace
* Nonviolent communication (NVC)

== Learning Outcomes ==
'''By the end of this workshop and upon further reflection, students will:'''

# Identify key aspects of professionalism for guiding online behaviour
# Discuss how assumptions based on unclear language and appearance can be damaging, especially in a professional setting
# Describe how context impacts the complexities of online communication
# Apply NVC for conflict resolution

== Essential Questions ==
'''As you read the case study, consider your response to the following questions:'''

# How does using social media for workplace conversations impact our understanding of each other?
# How do gender and power dynamics within professional settings inform reception and perception of communication?
# How does culture (personal, professional, online, and in-person) shape our communications with others?

== Case Study ==
Amira is a social media intern at Lamperon, an advertising agency in Toronto. She has been working at the agency for a few weeks, and believes she’s getting to know some of the organizational culture. Colleagues and supervisors often communicate with each other on multiple platforms—ranging from email, to discussions on Signal, and social media using Instagram direct messages. Lamperon is a company with 45 employees; thus, while most employees recognise each other, not everyone works directly with one another. As an intern, Amira doesn’t often interact with the CEO, Xavier; however, he does monitor the company’s instagram page. He weekly (if not more), likes the company’s posts, and often comments on them or reposts from his own accounts.

The agency utilizes an Instagram group chat to discuss potential posts they have created for their various clients. Amira has been working with an Italian restaurant, Franco’s, to promote the opening of its new location. On Lamperon's account she posted a photo story that captured her with another intern at the restaurant with a text overlay that reads “Franco's carbonara is a must—honestly mind-blowing how good it is!” Xavier, the CEO responds to the story, which is sent to the company’s via DM: “Super hyped that we’re working with them! One of my all-time favourite Italian places”.

A few days later, Amira goes to a Blue Jay’s baseball game with a few other interns from the agency. On her personal Instagram story, she posts a video of she and her colleagues cheering when the Jays won the game. When she arrives home she realises her boss, Xavier, has responded to her story with three flame emojis. Previously Xavier only interacted with her Lamperon Instagram account content. However, she noted there is a practice at the agency of employees and supervisors following each other on social media. She reacts to his message by liking it (which puts a red heart emoji on the message) and didn't think about it again until she received an additional message that she replied to:

[[File:Conversation between Amira and her boss Xavier.png|thumb|Instagram dm conversation between Amira and her boss, Xavier.|alt=Xavier: Amira! I've been meaning to discuss a new project with you. I have yet to try the mind-blowing carbonara - how about we do it at Franco's? Are you available at 8pm on Thursday? Amira: Wow sounds great Xavier! Thursday is perfect. Can't wait [heart eyes emoji] Xavier: Perfect! The bill will be taken care of [smiley emoji]|center|467x467px]]

She observes that the other social media intern was not invited, however the other intern was also in the photo at Franco's Italian restaurant. Amira feels conflicted about this situation. On one hand, she feels excited that she’s getting a new opportunity presented to her by the CEO, and that he wants to further connect with her. On the other hand, she feels worried that this may go beyond the confines of her placement at the agency. She needs clarity regarding the intention and context of meeting outside of work. Amira is also an international student, so she isn't sure if this is a part of Canadian culture.

She is worried that her career prospects at the company will be jeopardised if she doesn’t attend the dinner. She decides to ask her roommate, Skylar, what they think about the situation. Skylar was born and raised in Toronto and is doing an internship at a bank. As such, Amira is interested in their perspective. Skylar relayed that they also feel conflicted about the situation. They share that at the bank it’s not commonplace for senior management to have one-on-one dinners with interns in the evening.

Amira would like to request guidance from her internship supervisor, Paige, as well as her CCT/WRI 410 professor, as she doesn’t want to offend Xavier.

== Discussion Questions ==
Keeping the essential questions in mind,
# Reflect on Xavier's correspondence with Amira. What about his communication could have led to different interpretations of his intentions? How could Xavier have communicated differently using NVC?
# Reflect on Amira's correspondence with Xavier. What about her communication could have led to different interpretations of her intentions? How could Amira have communicated differently using NVC?
#If you were Paige, the internship supervisor, or the professor, what guidance would you give to Amira?
#Why is the context of the industry important when considering how to navigate these situations professionally?
#Have you dealt with a similar misunderstanding around social media communication? If so, please share how you approached the situation.
== Additional Resources ==
You can use the following resources to help you answer the questions:

[https://centerforinquiry.org/blog/post-mortem-on-a-misunderstood-post-online-misunderstandings-and-how-to-avoid-them/ Post Mortem on a Misunderstood Post, Centre for Inquiry]

[https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/iccit/student-resources/policies-procedures/iccit-code-conduct ICCIT Code of Conduct]

[https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/lib/utoronto/reader.action?docID=4307011&ppg=1 NVC Resources]

[https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/privacy-topics/employers-and-employees/mobile-devices-and-online-services-at-work/02_05_d_41_sn/ Privacy and social media in the workplace | Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada]

[https://equity.ubc.ca/resources/student-guidelines-for-respectful-online-conduct/ Student Guidelines for Respectful Online Conduct | University of British Columbia Equity and Inclusion Office]
[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Case Studies Information and Technology Students/Questionable Comments

2026-07-23T21:41:26Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== Questionable Comments (CCT 273) ==

<div style="border:5px #7DBBFA solid; padding:25px; margin:25px; margin-left: 50px ; margin-right: 50px;
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"> <center>'''Table Discussion'''</center>
In groups of 3-4:

1. Read the case study and consider your response to the personal reflection question as you read.

2. Discuss each question below with your group, using the resources to support your responses.

3. Take notes on your discussion to share when the large group reconvenes.
</div>

== Theme ==
<blockquote>
When used appropriately, social media can be a source of connection and community for professionals.</blockquote>

== Personal Reflection ==
'''While reading the case study, consider your personal response to the following question:'''

''How would I respond to seeing a fellow colleague make inappropriate comments through social media?''

== Case Study ==
[[File:Texting-1490691_1920.jpg|alt=someone texting - hand on a cell phone|right|500x500px]]
'''Note: This scenario takes place outside of the current COVID-19 pandemic, but COVID can present significant demands on similar scenarios. Consider both how you might respond both during COVID and outside of it.'''

Before beginning their work placements for the Professional Experience Certificate in Digital Media, Communication and Technology, Chris, Marlow, Fernando, and Isabelle, a group of ICCIT students, were placed in the same town and created a private Facebook group and a group chat through text so that they could share resources, discuss their experiences, and plan times to connect outside of school. Because each of these students is trying to monitor their use of social media in order to avoid breaching any professional practices and standards, they decided to communicate through these private groups, as opposed to posting on any public profiles. Recognizing that they could help one another by monitoring their social media interactions, all of the students agreed not to post comments about each other or share any photos from their gatherings without asking for permission.

When Isabelle, Chris, Marlow and Fernando began their work placements, the Facebook group and group chat were primarily used to share resources, bounce ideas off of each other, and arrange meeting times and Zoom meet-ups. As the work placements continued Chris and Isabelle found themselves especially stressed because of increased workloads, disruptions from co-workers, and difficult interactions with placement supervisors that the students did not enjoy working under. Their frustrations were evident, as all the students had begun using the private Facebook groups as a way to vent about these situations and let off steam. Chris in particular found their co-workers to be consistently unmotivated which made the projects that they were doing with those folks difficult for them to manage. Chris also felt unfairly scrutinized by their work placement supervisor for their inability to maintain project timeline. They felt that the supervisor’s criticisms were unfair, especially because the supervisor wasn’t often present in the office; therefore, the supervisor was not there to help them find solutions to manage their project more effectively. Chris continued to express their frustration to Isabelle, Marlow, and Fernando through their texts and Facebook conversations, making comments like “I hope my co-workers enjoy their jobless futures!” and “Seriously, if this work placement supervisor is in charge of evaluating me, SHE SHOULD STAY IN THE OFFICE WHILE I AM HERE!” One day, while Chris and their coworkers were working on a project together. While the others on the team were brainstorming, Chris took photos of some of the co-workers ideas and later sent the pictures to the group chat, saying “Look at these hilarious answers- not even close! These people are such idiots sometimes. Maybe if they tried paying attention in our meeting they wouldn’t give answers like these!”

Isabelle understands Chris’ frustration about the difficulties of project managing and getting support from a work placement supervisor, as her placement has been frustrating too; however, she also feels that the comments Chris makes are inappropriate--even if their co-workers and the placement supervisor can’t see them--as they are unprofessional. Because she is a part of the Facebook group, Isabelle is worried that not saying or doing anything about Chris’ posts could suggest that she agrees with the things they said and that she is enabling Chris to continue sending these kinds of messages. She also worries that because the co-workers’ suggestions are so amusing, other group members will screen shot the messages and circulate them to others. At the same time, she considers Chris a friend and she recognizes the need for students to protect one another. She does not want to upset the other folks on the private Facebook group and group chat, especially Chris, by sharing the texts and Facebook posts with their professor or the school administrators, but she is also not comfortable ignoring them, especially if her name is associated with the group messages.

== Discussion Questions ==
'''1. Do Chris’ comments, made through private text exchanges and Facebook groups, violate social media policies and/or guidelines? Can comments like these be grounds for discipline? Who could be impacted by Chris’ messages?'''

Consider these resources as you brainstorm:
* [https://site-cbc.radio-canada.ca/documents/vision/governance/social-media-guidance-oct-2017-en.pdf CBC Social Media Guidance]
* [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/careers/about-the-bc-public-service/ethics/social_media_guidelines_for_personal_use.pdf SOCIAL MEDIA GUIDELINES for BC Public Service Employees]
* [https://www.ontario.ca/page/ontario-public-service-social-media-guidelines Ontario Public Service social media guide]
* [https://caj.ca/wp-content/uploads/ethics_guidelines.pdf Canadian Association of Journalists]

'''2. What would you do in Isabelle's situation? Is it reasonable for her to consider sharing the messages she deems inappropriate? What should she consider when making a decision?'''

Consider these resources as you brainstorm:
* [https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/privacy-topics/employers-and-employees/mobile-devices-and-online-services-at-work/02_05_d_41_sn/ Privacy and Social Media in the Workforce]

'''3. To what extent can we expect privacy when communicating digitally? What should professionals consider before sending messages to colleagues through social media?'''

Consider these resources as you brainstorm:
* [https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/employee-who-got-6-bbq-sauce-as-holiday-gift-says-he-was-fired-for-angry-tweet-1.4752283#:~:text=TORONTO%20%2D%2D%20A%20Canadian%20man,materials%20that%20operates%20across%20Canada. Employee who got $6 BBQ sauce as holiday gift says he was fired for angry tweet]

* [https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/arbitrator-sides-with-former-cbc-employee-fired-after-supervisor-read-his-private-messages Arbitrator sides with former CBC employee fired after supervisor read his private messages]
*
'''4.What are the benefits of communicating with professionals in your field through social media? How would you use social media to connect with colleagues and how would you ensure that it is used effectively and appropriately?'''

Consider these resources as you brainstorm:
* [https://www.vox.com/recode/2020/1/24/21079275/slack-private-messages-privacy-law-enforcement-lawsuit Your Slack DMs aren’t as private as you think]
* [https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/hr-qa/pages/socialnetworkingsitespolicy.aspx What are the pros and cons of using social media in the workplace? What should we include in a policy?]

== Additional Resources ==
* ''The Principal of Change'' blog: [http://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/3432 "Personal and Professional vs. Public and Private]
* Read "Professional Conduct Advisory: Professional Boundaries and Social Media” on page 14.Read "Professional Conduct Advisory: Professional Boundaries and Social Media” on page 14.

== Sharing Permissions ==
{{cc-by-sa-4.0}}

When re-using this resource, please attribute as follows:
''developed by the University of British Columbia: [[Documentation:Digital Tattoo Curriculum/Case Studies for Student Teachers/Attribution|Digital Tattoo –
Case Studies Project Team]]''.
[[Category:Digital Tattoo Case Study]]

Documentation:BabywearingDictionary/Admin/Add

2026-07-14T21:22:51Z

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2026-07-14T21:19:17Z

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2026-07-14T21:19:02Z

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2026-07-14T21:16:54Z

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Course:EOSC311/Help and Resources

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Course:EOSC311/Projects

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==Create Your Wiki Page==
We have made it easy for you to create your assignment page right from here. Just '''add the title of your project to the box below and click on the create page''' button (note that you will need to be logged in to the UBC Wiki in order for this to work). On the edit screen that loads, add your name to the edit screen and hit '''SAVE''' at the bottom of the page. You can delete this later when you are ready to start writing your article.
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Course:EOSC311/2026/Will and Rie's demo project

2026-05-25T20:27:54Z

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Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T22:01:57Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected<ref>About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).</ref>(Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion<ref>Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).</ref> (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)|center]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions<ref>[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).</ref>(Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions<ref>The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).</ref>(Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board<ref>Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)</ref> (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil<ref>The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).</ref> (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures<ref>Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).</ref>. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being<ref>Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).</ref>(Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories<ref>Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).</ref> (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain<ref>Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).</ref>(Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders<ref>Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).</ref> (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Annex 2: Problem Tree for Sarawak illustrating the core problem of primary forest deforestation due to oil palm conversion of forests in Sarawak, its causes and effects'''

[[File:Problem_Tree_for_Sarawak_illustrating_the_core_problem_of_primary_forest_deforestation_due_to_oil_palm_conversion_of_forests_in_Sarawak,_its_causes_and_effects.png|center|thumb]]
'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

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* Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>
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* Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>
* Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>
* Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>
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* Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>
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* Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>
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* Ministry of Plantation and Commodities. (2024). ''Agricommodity pocket stats 2023''. <nowiki>https://www.kpk.gov.my/kpk/images/mpi_statistik/Pocket_Stats/2023/poket-stats-2023full/index.html#page/1</nowiki>
* Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>
* Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>
* Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>
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* Sarmiento, F., Larrea, C., Oeschger, A., & Jose, R. (2024, February 21). ''Measures to enhance forest conservation and reduce deforestation: Viewpoints and lessons from producing countries''. International Institute for Sustainable Development. <nowiki>https://www.iisd.org/ssi/publications/measures-enhance-forest-conservation-reduce-deforestation/</nowiki>
* Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>
* Statbase. (2026). ''Literacy rate, by gender | Malaysia | Male''. <nowiki>https://statbase.org/data/mys-literacy-rate-by-gender/</nowiki>
* The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>
* The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>
* UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>
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* Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>
* World Resources Institute. (2026). LandMark: A global data platform of Indigenous and community lands to help communities protect their land rights and secure tenure. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/initiatives/landmark</nowiki>
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* worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>
* Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

== Footnote ==

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T22:01:49Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected<ref>About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).</ref>(Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion<ref>Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).</ref> (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)|center]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions<ref>[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).</ref>(Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions<ref>The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).</ref>(Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board<ref>Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)</ref> (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil<ref>The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).</ref> (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures<ref>Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).</ref>. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being<ref>Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).</ref>(Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories<ref>Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).</ref> (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain<ref>Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).</ref>(Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders<ref>Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).</ref> (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Annex 2: Problem Tree for Sarawak illustrating the core problem of primary forest deforestation due to oil palm conversion of forests in Sarawak, its causes and effects'''

[[File:Problem_Tree_for_Sarawak_illustrating_the_core_problem_of_primary_forest_deforestation_due_to_oil_palm_conversion_of_forests_in_Sarawak,_its_causes_and_effects.png|center|thumb]]
'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

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* Andrade, R. (2026). The reduction of deforestation in Brazil 2004–2012: What happens next? <nowiki>https://www.ricardoandrade.org/index.php/publications/reduction-deforestation</nowiki>
* aus der Beek, R. (2026, March 31). ''From consultation to leadership: Advancing gender equality and social inclusion in social forestry''. RECOFTC. <nowiki>https://www.recoftc.org/regional/stories/consultation-leadership-advancing-gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-social-forestry</nowiki>
* Awang Mahmood, A. Z. B. (2026, April 4). NCR basics. Land and Survey Department Sarawak. <nowiki>https://landsurvey.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/614</nowiki>
* Bhusal, A., Dhungel, N., Chhetri, P., Bhattarai, S., Giri, S., Pathak, T. R., & Khanal, A. (2024). Status of community-based forest management in selected South Asian countries: Benefits, challenges, and key lessons. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management, 3(4), 225–236. <nowiki>https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/josem</nowiki>
* Bitzer, V., Moździerz, M., Kuijpers, R., Schouten, G., & Juju, D. B. (2024). Gender and forest resources in low‑ and middle‑income countries: A systematic literature review. ''Forest Policy and Economics, 163'', 103226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103226</nowiki>
* Borneo Post. (2017, May 16). ''Literacy rate in Sabah and Sarawak lower''. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/05/16/literacy-rate-in-sabah-and-sarawak-lower/</nowiki>
* Dasgupta, A. (2024). ''Gendered vulnerabilities in climate shocks: The role of social protection interventions''. ''Environmental Research: Climate, 3''(4). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad8d03</nowiki>
* Dhyani, S., Murthy, I. K., Kadaverugu, R., Dasgupta, R., Kumar, M., & Gadpayle, K. A. (2021). Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: Are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared? Forests, 12(3), 303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030303</nowiki>
* Faridah Aini, M., Elias, M., Lamers, H., Shariah, U., Brooke, P., & Mohd Hafizul, H. (2017). Evaluating the usefulness and ease of use of participatory tools for forestry and livelihoods research in Sarawak, Malaysia. ''Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 26''(1), 29–46. <nowiki>https://gender.cgiar.org/publications/evaluating-usefulness-and-ease-use-participatory-tools-forestry-and-livelihoods</nowiki>
* Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025). ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025: Malaysia'' (Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/98998dc9-b939-4239-8380-da5c7066b268/content</nowiki>
* Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>
* Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>
* Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>
* Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>
* Human Rights Watch. (2025, May 4). ''Facing the bulldozers: Iban Indigenous resistance to the timber industry in Sarawak, Malaysia''. Human Rights Watch. <nowiki>https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/05/04/facing-the-bulldozers/iban-indigenous-resistance-to-the-timber-industry-in</nowiki>
* Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>
* Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>
* International Land Coalition. (2026). From maps to recognition: How participatory data supports the resolution of spatial conflicts in Indonesia. <nowiki>https://asia.landcoalition.org/en/newsroom/from-maps-to-recognition/</nowiki>
* Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>
* Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>
* Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>
* Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>
* Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>
* Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>
* Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>
* Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>
* Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>
* Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>
* Ministry of Plantation and Commodities. (2024). ''Agricommodity pocket stats 2023''. <nowiki>https://www.kpk.gov.my/kpk/images/mpi_statistik/Pocket_Stats/2023/poket-stats-2023full/index.html#page/1</nowiki>
* Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>
* Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>
* Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>
* Sanz, M. J., & Perea Blazquez, A. K. (2025). Analysis of international climate change governance for the agriculture, forest and land use sector: Gaps and recommendations for future improvement. Earth System Governance, 25, 100278. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2025.100278</nowiki>
* Sarmiento, F., Larrea, C., Oeschger, A., & Jose, R. (2024, February 21). ''Measures to enhance forest conservation and reduce deforestation: Viewpoints and lessons from producing countries''. International Institute for Sustainable Development. <nowiki>https://www.iisd.org/ssi/publications/measures-enhance-forest-conservation-reduce-deforestation/</nowiki>
* Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>
* Statbase. (2026). ''Literacy rate, by gender | Malaysia | Male''. <nowiki>https://statbase.org/data/mys-literacy-rate-by-gender/</nowiki>
* The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>
* The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>
* UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>
* UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. (n.d.). Malaysia country profile. ProtectedPlanet. <nowiki>https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/MYS</nowiki>
* Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>
* World Resources Institute. (2026). LandMark: A global data platform of Indigenous and community lands to help communities protect their land rights and secure tenure. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/initiatives/landmark</nowiki>
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* worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>
* Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

== Footnote ==

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T21:09:02Z

Dreamsanatomy:

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T21:02:19Z

Dreamsanatomy:

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:52:42Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected<ref>About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).</ref>(Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)|center]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Annex 2: Problem Tree for Sarawak illustrating the core problem of primary forest deforestation due to oil palm conversion of forests in Sarawak, its causes and effects'''

[[File:Problem_Tree_for_Sarawak_illustrating_the_core_problem_of_primary_forest_deforestation_due_to_oil_palm_conversion_of_forests_in_Sarawak,_its_causes_and_effects.png|center|thumb]]
'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

Alam, M., Alam, M., & Gounder, K. A. (2025). ''Climate extremes and disproportionate burden on women in the Global South: A way forward''. In Gender‑transformative approaches for climate change adaptation (Chapter 5). Springer. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-90236-9_5</nowiki>

Andrade, R. (2026). The reduction of deforestation in Brazil 2004–2012: What happens next? <nowiki>https://www.ricardoandrade.org/index.php/publications/reduction-deforestation</nowiki>

aus der Beek, R. (2026, March 31). ''From consultation to leadership: Advancing gender equality and social inclusion in social forestry''. RECOFTC. <nowiki>https://www.recoftc.org/regional/stories/consultation-leadership-advancing-gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-social-forestry</nowiki>

Awang Mahmood, A. Z. B. (2026, April 4). NCR basics. Land and Survey Department Sarawak. <nowiki>https://landsurvey.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/614</nowiki>

Bhusal, A., Dhungel, N., Chhetri, P., Bhattarai, S., Giri, S., Pathak, T. R., & Khanal, A. (2024). Status of community-based forest management in selected South Asian countries: Benefits, challenges, and key lessons. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management, 3(4), 225–236. <nowiki>https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/josem</nowiki>

Bitzer, V., Moździerz, M., Kuijpers, R., Schouten, G., & Juju, D. B. (2024). Gender and forest resources in low‑ and middle‑income countries: A systematic literature review. ''Forest Policy and Economics, 163'', 103226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103226</nowiki>

Borneo Post. (2017, May 16). ''Literacy rate in Sabah and Sarawak lower''. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/05/16/literacy-rate-in-sabah-and-sarawak-lower/</nowiki>

Dasgupta, A. (2024). ''Gendered vulnerabilities in climate shocks: The role of social protection interventions''. ''Environmental Research: Climate, 3''(4). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad8d03</nowiki>

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Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

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Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

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Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

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Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

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Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

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The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:47:29Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Appendices */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)|center]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Annex 2: Problem Tree for Sarawak illustrating the core problem of primary forest deforestation due to oil palm conversion of forests in Sarawak, its causes and effects'''

[[File:Problem_Tree_for_Sarawak_illustrating_the_core_problem_of_primary_forest_deforestation_due_to_oil_palm_conversion_of_forests_in_Sarawak,_its_causes_and_effects.png|center|thumb]]
'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

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Dhyani, S., Murthy, I. K., Kadaverugu, R., Dasgupta, R., Kumar, M., & Gadpayle, K. A. (2021). Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: Are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared? Forests, 12(3), 303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030303</nowiki>

Faridah Aini, M., Elias, M., Lamers, H., Shariah, U., Brooke, P., & Mohd Hafizul, H. (2017). Evaluating the usefulness and ease of use of participatory tools for forestry and livelihoods research in Sarawak, Malaysia. ''Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 26''(1), 29–46. <nowiki>https://gender.cgiar.org/publications/evaluating-usefulness-and-ease-use-participatory-tools-forestry-and-livelihoods</nowiki>

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025). ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025: Malaysia'' (Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/98998dc9-b939-4239-8380-da5c7066b268/content</nowiki>

Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

Human Rights Watch. (2025, May 4). ''Facing the bulldozers: Iban Indigenous resistance to the timber industry in Sarawak, Malaysia''. Human Rights Watch. <nowiki>https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/05/04/facing-the-bulldozers/iban-indigenous-resistance-to-the-timber-industry-in</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

International Land Coalition. (2026). From maps to recognition: How participatory data supports the resolution of spatial conflicts in Indonesia. <nowiki>https://asia.landcoalition.org/en/newsroom/from-maps-to-recognition/</nowiki>

Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>

Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>

Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

Ministry of Plantation and Commodities. (2024). ''Agricommodity pocket stats 2023''. <nowiki>https://www.kpk.gov.my/kpk/images/mpi_statistik/Pocket_Stats/2023/poket-stats-2023full/index.html#page/1</nowiki>

Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>

Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>

Sanz, M. J., & Perea Blazquez, A. K. (2025). Analysis of international climate change governance for the agriculture, forest and land use sector: Gaps and recommendations for future improvement. Earth System Governance, 25, 100278. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2025.100278</nowiki>

Sarmiento, F., Larrea, C., Oeschger, A., & Jose, R. (2024, February 21). ''Measures to enhance forest conservation and reduce deforestation: Viewpoints and lessons from producing countries''. International Institute for Sustainable Development. <nowiki>https://www.iisd.org/ssi/publications/measures-enhance-forest-conservation-reduce-deforestation/</nowiki>

Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

Statbase. (2026). ''Literacy rate, by gender | Malaysia | Male''. <nowiki>https://statbase.org/data/mys-literacy-rate-by-gender/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. (n.d.). Malaysia country profile. ProtectedPlanet. <nowiki>https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/MYS</nowiki>

Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

World Resources Institute. (2026). LandMark: A global data platform of Indigenous and community lands to help communities protect their land rights and secure tenure. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/initiatives/landmark</nowiki>

World Resources Institute. (2024). ''Malaysia''. Forest Legality Risk Tool. <nowiki>https://forestpolicy.org/risk-tool/country/malaysia</nowiki>

worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>

Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

File:Problem Tree for Sarawak illustrating the core problem of primary forest deforestation due to oil palm conversion of forests in Sarawak, its causes and effects.png

2026-05-15T20:45:54Z

Dreamsanatomy: Uploaded a work by Peter Wood from from Peter Wood's slide with UploadWizard

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{{Information
|description={{en|1=Problem Tree for Sarawak illustrating the core problem of primary forest deforestation due to oil palm conversion of forests in Sarawak, its causes and effects}}
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Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:42:36Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023) */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)|center]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

Alam, M., Alam, M., & Gounder, K. A. (2025). ''Climate extremes and disproportionate burden on women in the Global South: A way forward''. In Gender‑transformative approaches for climate change adaptation (Chapter 5). Springer. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-90236-9_5</nowiki>

Andrade, R. (2026). The reduction of deforestation in Brazil 2004–2012: What happens next? <nowiki>https://www.ricardoandrade.org/index.php/publications/reduction-deforestation</nowiki>

aus der Beek, R. (2026, March 31). ''From consultation to leadership: Advancing gender equality and social inclusion in social forestry''. RECOFTC. <nowiki>https://www.recoftc.org/regional/stories/consultation-leadership-advancing-gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-social-forestry</nowiki>

Awang Mahmood, A. Z. B. (2026, April 4). NCR basics. Land and Survey Department Sarawak. <nowiki>https://landsurvey.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/614</nowiki>

Bhusal, A., Dhungel, N., Chhetri, P., Bhattarai, S., Giri, S., Pathak, T. R., & Khanal, A. (2024). Status of community-based forest management in selected South Asian countries: Benefits, challenges, and key lessons. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management, 3(4), 225–236. <nowiki>https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/josem</nowiki>

Bitzer, V., Moździerz, M., Kuijpers, R., Schouten, G., & Juju, D. B. (2024). Gender and forest resources in low‑ and middle‑income countries: A systematic literature review. ''Forest Policy and Economics, 163'', 103226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103226</nowiki>

Borneo Post. (2017, May 16). ''Literacy rate in Sabah and Sarawak lower''. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/05/16/literacy-rate-in-sabah-and-sarawak-lower/</nowiki>

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Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

Human Rights Watch. (2025, May 4). ''Facing the bulldozers: Iban Indigenous resistance to the timber industry in Sarawak, Malaysia''. Human Rights Watch. <nowiki>https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/05/04/facing-the-bulldozers/iban-indigenous-resistance-to-the-timber-industry-in</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

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Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

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UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:42:27Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023) */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

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Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

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Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

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Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

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The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

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== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:42:18Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023) */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
[[File:State-Level_Share_of_Oil_Palm_Plantation_Area_in_Malaysia.png|thumb|Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)]]
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

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Dasgupta, A. (2024). ''Gendered vulnerabilities in climate shocks: The role of social protection interventions''. ''Environmental Research: Climate, 3''(4). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad8d03</nowiki>

Dhyani, S., Murthy, I. K., Kadaverugu, R., Dasgupta, R., Kumar, M., & Gadpayle, K. A. (2021). Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: Are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared? Forests, 12(3), 303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030303</nowiki>

Faridah Aini, M., Elias, M., Lamers, H., Shariah, U., Brooke, P., & Mohd Hafizul, H. (2017). Evaluating the usefulness and ease of use of participatory tools for forestry and livelihoods research in Sarawak, Malaysia. ''Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 26''(1), 29–46. <nowiki>https://gender.cgiar.org/publications/evaluating-usefulness-and-ease-use-participatory-tools-forestry-and-livelihoods</nowiki>

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025). ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025: Malaysia'' (Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/98998dc9-b939-4239-8380-da5c7066b268/content</nowiki>

Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

Human Rights Watch. (2025, May 4). ''Facing the bulldozers: Iban Indigenous resistance to the timber industry in Sarawak, Malaysia''. Human Rights Watch. <nowiki>https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/05/04/facing-the-bulldozers/iban-indigenous-resistance-to-the-timber-industry-in</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

International Land Coalition. (2026). From maps to recognition: How participatory data supports the resolution of spatial conflicts in Indonesia. <nowiki>https://asia.landcoalition.org/en/newsroom/from-maps-to-recognition/</nowiki>

Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>

Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>

Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

Ministry of Plantation and Commodities. (2024). ''Agricommodity pocket stats 2023''. <nowiki>https://www.kpk.gov.my/kpk/images/mpi_statistik/Pocket_Stats/2023/poket-stats-2023full/index.html#page/1</nowiki>

Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>

Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>

Sanz, M. J., & Perea Blazquez, A. K. (2025). Analysis of international climate change governance for the agriculture, forest and land use sector: Gaps and recommendations for future improvement. Earth System Governance, 25, 100278. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2025.100278</nowiki>

Sarmiento, F., Larrea, C., Oeschger, A., & Jose, R. (2024, February 21). ''Measures to enhance forest conservation and reduce deforestation: Viewpoints and lessons from producing countries''. International Institute for Sustainable Development. <nowiki>https://www.iisd.org/ssi/publications/measures-enhance-forest-conservation-reduce-deforestation/</nowiki>

Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

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The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. (n.d.). Malaysia country profile. ProtectedPlanet. <nowiki>https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/MYS</nowiki>

Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

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worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>

Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

File:State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia.png

2026-05-15T20:41:54Z

Dreamsanatomy: Uploaded a work by Ivan Egiarait from uploaded on behalf of Ivan with UploadWizard

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Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:30:42Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest<ref>The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).</ref>, with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

Alam, M., Alam, M., & Gounder, K. A. (2025). ''Climate extremes and disproportionate burden on women in the Global South: A way forward''. In Gender‑transformative approaches for climate change adaptation (Chapter 5). Springer. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-90236-9_5</nowiki>

Andrade, R. (2026). The reduction of deforestation in Brazil 2004–2012: What happens next? <nowiki>https://www.ricardoandrade.org/index.php/publications/reduction-deforestation</nowiki>

aus der Beek, R. (2026, March 31). ''From consultation to leadership: Advancing gender equality and social inclusion in social forestry''. RECOFTC. <nowiki>https://www.recoftc.org/regional/stories/consultation-leadership-advancing-gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-social-forestry</nowiki>

Awang Mahmood, A. Z. B. (2026, April 4). NCR basics. Land and Survey Department Sarawak. <nowiki>https://landsurvey.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/614</nowiki>

Bhusal, A., Dhungel, N., Chhetri, P., Bhattarai, S., Giri, S., Pathak, T. R., & Khanal, A. (2024). Status of community-based forest management in selected South Asian countries: Benefits, challenges, and key lessons. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management, 3(4), 225–236. <nowiki>https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/josem</nowiki>

Bitzer, V., Moździerz, M., Kuijpers, R., Schouten, G., & Juju, D. B. (2024). Gender and forest resources in low‑ and middle‑income countries: A systematic literature review. ''Forest Policy and Economics, 163'', 103226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103226</nowiki>

Borneo Post. (2017, May 16). ''Literacy rate in Sabah and Sarawak lower''. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/05/16/literacy-rate-in-sabah-and-sarawak-lower/</nowiki>

Dasgupta, A. (2024). ''Gendered vulnerabilities in climate shocks: The role of social protection interventions''. ''Environmental Research: Climate, 3''(4). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad8d03</nowiki>

Dhyani, S., Murthy, I. K., Kadaverugu, R., Dasgupta, R., Kumar, M., & Gadpayle, K. A. (2021). Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: Are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared? Forests, 12(3), 303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030303</nowiki>

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Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

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Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

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Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

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UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:25:52Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Appendices */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest'''[1]''', with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram|center]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

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Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

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Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

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Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

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Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

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Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

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Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>

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Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

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The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:25:20Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Appendices */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest'''[1]''', with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.jpg|thumb|Ivan Egirait Updated Theory of Change Diagram]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

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Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

Human Rights Watch. (2025, May 4). ''Facing the bulldozers: Iban Indigenous resistance to the timber industry in Sarawak, Malaysia''. Human Rights Watch. <nowiki>https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/05/04/facing-the-bulldozers/iban-indigenous-resistance-to-the-timber-industry-in</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

International Land Coalition. (2026). From maps to recognition: How participatory data supports the resolution of spatial conflicts in Indonesia. <nowiki>https://asia.landcoalition.org/en/newsroom/from-maps-to-recognition/</nowiki>

Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>

Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>

Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

Ministry of Plantation and Commodities. (2024). ''Agricommodity pocket stats 2023''. <nowiki>https://www.kpk.gov.my/kpk/images/mpi_statistik/Pocket_Stats/2023/poket-stats-2023full/index.html#page/1</nowiki>

Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>

Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>

Sanz, M. J., & Perea Blazquez, A. K. (2025). Analysis of international climate change governance for the agriculture, forest and land use sector: Gaps and recommendations for future improvement. Earth System Governance, 25, 100278. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2025.100278</nowiki>

Sarmiento, F., Larrea, C., Oeschger, A., & Jose, R. (2024, February 21). ''Measures to enhance forest conservation and reduce deforestation: Viewpoints and lessons from producing countries''. International Institute for Sustainable Development. <nowiki>https://www.iisd.org/ssi/publications/measures-enhance-forest-conservation-reduce-deforestation/</nowiki>

Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

Statbase. (2026). ''Literacy rate, by gender | Malaysia | Male''. <nowiki>https://statbase.org/data/mys-literacy-rate-by-gender/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. (n.d.). Malaysia country profile. ProtectedPlanet. <nowiki>https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/MYS</nowiki>

Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

World Resources Institute. (2026). LandMark: A global data platform of Indigenous and community lands to help communities protect their land rights and secure tenure. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/initiatives/landmark</nowiki>

World Resources Institute. (2024). ''Malaysia''. Forest Legality Risk Tool. <nowiki>https://forestpolicy.org/risk-tool/country/malaysia</nowiki>

worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>

Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

File:Theory of Change Diagram.jpg

2026-05-15T20:24:55Z

Dreamsanatomy: Uploaded a work by Ivan Egirait from uploading on behalf of Ivan with UploadWizard

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Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:22:54Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Appendices */

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest'''[1]''', with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''
[[File:Theory_of_Change_Diagram.png|center|thumb|theory of change]]
'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

Alam, M., Alam, M., & Gounder, K. A. (2025). ''Climate extremes and disproportionate burden on women in the Global South: A way forward''. In Gender‑transformative approaches for climate change adaptation (Chapter 5). Springer. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-90236-9_5</nowiki>

Andrade, R. (2026). The reduction of deforestation in Brazil 2004–2012: What happens next? <nowiki>https://www.ricardoandrade.org/index.php/publications/reduction-deforestation</nowiki>

aus der Beek, R. (2026, March 31). ''From consultation to leadership: Advancing gender equality and social inclusion in social forestry''. RECOFTC. <nowiki>https://www.recoftc.org/regional/stories/consultation-leadership-advancing-gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-social-forestry</nowiki>

Awang Mahmood, A. Z. B. (2026, April 4). NCR basics. Land and Survey Department Sarawak. <nowiki>https://landsurvey.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/614</nowiki>

Bhusal, A., Dhungel, N., Chhetri, P., Bhattarai, S., Giri, S., Pathak, T. R., & Khanal, A. (2024). Status of community-based forest management in selected South Asian countries: Benefits, challenges, and key lessons. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management, 3(4), 225–236. <nowiki>https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/josem</nowiki>

Bitzer, V., Moździerz, M., Kuijpers, R., Schouten, G., & Juju, D. B. (2024). Gender and forest resources in low‑ and middle‑income countries: A systematic literature review. ''Forest Policy and Economics, 163'', 103226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103226</nowiki>

Borneo Post. (2017, May 16). ''Literacy rate in Sabah and Sarawak lower''. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/05/16/literacy-rate-in-sabah-and-sarawak-lower/</nowiki>

Dasgupta, A. (2024). ''Gendered vulnerabilities in climate shocks: The role of social protection interventions''. ''Environmental Research: Climate, 3''(4). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad8d03</nowiki>

Dhyani, S., Murthy, I. K., Kadaverugu, R., Dasgupta, R., Kumar, M., & Gadpayle, K. A. (2021). Agroforestry to achieve global climate adaptation and mitigation targets: Are South Asian countries sufficiently prepared? Forests, 12(3), 303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030303</nowiki>

Faridah Aini, M., Elias, M., Lamers, H., Shariah, U., Brooke, P., & Mohd Hafizul, H. (2017). Evaluating the usefulness and ease of use of participatory tools for forestry and livelihoods research in Sarawak, Malaysia. ''Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 26''(1), 29–46. <nowiki>https://gender.cgiar.org/publications/evaluating-usefulness-and-ease-use-participatory-tools-forestry-and-livelihoods</nowiki>

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025). ''Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025: Malaysia'' (Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/98998dc9-b939-4239-8380-da5c7066b268/content</nowiki>

Forest Department Sarawak. (2026, March 6). ''Sustainable forest management''. <nowiki>https://forestry.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/595</nowiki>

Fripp, E., Gorman, J., Schneider, T., Smith, S., Paul, J., Neeff, T., Marietti, F., Vary, L., & Zosel-Harper, A. (2023). Traceability and transparency in supply chains for agricultural and forest commodities: A review of success factors and enabling conditions to improve resource use and reduce forest loss (Report). World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.22.00156</nowiki>

Guillaume, E. (2017). ''Operationalizing gender equity and inclusion in forest management decision‑making mechanisms''. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). <nowiki>https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/6644/</nowiki>

Ho, S. (2025, August 26). ''Sarawak communities seek urgent government action against palm oil‑driven deforestation''. Eco‑Business. <nowiki>https://www.eco-business.com/news/sarawak-communities-seek-urgent-government-action-against-palm-oil-driven-deforestation/</nowiki>

Human Rights Watch. (2025, May 4). ''Facing the bulldozers: Iban Indigenous resistance to the timber industry in Sarawak, Malaysia''. Human Rights Watch. <nowiki>https://www.hrw.org/report/2025/05/04/facing-the-bulldozers/iban-indigenous-resistance-to-the-timber-industry-in</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

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Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

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Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

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Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

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Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

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Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

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The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

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worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>

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== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:17:48Z

Dreamsanatomy:

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest'''[1]''', with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

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Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

International Land Coalition. (2026). From maps to recognition: How participatory data supports the resolution of spatial conflicts in Indonesia. <nowiki>https://asia.landcoalition.org/en/newsroom/from-maps-to-recognition/</nowiki>

Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>

Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>

Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

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Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>

Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>

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Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

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The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

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Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

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worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>

Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

== Footnote ==
[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Documentation:Funding Proposal - Theory of Change, Logical Framework, and Narrative to Address Primary Forest Deforestation in the State of Sarawak, Malaysia

2026-05-15T20:16:50Z

Dreamsanatomy: editing on behalf of Ivan

== '''Ivan Egirait-Situation analysis, problem tree, and stakeholder analysis''' ==
Malaysia, located in Southeast Asia (WorldData.info, 2026), comprises of approximately 18.88 million hectares of forest'''[1]''', with Sarawak contributing the largest share (FAO, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). It accounts for roughly 43% of Malaysia’s total remaining forest cover; however, only 11% are fully protected'''[2]''' (Koh et al., 2023).

The palm oil sector is particularly dominant wherein palm oil surpassed crude petroleum as the Sarawak’s leading export in 2023, generating approximately USD 3.1 billion'''[3]''' (UKAS, 2025). Oil palm plantations cover approximately 5.65 million hectares of Malaysia’s land area, of which Sarawak hosts ~1.62 million hectares (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). See figure 1 below for state level distribution.

=== '''Figure 1: State-Level Share of Oil Palm Plantation Area in Malaysia (2023)''' ===
Source: Ministry of Plantation and Commodities (2024)

Estimates suggest that nearly 90% of the Sarawak’s primary forest has been lost to deforestation over the past five decades (Merriman, 2025; Sasada, 2025). This has been driven primarily by conversion of forests to large-scale oil palm plantations (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a). Additional drivers include timber and rubber plantations, legal and illegal logging, mining activities, and major infrastructure projects (Koh et al., 2023).

Underlying these drivers include weak land-tenure frameworks, inadequate recognition of Native Customary Rights (NCR), corruption and vested political–economic interests tied to timber and plantation concessions'''[4]''' (Koh et al., 2023). Strong global demand for palm oil and pulp, coupled with government incentives such as subsidies and expansion targets, have further reinforced pressure on forested land (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

The consequences of this primary forest deforestation have been multidimensional, encompassing biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, social conflict, and long-term economic vulnerabilities (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023). See annex 2 for problem tree diagram.

In terms of stakeholders, at state level, the Ministry of Urban Development and Natural Resources (MUDeNR) provides policy oversight, with implementation undertaken by specialized agencies. The Forest Department Sarawak is responsible for forest management planning, while the Sarawak Forestry Corporation oversees conservation and protection functions'''[5]''' (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development, 2026; World Resources Institute, 2024).

Land governance, including the adjudication of NCR, falls under the jurisdiction of the Land and Survey Department with the federal Ministry of Plantation and Commodities influencing the sector through regulatory standards developed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board'''[6]''' (Malay Mail, 2024). Plantation companies and smallholder associations, primarily those represented by the Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association (SOPPOA), exert considerable influence reinforced by market incentives, whereas Indigenous communities often possess limited political leverage despite their legally recognized NCR claims and forest dependence over the decades (Kiu, 2024; Ho, 2025). NGOs, and certification schemes such as the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil standard (MSPO), as well as sustainability commitments by global buyers continue to exert growing, though still uneven, influence in shaping forest governance outcomes (Human Rights Watch, 2025; ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; Koh et al., 2023).

== '''Theory of change, Logical framework and narrative''' ==
To address primary forest deforestation, the proposed theory of change (TOC) articulates an overarching impact statement which stipulates that IF Sarawak strengthens forest governance, secures Native Customary Rights tenure, and transitions priority palm oil supply chains toward deforestation-free production systems, THEN primary forest loss will decline by 70% by 2040, BECAUSE land-use decisions will shift from politically driven forest conversion toward transparent, community-inclusive, and climate-aligned management supported by sustainable palm oil markets. See Annex 3 for theory of change diagram.

This projection is considered achievable, as evidenced by Brazil’s integrated approach between 2004 and 2012, which combined robust forest monitoring, stringent policy enforcement, advocacy, market interventions, and international financing, achieving over 70% reduction in deforestation during that period (Andrade, 2026).

The TOC rests on several key assumptions that underlie the likelihood of success. First, it assumes that Sarawak’s Forest Department and Land & Survey Department will prioritize forest monitoring and compliance with the MSPO certification framework (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Malay Mail, 2024). This expectation is reinforced by mounting international pressure from the EU, NGOs, consumer brands, and local communities, under the EUDR, which aims to reduce deforestation linked to commodities entering the EU market, a major destination for Malaysian palm oil'''[7]''' (The Borneo Project, 2025a, 2025b).

Second, the TOC presumes that the Sarawak Land Code will continue progressing toward consistent legal recognition of NCR rights across Indigenous and local communities (Malay Mail, 2024). Despite some inconsistency in application, existing pathways for improved legal recognition are anticipated to reduce land tenure disputes among stakeholders (Awang Mahmood, 2026).

Third, it is expected that the SOPPOA will uphold its commitments to market-based incentives promoting compliance with sustainable practices (Kiu, 2024). Degraded Permanent Forest Estates for restoration are also anticipated to possess viable soil conditions and strong community buy-in, fostering greater engagement in sustainable forest management (Minggu, 2026)

Barriers are anticipated to challenge implementation. Weak enforcement capacity may constrain forest managers and frontline officers in regulating companies and addressing illegal activities (Koh et al., 2023). This could impede activities such as developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training agencies for data-sharing, and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b).

Political and economic pressure on state policymakers and rural communities to prioritize plantation expansion over long-term forest protection may hinder activities like implementing community-based forest restoration projects, supporting agroforestry initiatives, strengthening protected area management, and promoting adoption of sustainable palm oil certification systems (Human Rights Watch, 2025; Koh et al., 2023).

Inconsistent recognition of Indigenous land tenure may undermine government accountability slowing activities such as participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, provision of legal assistance for NCR recognition, and the establishment of conflict-resolution mechanisms between communities and plantation companies (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a; 2024b)

Political influence exerted by vested interests in timber and oil palm plantation industries may weaken transparency and accountability in land-use decisions, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of capacity-building programs and traceability system implementation (Kiu, 2024; Koh et al., 2023).

A comprehensive package of activities is delivered. Developing satellite-based deforestation monitoring systems, training government agencies in data-sharing and forest surveillance and establishing multi-stakeholder land governance platforms are projected to produce the output of improved forest monitoring and governance systems, leading to the outcome of strengthened forest governance and enforcement capacity. The associated co-benefit from this process will be enhanced livelihoods and reduced conflict through more reliable and equitable forest management structures'''[8]'''. In Indonesia, Indigenous communities have used satellite data to monitor and report illegal logging activities, while in Suriname, deforestation data has been instrumental in exposing threats to the Saamaka people’s land rights. In both cases this significantly reduced deforestation (Reytar et al., 2023).

The implementation of community-based forest restoration projects, support for agroforestry initiatives, and reinforced management of protected areas are expected to yield the output of forest restoration and conservation initiatives. This, in turn, will result in the outcome of climate-resilient and restored forest landscapes. Community-based forest management programs have been effective in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, resulting in increased forest cover, biodiversity preservation, and reduced deforestation while providing local communities with income-generating opportunities that advance economic well-being'''[9]''' (Bhusal et al., 2024).

Participatory mapping of Indigenous territories, providing legal assistance for NCR recognition, and setting up conflict-resolution platforms, are projected to yield the output of strengthened recognition and mapping of NCR lands. The corresponding outcome will be secure recognition and protection of NCR to land, with the co-benefit of improved livelihoods and reduced conflict through reduced disputes and equitable access to forest resources. In Suriname’s Amazon rainforest, the Saamaka community in efforts to reduce deforestation, have been successful in utilizing spatial data and mapping tools from LandMark to document illegal deforestation and land degradation on their territories'''[10]''' (World Resources Institute, 2026).

Training stakeholders in sustainable practices, supporting adoption of the MSPO certification, and developing traceability systems for deforestation-free palm oil supply chains is anticipated to generate the output of sustainable palm oil certification and landscape management, facilitating the outcome of deforestation-free palm oil production in supply chains. The co-benefit will be enhanced biodiversity conservation across agro-industrial landscapes. Progress in this regard has been evident in Indonesia through its mandatory national certification scheme, the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil standard, supported by forest-use restrictions, audits, and updated supply-chain traceability requirements (Sarmiento et al., 2024). Traceability was improved by requiring certified operators to identify the origin of fresh fruit bunches and disclosure of supplier and buyer linkages across the value chain'''[11]''' (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Gender analysis''' ==
Disparities continue to shape women's roles in Sarawak's forest and palm oil sectors (aus der Beek, 2026). Adult literacy rates lag for women (72%) compared to men (96.8%) and national averages (Borneo Post, 2017; Statbase, 2026), potentially constraining NCR claims and MSPO certification access. Labour force participation within the forestry sector is similarly gendered, with men disproportionately represented in formal employment (15.3% compared to 7.9%) (Lim, 2019; Meng, 2009).

Division of labor reflects gendered norms wherein women handle intensive forest gathering amid mobility/time constraints, yet hold limited decision-making power (Bitzer et al., 2024). Women's ethnobotanical expertise too complemented men's, supporting restoration and livelihoods (Faridah Aini et al., 2017). Climate change further intensifies these inequalities, as deforestation disproportionately increases women’s household responsibilities, undermining their adaptive capacity, primarily in relation to food and water security (Dasgupta, 2024; Alam et al., 2025).

To address these gaps, the project proposes gender quotas ensuring at least 40% female participation in governance platforms, gender sensitive NCR mapping, and agroforestry initiatives. Complementary measures, including flexible training schedules and gender-disaggregated monitoring are anticipated to enhance equitable access to MSPO certification, leadership opportunities, and livelihood benefits across project phases (Guillaume, 2017; aus der Beek, 2026).

== '''Risk analysis''' ==
Risks are anticipated across activities. Political changes in land‑use policies present a high‑likelihood, high‑impact threat that could weaken reform commitments, disrupting implementation. Mitigation will include sustained stakeholder engagement, policy advocacy, transparency, and alignment with institutional frameworks (Sarmiento et al., 2024). If this risk occurs, adaptive programming and stronger partnerships with stakeholders will be employed to sustain momentum (Sanz & Perea Blazquez, 2025).

Climate shocks pose a moderate‑likelihood, high‑impact risk, for restoration and agroforestry efforts. Mitigation will emphasize climate‑resilient species selection and adaptive land management drawing on proven practices from India and Nepal (Dhyani et al., 2021). Mitigation will include recovery and livelihood support strategies to relieve pressure on forests.

Stakeholder conflict represents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑to‑high‑impact risk that could delay participatory mapping and NCR recognition. Mitigation will involve inclusive engagement, proactive conflict‑resolution mechanisms, and stakeholder mapping (Wiati et al., 2018; Sarmiento et al., 2024). If disputes arise, mediation platforms will be intensified to rebuild trust.

Market volatility in palm oil prices presents a moderate‑likelihood, moderate‑impact risk affecting primarily smallholders'''[12]''' (Reich & Musshoff, 2025). Mitigation will include long‑term market incentives and certification benefits, while response efforts will focus on strengthening value chain partnerships and income diversification (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

== '''Appendices''' ==
'''Annex 1: Map Showing the location of Sarawak.'''

'''Source: Human Rights Watch, 2025'''

'''Biodiversity loss''' (orangutans, hornbills and many endemic species lose habitat)

'''Greenhouse gas emissions''' (From peatland drainage under oil palms)

'''Environmental impacts''' (soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers and altered water cycles)

'''Social impacts''' (displacement of Indigenous and rural communities, conflict over land, communities report losing access to hunting, fishing and traditional lands)

'''Economic vulnerabilities''' (overreliance on a boom‑bust commodity).

'''Conversion of natural primary forests to oil palm plantations'''.

'''Global market demand''' for palm oil (food, cosmetics, biofuel, animal feed)

'''National/state policies and incentives''' promoting plantation agriculture (e.g. land concessions, zoning of forest for agriculture, targets for palm output).

'''Land-tenure and governance gaps''' (vague title deeds, weak enforcement, overlapping laws in Sarawak)

'''Economic pressures''' (poverty reduction goals, desire for export revenue) that prioritize plantation development over conservation.

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

'''Annex 3: Theory of Change Diagram'''

'''Source: Secondary data, 2026'''

== '''References''' ==

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Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024a). ''Reinforcing deforestation‑free palm oil supply chains: Options for Malaysia in the context of EU and global legislation''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Deforestation_free_supply_chains_for_palm_oil_2.pdf</nowiki>

Institute of Strategic and International Studies Malaysia (ISIS Malaysia), & Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). (2024b). ''Availability of EU deforestation regulation relevant information for the palm oil sector in Malaysia'' (Policy Brief No. 2). <nowiki>https://www.isis.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Policy-brief-2-Malaysia-data-readiness-for-EUDR_layout2.pdf</nowiki>

International Land Coalition. (2026). From maps to recognition: How participatory data supports the resolution of spatial conflicts in Indonesia. <nowiki>https://asia.landcoalition.org/en/newsroom/from-maps-to-recognition/</nowiki>

Jong, H. N. (2023, September 1). ''Palm oil giants Indonesia, Malaysia start talks with EU over deforestation rule''. Mongabay. <nowiki>https://news.mongabay.com/2023/09/palm-oil-giants-indonesia-malaysia-start-talks-with-eu-over-deforestation-rule/</nowiki>

Kiu Kwong Seng, E. (2024). ''Chairman’s message'' [Newsletter]. Sarawak Oil Palm Plantation Owners Association. <nowiki>http://soppoa.org.my/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/SOPPOA-E-Newsletter-Dec-Feb-24-v2-min.pdf</nowiki>

Koh, J., Johari, S., Shuib, A., Siow, M. L., & Matthew, N. K. (2023). Malaysia’s Forest Pledges and The Bornean State of Sarawak: A Policy Perspective. Sustainability, 15(2), 1385. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021385</nowiki>

Kumaran, S., Chew, J. S., & Nambiappan, B. (2021). ''Moving forward with mandatory MSPO certification standards''. ''Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, 21''(1), 1–12. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.21894/opiej.2021.01</nowiki>

Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). ''Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia''. ''Japan Labor Issues, 3''(17). <nowiki>https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2019/017-03.pdf</nowiki>

Malay Mail. (2024, January 15). ''In Sarawak, Dayak oil palm planters say willing to pay for NCR land surveys to speed up process''. <nowiki>https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/01/16/in-sarawak-dayak-oil-palm-planters-say-willing-to-pay-for-ncr-land-surveys-to-speed-up-process/112701</nowiki>

Meng, L. (2009). ''The relevance and impact of gender issues on the outlook for forestry to 2020 in North Asia''. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/4/am257e/am257e00.pdf</nowiki>

Merriman, J. (2025, January 7). ''The promise of “no deforestation”: Sarawak’s forests tell a different story''. The Borneo Project. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/the-promise-of-no-deforestation-sarawaks-forests-tell-a-different-story/</nowiki>

Ministry of Natural Resources and Urban Development. (2026, March 1). ''Our Minister’s and Permanent Secretary''. <nowiki>https://mudenr.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/111</nowiki>

Minggu, K. (2026, March 31). Deputy Premier: Growing PFE hectarage proof of commitment to sustainable forest management. The Borneo Post. <nowiki>https://www.theborneopost.com/2026/03/31/deputy-premier-growing-pfe-hectarage-proof-of-commitment-to-sustainable-forest-management/</nowiki>

Ministry of Plantation and Commodities. (2024). ''Agricommodity pocket stats 2023''. <nowiki>https://www.kpk.gov.my/kpk/images/mpi_statistik/Pocket_Stats/2023/poket-stats-2023full/index.html#page/1</nowiki>

Proforest. (2025). ''Options to broaden smallholder inclusivity in legal and deforestation-free palm oil supply chains in Malaysia''. European Forest Institute. <nowiki>https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/smallholder_inclusivity_report.pdf</nowiki>

Reich, C., & Musshoff, O. (2025). Oil palm smallholders and the road to certification: Insights from Indonesia. Journal of Environmental Management, 375, 124303. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124303</nowiki>

Reytar, K., Webb, J., & Veit, P. (2023, November 20). Indigenous peoples and local communities are using satellite data to fight deforestation. World Resources Institute. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-use-satellite-data-deforestation</nowiki>

Sanz, M. J., & Perea Blazquez, A. K. (2025). Analysis of international climate change governance for the agriculture, forest and land use sector: Gaps and recommendations for future improvement. Earth System Governance, 25, 100278. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2025.100278</nowiki>

Sarmiento, F., Larrea, C., Oeschger, A., & Jose, R. (2024, February 21). ''Measures to enhance forest conservation and reduce deforestation: Viewpoints and lessons from producing countries''. International Institute for Sustainable Development. <nowiki>https://www.iisd.org/ssi/publications/measures-enhance-forest-conservation-reduce-deforestation/</nowiki>

Sasada, I. (2025, August 8). ''Maps offer hope of saving a rainforest in Malaysian Borneo’s Sarawak''. Al Jazeera. <nowiki>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/8/maps-offer-hope-to-save-threatened-rainforest-in-malaysian-borneos-sarawak</nowiki>

Statbase. (2026). ''Literacy rate, by gender | Malaysia | Male''. <nowiki>https://statbase.org/data/mys-literacy-rate-by-gender/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025a, January 10). ''Deforestation alert: Ulu Belaga''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/deforestation-alert-ulu-belaga/</nowiki>

The Borneo Project. (2025b, October 30). ''Victory for Indigenous communities in Sarawak as Urun Plantations halts forest clearing''. <nowiki>https://borneoproject.org/victory-for-indigenous-communities-in-sarawak-as-urun-plantations-halts-forest-clearing/</nowiki>

UKAS. (2025, September 19). ''Palm oil overtakes crude petroleum as Sarawak’s leading export''. Premier of Sarawak Department. <nowiki>https://premierdept.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/news_view/25115/UKAS</nowiki>

UNEP-WCMC & IUCN. (n.d.). Malaysia country profile. ProtectedPlanet. <nowiki>https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/MYS</nowiki>

Wiati, C. B., Indriyanti, S. Y., Maharani, R. N., & Subarudi. (2018). Conflict resolution efforts through stakeholder mapping in Labanan Research Forest, Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 144(1), 012063. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012063</nowiki>

World Resources Institute. (2026). LandMark: A global data platform of Indigenous and community lands to help communities protect their land rights and secure tenure. <nowiki>https://www.wri.org/initiatives/landmark</nowiki>

World Resources Institute. (2024). ''Malaysia''. Forest Legality Risk Tool. <nowiki>https://forestpolicy.org/risk-tool/country/malaysia</nowiki>

worlddata.info. (2026, January). ''Malaysia – Federal parliamentary monarchy, Southeast Asia, surface area, capital''. <nowiki>https://www.worlddata.info/asia/malaysia/index.php</nowiki>

Yasmin, N., van Rijn, M., & Hojas Gascon, L. (2026). Réduction des émissions provenant du déboisement et de la dégradation des forêts REDD+. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/redd/news/detail/fr/c/1667812/</nowiki>

----[1] The country is comprised of 13 states and three Federal Territories. Eleven of these states and two Federal Territories are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, with the states of Sabah and Sarawak situated on the island of Borneo, separated by the South China Sea (WorldData.info, 2026).

[2] About 1.09 million hectares of primary forest persist nationwide, of which just 13.32% falls within protected areas (FAO, 2025; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, n.d.).

[3] Palm oil and related products contribute nearly 9.9% of exports, around 6% of national GDP (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024).

[4] Although Malaysia adopted a No New Deforestation pledge for oil palm in 2018, forest clearance within plantation areas in Sarawak has continued (Merriman, 2025).

[5] The Sarawak Premier authorizes major land and plantation concessions, while the MUDeNR Permanent Secretary chairs certification-related committees. Environmental compliance and regulatory oversight on the other hand are administered by the Natural Resources and Environment Board (Forest Department Sarawak, 2026; Ho, 2025; Kiu, 2024).

[6] Other federal institutions such as the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry and the Malaysian Timber Industry Board, influence the broader economic and regulatory environment through export policy, trade negotiations, and sustainability certification systems (ISIS Malaysia & UPM, 2024a, 2024b; Kumaran et al., 2021)

[7] The EU ranks as the third-largest market for oil palm from Malaysia, after India and China. In 2023, palm oil exports accounted for 7.1% of the Malaysia’s overall palm oil exports (Proforest, 2025).

[8] Cambodia has effectively implemented deforestation monitoring systems across four provinces bordering Thailand with positive outcomes from the pilot phase prompting incorporation of near–real-time monitoring into the national action plan for 2024–2027 (Yasmin et al., 2026).

[9] Rwanda too, reduced deforestation by combining policy reform, landscape restoration, agroforestry, tree-planting campaigns, multi-stakeholder coordination, and strong monitoring, all supported by financing and public participation, moving from about 10.7% forest cover in 2010 to 30.4% in 2022 (Sarmiento et al., 2024).

[10] Similarly, in Indonesia’s Lebak District, the Kasepuhan Karang community have employed participatory mapping to delineate key land uses, serving as a critical instrument for formal recognition of their land rights (International Land Coalition, 2026).

[11] Companies such as Musim Mas achieved full traceability to plantation for managed mills by 2020 with 93% traceability for third-party mills by 2021, enabling proactive monitoring across 9.2 million hectares of production areas in Indonesia (Fripp et al., 2023).

[12] Smallholder farmers face high financial and structural constraints which could limit their capacity, hence risking their exclusion from vital supply chains (Jong, 2023).

Course:GEOG350/Help and Resources

2026-03-25T23:30:42Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Renaming Your Page */

Course:GEOG350/Chapters

2026-03-25T22:08:39Z

Dreamsanatomy:

{{Start tab|
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| link-1 = Course:GEOG350
| tab-3 = Create Your Book Chapter
| link-3 = Course:GEOG350/Chapters
| tab-5 = Previous Book Chapters
| link-5 = Course:GEOG350/TOC
| tab-6 = Help and Resources
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==Creating Your Chapter==
Here are some steps and resources to help you create your page and have it appear on the index for this portal on the bottom, so that it can be easily accessed by your peers and your instructor.
===1. Login to the UBC Wiki===
Click the CWL button on the top left of the page and login from there.
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Your [[Help:User_page|user page]] is basically a profile page. Its purpose is to provide a space for you to let other UBC Wiki users know who you are and what your affiliation is with UBC. It can also be a space for testing and experimentation.
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We have made it easy for you to create your Chapter page right from here. Just '''add the title of your chapter to the box below and click on the create page''' button (note that you will need to be logged in to the UBC Wiki in order for this to work). On the edit screen that loads, add your name to the edit screen and hit '''SAVE''' at the bottom of the page. You can delete this later when you are ready to start writing your chapter.<inputbox>
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=== 5. Add your chapter to the Index page ===
After you have completed your chapter, add your chapter to the project list below. For list of sections, take a look at the [[Course:GEOG350/Sections|Book Outlines and Theme tab]].

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The following is all optional but if you’d like your name added to the page as author as well allowing other people to re-use it as a conservation resource, you can:
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Course:GEOG350/Chapters

2026-03-25T22:06:47Z

Dreamsanatomy:

Course:CONS200/2016w2/Wiki Projects/Monsanto Terminator Seeds

2026-02-17T16:56:35Z

Dreamsanatomy: fixing typo, per request of the external email

{{Projectbox Conservation
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[[File:Monsanto-vestiging Enkhuizen.jpg|thumb|Monsanto sign. Karen Eliot. [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ CC BY-SA 2.0], via [http://www.flickr.com/photos/kareneliot/5149268342/ Flickr]]]

'''Monsanto and Terminator Seeds'''
Monsanto is a corporation which specializes in creating GMO (genetically modified organism) technology and genetically altering seeds, especially soy, to improve the crop yield. Their "terminator seeds" are modified to only last one generation to ensure that farmers have to annually purchase new seeds from the organization. This method poses an environmental concern being that it significantly reduces crop diversity and introduces many GMOs into the earth.

==Nature of the Issue ==
In March 1998, Delta and Land Pine Company of Scott, Mississippi received the patent for the genetically engineered terminator seed<ref>Menon, Subhadra. "TERMINATOR SEED." India Today (August 3, 1998). Factiva.</ref>. This seed prohibits the natural evolution of the crops from occurring, and instead stop the growth process of the seeds’ second generation before they can mature. Monsanto claims the terminator seed would solve the problem they created of genetically modified crops contaminating neighbouring crops<ref>Los, Fraser. 2006. The terminator. Alternatives Journal 32 (3); 24.</ref>. Fear quickly arose from this announcement, and later became a governmental concern once giant agricultural biotechnology corporation, Monsanto acquired Delta and Land Pine Company – mastermind behind the feared terminator seed<ref>Shand, Hope. 1998. "Terminator Seeds: Monsanto Moves to Tighten its Grip on Global Agriculture." Multinational Monitor 19 (11): 13-16. http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?accountid=14656.</ref>. Although Monsanto pledged to not commercialize the seed, tensions grew between chemical, seed and biotechnological companies; meanwhile movements against the terminator seed were led by consumers, environmentalist and sustainable development activists<ref>Shand, Hope. 1998. "Terminator Seeds: Monsanto Moves to Tighten its Grip on Global Agriculture." Multinational Monitor 19 (11): 13-16. http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?accountid=14656.</ref>. Monsanto claims the terminator seed would solve the problem they created of genetically modified crops contaminating neighbouring crops<ref>Los, Fraser. 2006. The terminator. Alternatives Journal 32 (3); 24.</ref>.

These genetically modified seeds have little benefits to the farmers. Those who are in advantage are the seed companies. The seed prevents farmers from re-planting seeds throughout the seasons by producing a sterile seed, which is unable to reproduce<ref>Thayer, Ann, and Ann Thayer. 10/11/1999. Chemical & engineering news: Monsanto nixes terminator seeds. 77, (41): 17</ref>. This forces the farmer to turn to commercial seeds, profiting the large corporations<ref>Thayer, Ann, and Ann Thayer. 10/11/1999. Chemical & engineering news: Monsanto nixes terminator seeds. 77, (41): 17</ref> and “creating greater dependency on proprietary seeds and their companion chemicals”<ref>Shand, Hope. 1998. "Terminator Seeds: Monsanto Moves to Tighten its Grip on Global Agriculture." Multinational Monitor 19 (11): 13-16. http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?accountid=14656.</ref>. Another advantage would be the improvements for monopoly seed pricing decreasing price discrimination between farmers. But this again benefits the seed corporations as well, by paying farmers equally, with no risk of paying a farmer who reuses their seeds (less expensive for the farmer) the same as a farmer who does not<ref>Fischer III, William W. "The Impact of “Terminator Gene” Technologies on Developing Countries." United Kingdom Department for International Development (December 1999).</ref>.

Aggressive marketing schemes target uneducated farmers, unable to see through the scientific claims being promoted by the major agrochemical corporations<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541</ref>. The introduction of the terminator seed means the traditional method of saving seeds for certain environmental conditions is obsolete<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541</ref>. Without a farmer’s ability to alter their seeds as environmental conditions change, their resources will deplete. Those who can’t afford to replace seeds seasonally, such as those in developing countries, are greatly impacted by the disposability of the terminator seed<ref>Thayer, Ann, and Ann Thayer. 10/11/1999. Chemical & engineering news: Monsanto nixes terminator seeds. 77, (41): 17</ref>. Poorer farmers of the tropics and sub-tropics produce 15-20 percent of the world’s food, and encourage genetic diversity in plant breeding<ref>Shand, Hope. 1998. "Terminator Seeds: Monsanto Moves to Tighten its Grip on Global Agriculture." Multinational Monitor 19 (11): 13-16. http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?accountid=14656.</ref>. Not only are the farmers at a loss, but also the population’s food security. Even for the better off farmers of developing countries are at risk, as the need to re-purchase seeds increase costs and control through licensing agreements<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541</ref>, leaving the resource-poor farmers to “los[e] their ability to determine their own lives – transforming them to meet the demand of their new masters”<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541</ref>. This isolates farmers from the corporations, harming their much-needed relationship.

The terminator seed has the ability to decrease crop diversity, pollinate nearby crops with the sterile gene, as well as wipe out agricultural populations<ref>Service, RF. 10/30/1998. Science (new york, N.Y.): Plant biotechnology - seed-sterilizing 'terminator technology' sows discord. 282, (5390): 850</ref>, leading the debate to a question of ethics. Although the seeds are intended for the use of already genetically modified<ref>Service, RF. 10/30/1998. Science (new york, N.Y.): Plant biotechnology - seed-sterilizing 'terminator technology' sows discord. 282, (5390): 850</ref>, if disease strikes within the crop, it can wipe out the entire field<ref>Service, RF. 10/30/1998. Science (new york, N.Y.): Plant biotechnology - seed-sterilizing 'terminator technology' sows discord. 282, (5390): 850</ref>. This negatively impacts the farmer, the species and the population that relies on the farm’s outputs. With the reduction of feasible crops because of terminator seed complications within developing countries means the dependency on developed countries<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541</ref>. This reliance produces severe marginalization and “diminution of its powers of self-determination”<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541</ref>. While major corporations argue the need for technological advancements and control in agriculture to cater to the world’s food demand, organizations counter argue that this can only be achieved through common ownership, biodiversity and ecosystem conscious approaches<ref>Shand, Hope. 1998. "Terminator Seeds: Monsanto Moves to Tighten its Grip on Global Agriculture." Multinational Monitor 19 (11): 13-16. http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?accountid=14656.</ref>.

==Categories of Actors==
===Monsanto Company===
Monsanto reaps many profits from its terminator seed product. <ref>Los, F. (08/01/2006). Alternatives journal (waterloo): The terminator: The next extreme in GMO could undo 10,000 years of traditional agriculture Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo. </ref> The company persuades farmers to purchase two products from them- ‘Roundup’, a glysophate-containing weed-killer, and seeds resistant to the product. <ref> Schluter, D. C. (2015). Contested safety: Monsanto's "roundup ready" agricultural assemblage versus counter discourses of roundup risk (Order No. 1587968). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1685036071). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1685036071?accountid=14656 </ref> Since terminator seeds are sterile in the second generation, Monsanto also requires farmers to buy seeds from them annually. Monsanto vowed not to commercialize terminator seeds in 1999, but may choose to in the future as the increased use of this technology would create a stronger monopoly for the company than patents. <ref>Herring, R. J. (2006). WHY DID "OPERATION CREMATE MONSANTO" FAIL?: Science and class in india's great terminator-technology hoax. Critical Asian Studies, 38(4), 467-493. doi:10.1080/14672710601073010</ref>

===Farmers===
Terminator technology makes it impossible for farmers to use their traditional right to save the seed of their harvest for planting in the next crop season. <ref> Los, F. (08/01/2006). Alternatives journal (waterloo): The terminator: The next extreme in GMO could undo 10,000 years of traditional agriculture Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo. </ref> Not only is this immoral by Monsanto, but also has the potential to ruin a farmer's crop yield if the seeds that must now be planted are defective. This increases spending as farmers now have to buy seeds yearly from suppliers, and also inhibits farmers from breeding newer, stronger and more locally adapted varieties of seeds.<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2507554 </ref> This is harmful financially to resource-poor farmers who cannot afford to pay for annual seeds but have been trapped by Monsanto marketing.<ref>Bustos, K. (2008). Sowing the Seeds of Reason in the Field of the Terminator Debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 77(1), 65-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25075541 </ref>

[[File:March Against Monsanto in Chile.jpg|thumb|March against Monsanto in Chile. Mapuexpress Informativo Mapuche (group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina) . [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ CC BY-SA 2.0], via [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:March_Against_Monsanto_Chile.jpg Wikimedia Commons]]]

===Non-Government Organizations===
Environmental non-government organizations (NGOs) are impacted by terminator seeds due to the immense risk they pose to the environment. This causes NGOs (such as Greenpeace) to go to court with Monsanto in order to protect the planet and also, in this case, the ethical rights of farmers. After glyphosate - the herbicide chemical in Roundup and other GMOs - was classified as a probable human carcinogen in March 2015, six NGOs in Europe filed formal legal complaints against Monsanto for denying the cancer-causing effects. <ref> Qaim, M. (2016). Genetically modified crops and agricultural development. 112-136. doi:10.1057/9781137405722 </ref>
NGOs can arguably benefit from Monsanto by drawing attention to the issue by insinuating a lawsuit, then accepting a large amount of donations from the public whether the case is pursued or not. <ref> Qaim, M. (2016). Genetically modified crops and agricultural development. 112-136. doi:10.1057/9781137405722 </ref>

===Plant Diversity===
Biodiversity is damaged when the sterilization of genes occur because it is then impossible for those exact genes to be reproduced.<ref> Visser, B., van der Meer, I., Louwaars, N., Beekwilder, J., & Eaton, D. (2001). The impact of terminator technology. Biotechnology and Development Monitor, 48, 9-12. </ref> An ecological risk given by terminator seeds is the the possibility of pollen movement during the first generation of terminator seed cultivation. This would cause cross contamination, and the local seeds would become sterile as well. <ref>Marvier, M., & Van Acker, R. (03/01/2005). Frontiers in ecology and the environment: Can crop transgenes be kept on a leash?. 93-100.
</ref> This poses the threat that farmers will not know if their crops have been contaminated, generating potential for economical and food security problems.

==Evidence for the Problem==
With an issue as controversial and high profile as that of commercializing the genetically engineered terminator seeds, it becomes all the more important to critically evaluate the information being provided: who is supporting the issue, and who is against it? What is the evidence provided to support their claim? What implicit bias is present, and what does each party stand to lose or gain? As previously noted, the key stakeholders in this particular issue include Monsanto (and companies owned by Monsanto), farmers, and non-government organizations (NGOs).

===Threat to the Environment?===
Monsanto’s main motivation to create and commercialize terminator seeds is, unsurprisingly, economic. Melvin J. Oliver, a molecular biologist with the United States Department of Agriculture and primary inventor of the biotechnology, expressed in 1998 that the main goal of creating the seeds is to “protect” US agriculture, and make the US competitive on the global stage. With this motive abundantly clear, it makes Monsanto’s claim that the seeds cause no environmental harm a difficult statement to substantiate. Monsanto claims that the genetic seed sterilization actually provides enhanced safety to the wild relative crops nearby, as the seeds produced from unwanted pollination would not germinate with the terminator seed technology. However, these statements and “facts” were released by the USDA – who, at the time, jointly held the terminator seed patent with Monsanto. In addition to the conflict of interest, the “facts” regarding the seeds have not been confirmed through any research. Furthermore, critics such as molecular biologist Martha Crouch of the University of Indiana are quick to point out that, under certain conditions, the sterility from the terminator crop could spread via pollination to surrounding plants and make those plants sterile as well. Further questions from critics include important issues, such as: will the terminator gene mutate and change characteristics in some dangerous way? Will the seeds containing the toxin that sterilizes them pose health threats to humans? Will the antibiotics used in the process harm or alter the environment, and the humans consuming them? Ultimately, the developers of the terminator seeds maintain that these concerns are groundless. However, without sufficient research to confirm the benign nature of these seeds, the reassurance remains unconfirmed <ref>Shand, Hope (Nov. 1998) Terminator seeds: Monsanto moves to tighten its grip on global agriculture. 13-16. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?pq-origsite=summon&accountid=14656</ref>.

===Social Cost===
Another main claim by Monsanto is that farmers will, in fact, benefit by the use of the technology. <ref>Charles, Dan. (2012).Top five myths of genetically modified seeds, busted. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/10/18/163034053/top-five-myths-of-genetically-modified-seeds-busted</ref>. Additionally, Monsanto is quick to point out that farmers do not need to buy the seed <ref>Shand, Hope (Nov. 1998) Terminator seeds: Monsanto moves to tighten its grip on global agriculture. 13-16. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?pq-origsite=summon&accountid=14656</ref>.
Again, these claims go against a robust body of evidence to support that farmers in the areas where the terminator seeds were targeted to be marketed usually cannot afford to buy seed annually, having operated on recycling seeds for generations <ref> Steinbrecher, Ricarda A., Mooney, Pat Roy. (1998). Terminator technology: the threat to world food security. Retrieved from https://global-factiva-com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/ga/default.aspx </ref> Additionally, the coercive effects of governments or regulating bodies often dictate which seeds can be purchased by farmers, in the hopes that this will stimulated maximum yield – further removing the ability of farmers to choose seed options other than terminator seeds. <ref>Shand, Hope (Nov. 1998) Terminator seeds: Monsanto moves to tighten its grip on global agriculture. 13-16. retrieved fromhttp://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/docview/208880062?pq-origsite=summon&accountid=14656 </ref> The final blow to the credibility of Monsanto’s claims came when they decided to stop the terminator seed project, and avoid pursuing any efforts to commercialize in future, expressing that they share many of the concerns that the farmer’s and NGOs had voiced regarding the sterile seed technology <ref>Monsanto. (2017). Myth: Monsanto sells terminator seeds. Retrieved from http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/pages/terminator-seeds.aspx
</ref>

===Layering Perspectives: Additional Costs and Implications?===
The description above details the costs and implications related to the use of Monsanto's terminator seeds from the perspective of a natural resources conservation student. In this section, we welcome contributions from other perspectives. Those interested in contributing to this case study may use the following questions as a guide:

# What other costs and/or implications become apparent when the use of Monsanto's genetically modified terminator seeds is viewed through the lens of other disciplines and professions?
# What special expertise, resources, or theoretical orientations might others bring to help us better understand the costs and/or implications associated with the use of Monsanto's terminator seeds?

== Remedial Actions==
It is highly unlike if not impossible for there to be a remedial action which would benefit all actors regarding this issue, being that the values of opposing sides are so different, but there are solutions which can help at least one member.
#
=== Fighting against Monsanto and using local methods/seeds.===
An action that would benefit both farmers and farming communities is inhibiting the use of Monsanto technology, and alternatively using local technology and growing techniques. This method has already been adopted by many farmers in the Philippines, where the community has been fighting back against corporations, such as Monsanto, and relying on their own seeds and procedures. MASIPAG, a farmer-led network of people’s organizations of NGOs and scientists based in the Philippines, depend on more natural and organic matters, rather than the synthetic pesticides and herbicides which companies sell [https://therules.org/farmers-regaining-control-seeds-alternative-monsanto-philippines/]. This procedure would improve the livelihoods of the farmers and their communities, as well as allow for a self-sustaining economy rather than one reliant on buying new seeds from Monsanto annually. By removing themselves from Monsanto and its procedures, farming communities can dispose of the financial, political and cultural strain they experience. Farmers would be able to customize their own crops and techniques by integrating cultural practices and using seeds which are well suited for the specific environments. This will reduce the harm that is done on the soil, environment and the health of the people. If these local actions are taken the crop yield should be successful and, through the help on organizations such as MASIPAG, there would be no need to depend on GMOs in order to achieve enough growth. Economically and financially this solution makes sense as well, because if the crops are able to grow well without the use of terminator seeds, the farmers don't have to pay for the seeds every year yet still achieve profit from their crops to support their livelihoods. Furthermore, by supporting local seed companies, communities are able to improve their own economy from within instead of living in poverty and continuously buying from larger companies. Finally, by agreeing to local methods rather than Monsanto farming communities maintain their freedom and independence.
A risk to this action for farmers is the chance that initially their crops may not be as successful as with the use of Terminator seeds, although by adjusting their methods and improving their scientific methods this issue should be locally resolved.
#

=== Use off- patent seeds.===

"It has been 20 years since Monsanto developed its first genetically modified crops. Now, some of its early patents are starting to expire which is leading to the first "generic GMOs" off-patent seeds that cost half as much and which farmers are free to save and replant." [http://cropprotectionnews.com/stories/510631702-universities-market-alternatives-to-monsanto-s-patented-gmo-seeds].
The main benefit of this solution is removing the monopoly and power Monsanto currently has. This action would allow farmers to buy genetic seeds with the same technology Monsanto used to use only for half the price and with the capability to save seeds from year to year, to produce . Financially this is a huge advantage for farmers, being that they could save money but the seeds being used are still negatively impactful to the environment and contain the same technology Monsanto used to use. The solution to use off-patent seeds instead of Terminator seeds is a more recent resolution to the issue of Monsanto's seeds, but comes with its own disadvantages.
The genetically altered seeds can still be dispersed via wind and contaminate the soil, therefore when considering this action it is important to remember is doesn't improve the health of the environment but increases the financial and political situations for farmers.

==Conclusion==
While the world understands the increase in food demand and the possibility of technology being the answer to this demand, biotechnological companies appropriate such needs. Terminator technology not only affects farmers, but the population which they feed, which could scale from a developing village to the world’s demands. This is why the terminator seed is contested throughout academics, activists and citizens, and seems to solely be supported by its owner: Monsanto.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Conservation]]
[[Category:CFRC Theme Intellectual Property Rights]]
[[Category:CFRC Theme Agriculture]]
[[Category:CFRC Theme Monsanto Corporation]]
[[Category:CFRC Theme Genetically Modified Organisms]]
[[Category:CFRC Theme Land Use Rights]]
[[Category:CFRC Theme Terminator Seeds]]
[[Category:CFRC Course CONS200]]
[[Category:CFRC Region Multiple Countries]]

Course:CONS200/Help and Resources

2026-02-13T22:56:07Z

Dreamsanatomy:

{{Start tab|
| tab-1 = Guidelines
| link-1 = Course:CONS200
| tab-3 = 2026
| link-3 = Course:CONS200/Projects
| tab-4 = Past Projects
| link-4 = Course:CONS200/Samples
| tab-5 = Help and Resources
| link-5 = Course:CONS200/Help and Resources
}}

==Formatting Help==

{{help}}

==Using Images on the Wiki==

[http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures Click here to get help on adding images and pictures on wiki pages.] 

== Adding video to the wiki ==
In order to upload the video to the wiki, you will have to upload the video on video hosting site such as [http://www.youtube.com YouTube] or [https://learning.media.ubc.ca/ Kaltura] .
* [[Help:Widgets/YouTube|Embedding YouTube Video]]
* [[Help:Widgets/Kaltura|Embedding Kaltura Video]]

== Adding audio to the wiki ==
* [[Help:Adding Media/Audio|Adding Audio files]]

 

==Renaming Your Page==
[[File:Move Tab.png|frame|Access the move link via the drop down arrow tab at the top of the wiki]]This is done by using the [[Help:Renaming_a_page|move link]] in the drop down arrow tab at the top of the wiki. The tab is not visible if you not are logged in.
#Click on the move link
#In the new title box, you'll find the current title of your page. It will look something like ''CONS200/2023/Sample Page''
# Enter the new name after the prefix CONS200/2023. For example ''CONS200/2023/'''My New Title'''''<nowiki/>'''.'''
# Click the move page button.

== Deleting Page ==
In order to delete wiki page, contact either wiki.support@ubc.ca , will.engle(at)ubc.ca or rie.namba(at)ubc.ca

==Help Contacts==
*wiki.support@ubc.ca
*will.engle (at) ubc.ca
*rie.namba (at) ubc.ca

==Drop-In Wiki Office Hours==
Click on the link to access:
*[https://open.ubc.ca/wikiofficehours Tuesday 10am-11am (Mar-May)]

==Slides from presentation==
*[https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10XN_eAXt_cxnBtrIp0qkFRtzbn5jpeZmnpxIQVZYcmA/edit?usp=sharing Orientation Slides]

Course:CONS200/Help and Resources

2026-02-13T21:02:06Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Renaming Your Page */

{{Start tab|
| tab-1 = Guidelines
| link-1 = Course:CONS200
| tab-3 = 2026
| link-3 = Course:CONS200/Projects
| tab-4 = Past Projects
| link-4 = Course:CONS200/Samples
| tab-5 = Help and Resources
| link-5 = Course:CONS200/Help and Resources
}}

==Formatting Help==

{{help}}

==Using Images on the Wiki==

[http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures Click here to get help on adding images and pictures on wiki pages.] 

== Adding video to the wiki ==
In order to upload the video to the wiki, you will have to upload the video on video hosting site such as [http://www.youtube.com YouTube] or [https://learning.media.ubc.ca/ Kaltura] .
* [[Help:Widgets/YouTube|Embedding YouTube Video]]
* [[Help:Widgets/Kaltura|Embedding Kaltura Video]]

== Adding audio to the wiki ==
* [[Help:Adding Media/Audio|Adding Audio files]]

 

==Renaming Your Page==
[[File:Move Tab.png|frame|Access the move link via the drop down arrow tab at the top of the wiki]]This is done by using the [[Help:Renaming_a_page|move link]] in the drop down arrow tab at the top of the wiki. The tab is not visible if you not are logged in.
#Click on the move link
#In the new title box, you'll find the current title of your page. It will look something like ''CONS200/2023/Sample Page''
# Enter the new name after the prefix CONS200/2023. For example ''CONS200/2023/'''My New Title'''''<nowiki/>'''.'''
# Click the move page button.

==Help Contacts==
*wiki.support@ubc.ca
*will.engle (at) ubc.ca
*rie.namba (at) ubc.ca

==Drop-In Wiki Office Hours==
Click on the link to access:
*[https://open.ubc.ca/wikiofficehours Tuesday 10am-11am (Mar-May)]

==Slides from presentation==
*[https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10XN_eAXt_cxnBtrIp0qkFRtzbn5jpeZmnpxIQVZYcmA/edit?usp=sharing Orientation Slides]

Course:CONS200/Help and Resources

2026-02-13T21:01:39Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Drop-In Wiki Office Hours */

{{Start tab|
| tab-1 = Guidelines
| link-1 = Course:CONS200
| tab-3 = 2026
| link-3 = Course:CONS200/Projects
| tab-4 = Past Projects
| link-4 = Course:CONS200/Samples
| tab-5 = Help and Resources
| link-5 = Course:CONS200/Help and Resources
}}

==Formatting Help==

{{help}}

==Using Images on the Wiki==

[http://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures Click here to get help on adding images and pictures on wiki pages.] 

== Adding video to the wiki ==
In order to upload the video to the wiki, you will have to upload the video on video hosting site such as [http://www.youtube.com YouTube] or [https://learning.media.ubc.ca/ Kaltura] .
* [[Help:Widgets/YouTube|Embedding YouTube Video]]
* [[Help:Widgets/Kaltura|Embedding Kaltura Video]]

== Adding audio to the wiki ==
* [[Help:Adding Media/Audio|Adding Audio files]]

 

==Renaming Your Page==
[[File:Move Tab.png|frame|Access the move link via the drop down arrow tab at the top of the wiki]]This is done by using the [[Help:Renaming_a_page|move link]] in the drop down arrow tab at the top of the wiki. The tab is not visible if you not are logged in.
#Click on the move link
#In the new title box, you'll find the current title of your page. It will look something like ''CONS200/2020/Sample Page''
# Enter the new name after the prefix CONS200/2023. For example ''CONS200/2023/'''My New Title'''''<nowiki/>'''.'''
# Click the move page button.

==Help Contacts==
*wiki.support@ubc.ca
*will.engle (at) ubc.ca
*rie.namba (at) ubc.ca

==Drop-In Wiki Office Hours==
Click on the link to access:
*[https://open.ubc.ca/wikiofficehours Tuesday 10am-11am (Mar-May)]

==Slides from presentation==
*[https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10XN_eAXt_cxnBtrIp0qkFRtzbn5jpeZmnpxIQVZYcmA/edit?usp=sharing Orientation Slides]

Course:CONS200/Projects

2026-02-13T18:37:26Z

Dreamsanatomy: /* Project Table */

{{Start tab|
| tab-1 = Guidelines
| link-1 = Course:CONS200
| tab-3 = 2026
| link-3 = Course:CONS200/Projects
| tab-4 = Past Projects
| link-4 = Course:CONS200/Samples
| tab-5 = Help and Resources
| link-5 = Course:CONS200/Help and Resources
}}

==Create Your Wiki Page==
===1. Login to the UBC Wiki===
Click the CWL button on the top of the page and login from there.

===2. Find your Project page===
Find your project page from the table below. If you don't see your project, create the wiki page using the box below:

<inputbox>
useve=yes
placeholder=project title here
preload=Course:CONS200/Sample Assignment Page
prefix=Course:CONS200/2026WT2/
type=create

</inputbox>

===3. Begin Writing! ===
Click the "Edit" button to start editing your wiki page! Your new wiki page will be created with some suggested headings and sections.
==Project Table==

After you have created your project page, please add your information to the project below. You can edit the table by double clicking on the table.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Group
!Project Title
|-
|Test
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2|Rie's project]]
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|}

==Project Template==
This project template is only a guide for your wiki page. You can modify it depending on your topic. Click on the link to your topic to begin editing:
*
[[Course:CONS200/Sample Assignment Page|Project Template]]

==Project Listings(Auto Generated)==

<dpl>
titlematch=CONS200/2026WT2/%
namespace=Course
shownamespace=false
replaceintitle=$CONS200/2026WT2/$,
allowcachedresults=false
format=,\n* [[%PAGE%|%TITLE%]],,
</dpl>

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2

2026-02-13T18:36:37Z

Dreamsanatomy:

<ref name=":0">Nicholl, K. (2020, May). A royal spark. ''Vanity Fair'', 62(5), 56–65, 100.</ref>[http://www.ubc.ca Add your introduction here]<ref>Sample Reference</ref>, covering general background information about the topic (e.g. location, duration).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Namba|first=Rie|date=1993|title=Rie's test project|url=http://www.test.com|journal=Sample Journal|pages=20}}</ref>

test...

<ref name=":0" />test...

test...
[[File:Grandville_island.jpg|thumb|Images of Grandville Island, located in Vancouver]]

==Heading #1==
[[File:Granville Island Vancouver 04.JPG|alt=tree..and there is a bridge..|center|thumb|120x120px|Grandville island... context...]]
[[File:Grandville island.jpg|thumb]]

== Another Heading ==
test[///test/// ///test///]

[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]] Include the scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of negative impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue.

test...

==Heading #2==
A description of the solutions or efforts that are currently underway to tackle the issue or problem.

==Heading #3 ==
Describe your analysis and evaluation of additional solutions and recommendations from a technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations);

==Conclusion==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic.

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=Rie Namba
|share=yes
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project

2026-02-13T18:35:39Z

Dreamsanatomy: Dreamsanatomy moved page Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project to Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2

#REDIRECT [[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2

2026-02-13T18:35:39Z

Dreamsanatomy: Dreamsanatomy moved page Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project to Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2

2026-02-13T18:34:37Z

Dreamsanatomy: