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Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-03-09T02:07:44Z

ChingZhang: /* What is the problem? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghostfishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, abandoned or otherwise not used) fishing equipment that is left within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned .

=== Types of ghostfishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are nets with a buoyant top line and weighted bottom line. Between these is a vertically suspended net that catches any fish that swim into it. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets is intended for catching fish by their gills, or tangling them so they cannot swim out. Gillnets are lost when the top or bottom line is dislodged, and travel via currents, trapping wildlife along the way. Gillnet hole sizes may be small as 30mm or large as 300mm - depending on the size of the holes, may affect a greater variety of bycatch.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets with three layers of netting. Sandwiched between two larger meshes is a fine mesh that traps fish the same way a gillnet does. Like a gillnet, trammel nets also contribute to ghostfishing by trapping unwanted bycatch if lost. Due to the complex netting structure, they pose a risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a variety of traps intended for different species, but all pose a risk to wildlife if lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow movement in, but not out. These pose a risk due to their convenient and efficient deployment – they’re widely used but can be abandoned or lost easily. The buoyant ropes used to anchor them to deployed locations also pose a risk to marine life - mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== Ways that ghostfishing occurs ===
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean yearly, totalling ~10% of overall marine debris lost. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - malicious or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean because of evasion of disposal taxes and costs, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear. Many illegal commercial fishers may dump their gear to prevent tracing from local port officials.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Seen in nets, many of these wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable because they’re cost-effective, so when a net gets stuck, it’s abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it’s stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it. [[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 3.''' Locations where ghostfishing equipment was recovered. <ref name=":10" />|alt=]]'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|'''Figure 4.''' Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]'''Location'''
Evidence of ghostfishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghostfishing is due to industrial fishing supplying food to population centers. It also shows that ghostfishing occurs in countries that have higher GDPs and so can afford to discard their fishing gear<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=et. al|date=September 01 2022|title=Industrialised fishing nations largely contribute to floating plastic pollution in the North Pacific subtropical gyre|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-16529-0|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|pages=Scientific Reports|via=}}</ref>. Ultimately however, evidence of ghostfishing can be found worldwide.

'''Depth'''

Discarded at the surface, abandoned nets begin to gather biomass as organisms become stuck when they prey on other trapped organisms. Holding this extra weight, the nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>.Additionally, the little movement of water and smaller populations in deep environments results in very little [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofouling biofouling]. This biofouling would normally aid in the degradation of ghostfishing equipment but without ample water movement and biological activity, equipment persists for long periods of time in benthic communities. The location within the ocean also affects the depth and therefore the type of gear found. As traps and pots can only be placed at depths of up to 750m, traps and pots are much less frequent in bathypelagic environments (between 1000-4000m)<ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA Fisheries|first=|date=March 14 2019|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION {{!}} U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghostfishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghostfishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, at many depths. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the seafloor and affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghostfishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghostfishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''

Because ghostfishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well, causing financial losses for the people who discard their nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=NOAA Marine Debris Program.|first=|date=2015|title=Impact of “Ghost Fishing“
via Derelict Fishing Gear|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf|journal=2015 NOAA Marine Debris Program Report|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghostfishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghostfishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>. This is important because not only does this waste interfere with aquatic life, but it is also a waste for the fishers themselves. 2% of all fishing gear being totally lost to the ocean is an expensive loss of energy and resources used to synthesize the gear in the first place.

== Ghostfishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]
==== Case studies ====
[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Cornwall, UK]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=A case study on the impact of ghost fishing gear in Cornwall, UK|url=https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf|journal=WSPA|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> : WSPA studied the types and amount of ghost gear present along Cornwall's coast, as well as the risk to marine animals. They then gave severity ratings to the different types of abandonment fishing gear. Buoys were the most common lost equipment, but nets and pots posed the greatest risk.

[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Nova Scotia, CA]<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=33 tonnes of ghost gear pulled from Nova Scotia shores last year, group says|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CBC News}}</ref>: NPO group Coastal Action collected lost and discarded lobster traps off the coast of Nova Scotia. Over 32 tonnes of gear were retrieved, some dating back to the 80s.
==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghostfishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Due to the large range of gillnet hole sizes, they target small pelagic fish, and bigger fish like tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.[[File:Manatee playing with a crab trap line.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' A manatee plays with a crab trap line|alt=|299x299px]]Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals, including: Orcas, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, turtles, sharks, rays, seals, seabirds, and even the endangered dugong<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duncan|first=EM|date=December 2017|title=A global review of marine turtle entanglement in anthropogenic debris: a baseline for further action|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00865|journal=Endangered species research|volume=34|pages=431-448|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stelfox|first=martin|date=October 2016|title=A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs|url=DOI 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.034|journal=Marine pollution bulletin|volume=111|pages=6-17|via=ScienceDirect Journals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parton|first=KJ|date=July 2019|title=Global review of shark and ray entanglement in anthropogenic marine debris|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00964|journal=Endangered species research|volume=39|pages=173-190|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref>.
Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms including lobsters, crayfish, and a variety of crab. However, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and untargeted crab species may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaiser|first=MJ|date=1996|title=Catches in 'ghost fishing' set nets|url=https://gw2jh3xr2c.search.serialssolutions.com/?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&url_ctx_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft.atitle=Catches+in+%27ghost+fishing%27%27+set+nets&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.auinit=MJ&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info:doi/10.3354%2Fmeps145011&rft.epage=16&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft.issue=1-3&rft.jtitle=MARINE+ECOLOGY+PROGRESS+SERIES&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.pages=11-16&rfr_id=info:sid/webofscience.com:WOS:WOS&rft.spage=11&rft.stitle=MAR+ECOL+PROG+SER&rft.volume=145&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+MJ&rft.au=Bullimore%2C+B&rft.au=Newman%2C+P&rft.au=Lock%2C+K&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+S|journal=Marine ecology. Progress series (Halstenbek)|volume=145|pages=11-16|via=}}</ref>. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghostfishing equipment. Even if these species don't die in the fishing nets, many will be injured enough to impair them from swimming and functioning properly again.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap fish by the gills or the appendages of mammals, especially when sections of the net are ripped for the larger animals to get stuck in. Smaller marine animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. Larger animals like whales may not see floating ghost gear until it's too late and get tangled. These mammals may also interact with ghost gear like in '''Figure 6.''', not knowing what it is and accidentally getting an appendage caught. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghostfishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the ecological impact, invasive potential of ghostfishing gear, and financial consequences. It was found that ghostfishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

The possibility of gear loss and subsequent ghostfishing present themselves wherever fishing gear is used<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Impact of "Ghost Fishing" via Derelict Fishing Gear|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. This is why ghostfishing and gear will continue to be problematic for as long as the fishing industry is alive, and afterward, as the gear survives in the water. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>, allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghostfishing can be seen in over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. The sinking occurs when nets become weighted with the catch of species like sea turtles, porpoises, sharks, and other large organisms, as well as the accumulation of small organisms, culminating in the damage of benthic specimens, like the breakage corals<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hancock|first=L.|date=|title=Our oceans are haunted by ghost nets: Why that's scary and what we can do|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/our-oceans-are-haunted-by-ghost-nets-why-that-s-scary-and-what-we-can-do--24|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-08|website=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghostfishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents their breakdown <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>. With the passing of time and the increased presence of gear in the water, the trapping of animals exacerbates.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghostfishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghostfishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|591x591px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghostfishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghostfishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghostfishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|'''Figure 8.''' A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />|alt=|350x350px]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To communities that depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. For example, a community in the Philippines experienced a 240 percent rise in fishing due to stock-damaging practices since 1960<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Selgrath|first=Jennifer et al.|date=March 2018|title=Shifting gears: Diversification, intensification, and effort increases in small-scale fisheries (1950-2010)|url=|journal=PLOS One|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource by which fishermen earn their keep, perpetuated by the increase in deployed nets in an attempt to compensate for lost stock<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parker|first=Laura|date=|title=These communities turn discarded fishing nets, or ghost nets, into carpets|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/heather-koldeway-explorer-nets-plastic-philippines-ocean-culture|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-07|website=}}</ref>. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress, whether that be from decreased catch or increased effort. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghostfishing impacts are intentionally anthropogenic, much of lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Common proposed solutions include investing in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghostfishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 9.''' Pellets like these were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have received funding to retrieve ghost gear located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref>. Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>.

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghostfishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were led by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. The Malahat Nation removes ghost gear from the Salish sea through the combined efforts of dive teams, Elders, and a remote-controlled submersible. The First Nation also raises awareness about ghostfishing and suggests anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>. Collaboration at the provincial level has also increased. The Marine Plan Partnership is an agreement between 17 coastal First Nations and the BC Government facilitating monitoring, stewardship and marine zoning to protect ecosystems from harm, including those caused by ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Marine Plan Partnership for the North Pacific Coast (MaPP)|url=http://mappocean.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=MaPP}}</ref>.

=====Global Solutions=====
Ghostfishing is a global problem and therefore requires global solutions. Despite this, most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghostfishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghostfishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI) have seen some success. The GGGI provides funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>. Even with these efforts the vast majority of ghost gear in the ocean is untracked and continues to damage ecosystems<ref>{{Cite book|title=Clean Nordic Oceans main report - a network to reduce marine litter and ghost fishing|last=Langedal, Gjermund, Aarbakke, Bård, Larsen, Finn, Stadig, Charlotta|first=|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers|year=2020|isbn=978-92-893-6560|location=|pages=31-34}}</ref> demonstrating that current solutions are insufficient.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-03-08T20:35:32Z

ChingZhang:

== What is the problem? ==
Ghostfishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghostfishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are nets with a buoyant top line and weighted bottom line. Between these lines is a vertically suspended net that serves to catch any fish that swim into it. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become lost from their areas of use when the top or bottom line is dislodged, and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way. Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm or as large as 300mm, and depending on the size of the holes, may affect a greater variety of species and bycatch.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" />

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two sheets with larger mesh is a fine mesh that traps fish the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghostfishing by killing unwanted bycatch if abandoned. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghostfishing if lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk to fish due to their convenient and efficient deployment - they are widely used but can be abandoned or lost easily. The buoyant ropes used to hold traps in place and anchor them to their deployed locations can also pose a risk to marine life - mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== Ways that ghostfishing occurs ===
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - malicious or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear. Many illegal commercial fishers may dump their gear to prevent tracing from local port officials.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable due to their cost effectiveness, so when a net gets stuck, it is usually abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghostfishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 3.''' Locations where ghostfishing equipment was recovered. <ref name=":10" />|alt=]]'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|'''Figure 4.''' Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]'''Location'''
Evidence of ghostfishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghostfishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofouling biofouling] occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghostfishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghostfishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghostfishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghostfishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghostfishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''

Because ghostfishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghostfishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghostfishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghostfishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]
==== Case studies ====
[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Cornwall, UK]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=A case study on the impact of ghost fishing gear in Cornwall, UK|url=https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf|journal=WSPA|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> : WSPA studied the types and amount of ghost gear present along Cornwall's coast, as well as the risk to marine animals. They then gave severity ratings to the different types of abandonment fishing gear. Buoys were the most common lost equipment, but nets and pots posed the greatest risk.

[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Nova Scotia, CA]<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=33 tonnes of ghost gear pulled from Nova Scotia shores last year, group says|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CBC News}}</ref>: NPO group Coastal Action collected lost and discarded lobster traps off the coast of Nova Scotia. Over 32 tonnes of gear were retrieved, some dating back to the 80s.
==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghostfishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Due to the large range of gillnet hole sizes, they target small pelagic fish, and bigger fish like tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.[[File:Manatee playing with a crab trap line.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' A manatee plays with a crab trap line|alt=|299x299px]]Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals, including: Orcas, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, turtles, sharks, rays, seals, seabirds, and even the endangered dugong<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duncan|first=EM|date=December 2017|title=A global review of marine turtle entanglement in anthropogenic debris: a baseline for further action|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00865|journal=Endangered species research|volume=34|pages=431-448|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stelfox|first=martin|date=October 2016|title=A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs|url=DOI 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.034|journal=Marine pollution bulletin|volume=111|pages=6-17|via=ScienceDirect Journals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parton|first=KJ|date=July 2019|title=Global review of shark and ray entanglement in anthropogenic marine debris|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00964|journal=Endangered species research|volume=39|pages=173-190|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref>.
Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms including lobsters, crayfish, and a variety of crab. However, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and untargeted crab species may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaiser|first=MJ|date=1996|title=Catches in 'ghost fishing' set nets|url=https://gw2jh3xr2c.search.serialssolutions.com/?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&url_ctx_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft.atitle=Catches+in+%27ghost+fishing%27%27+set+nets&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.auinit=MJ&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info:doi/10.3354%2Fmeps145011&rft.epage=16&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft.issue=1-3&rft.jtitle=MARINE+ECOLOGY+PROGRESS+SERIES&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.pages=11-16&rfr_id=info:sid/webofscience.com:WOS:WOS&rft.spage=11&rft.stitle=MAR+ECOL+PROG+SER&rft.volume=145&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+MJ&rft.au=Bullimore%2C+B&rft.au=Newman%2C+P&rft.au=Lock%2C+K&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+S|journal=Marine ecology. Progress series (Halstenbek)|volume=145|pages=11-16|via=}}</ref>. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghostfishing equipment. Even if these species don't die in the fishing nets, many will be injured enough to impair them from swimming and functioning properly again.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap fish by the gills or the appendages of mammals, especially when sections of the net are ripped for the larger animals to get stuck in. Smaller marine animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. Larger animals like whales may not see floating ghost gear until it's too late and get tangled. These mammals may also interact with ghost gear like in '''Figure 6.''', not knowing what it is and accidentally getting an appendage caught. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghostfishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the ecological impact, invasive potential of ghostfishing gear, and financial consequences. It was found that ghostfishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

The possibility of gear loss and subsequent ghostfishing present themselves wherever fishing gear is used<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Impact of "Ghost Fishing" via Derelict Fishing Gear|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. This is why ghostfishing and gear will continue to be problematic for as long as the fishing industry is alive, and afterward, as the gear survives in the water. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>, allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghostfishing can be seen in over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. The sinking occurs when nets become weighted, with the catch of species like sea turtles, porpoises, sharks, and other large organisms, as well as the accumulation of small organisms, culminating in the damage of benthic specimens, like the breakage corals<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hancock|first=L.|date=|title=Our oceans are haunted by ghost nets: Why that's scary and what we can do|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/our-oceans-are-haunted-by-ghost-nets-why-that-s-scary-and-what-we-can-do--24|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-08|website=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghostfishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents their breakdown <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>. With the passing of time and the presence of gear in the water, the trapping of animals exacerbates.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghostfishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghostfishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|591x591px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghostfishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghostfishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghostfishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />|alt=|350x350px]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To communities that depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. For example, a community in the Philippines experienced a 240 percent rise in fishing due to stock-damaging practices since 1960<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Selgrath|first=Jennifer et al.|date=March 2018|title=Shifting gears: Diversification, intensification, and effort increases in small-scale fisheries (1950-2010)|url=|journal=PLOS One|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource by which fishermen earn their keep, perpetuated by the increase in deployed nets in an attempt to compensate for lost stock<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parker|first=Laura|date=|title=These communities turn discarded fishing nets, or ghost nets, into carpets|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/heather-koldeway-explorer-nets-plastic-philippines-ocean-culture|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-07|website=}}</ref>. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress, whether that be from decreased catch or increased effort. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghostfishing impacts are intentionally anthropogenic, much of lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghostfishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 8.''' Pellets like these were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have received funding to retrieve ghost gear located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref>. Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>.

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghostfishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were led by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. The Malahat Nation removes ghost gear from the Salish sea through the combined efforts of dive teams, Elders, and a remote-controlled submersible. The First Nation also raises awareness about ghostfishing and suggests anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>. Collaboration at the provincial level has also increased. The Marine Plan Partnership is an agreement between 17 coastal First Nations and the BC Government facilitating monitoring, stewardship and marine zoning to protect ecosystems from harm, including those caused by ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Marine Plan Partnership for the North Pacific Coast (MaPP)|url=http://mappocean.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=MaPP}}</ref>.

=====Global Solutions=====
Ghostfishing is a global problem and therefore requires global solutions. Despite this, most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghostfishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghostfishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI) have seen some success. The GGGI provides funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>. Even with these efforts the vast majority of ghost gear in the ocean is untracked and continues to damage ecosystems<ref>{{Cite book|title=Clean Nordic Oceans main report - a network to reduce marine litter and ghost fishing|last=Langedal, Gjermund, Aarbakke, Bård, Larsen, Finn, Stadig, Charlotta|first=|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers|year=2020|isbn=978-92-893-6560|location=|pages=31-34}}</ref> demonstrating that current solutions are insufficient.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-03-08T20:19:32Z

ChingZhang: /* What is the problem? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghostfishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are nets with a buoyant top line and weighted bottom line. Between these lines is a vertically suspended net that serves to catch any fish that swim into it. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become lost from their areas of use when the top or bottom line is dislodged, and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way. Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm or as large as 300mm, and depending on the size of the holes, may affect a greater variety of species and bycatch.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" />

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two sheets with larger mesh is a fine mesh that traps fish the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by killing unwanted bycatch if abandoned. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghostfishing if lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk to fish due to their convenient and efficient deployment - they are widely used but can be abandoned or lost easily. The buoyant ropes used to hold traps in place and anchor them to their deployed locations can also pose a risk to marine life - mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== Ways that ghostfishing occurs ===
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - malicious or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear. Many illegal commercial fishers may dump their gear to prevent tracing from local port officials.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable due to their cost effectiveness, so when a net gets stuck, it is usually abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 3.''' Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered. <ref name=":10" />|alt=]]'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|'''Figure 4.''' Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]'''Location'''
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofouling biofouling] occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''

Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]
==== Case studies ====
[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Cornwall, UK]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=A case study on the impact of ghost fishing gear in Cornwall, UK|url=https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf|journal=WSPA|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> : WSPA studied the types and amount of ghost gear present along Cornwall's coast, as well as the risk to marine animals. They then gave severity ratings to the different types of abandonment fishing gear. Buoys were the most common lost equipment, but nets and pots posed the greatest risk.

[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Nova Scotia, CA]<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=33 tonnes of ghost gear pulled from Nova Scotia shores last year, group says|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CBC News}}</ref>: NPO group Coastal Action collected lost and discarded lobster traps off the coast of Nova Scotia. Over 32 tonnes of gear were retrieved, some dating back to the 80s.
==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Due to the large range of gillnet hole sizes, they target small pelagic fish, and bigger fish like tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.[[File:Manatee playing with a crab trap line.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' A manatee plays with a crab trap line|alt=|299x299px]]Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals, including: Orcas, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, turtles, sharks, rays, seals, seabirds, and even the endangered dugong<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duncan|first=EM|date=December 2017|title=A global review of marine turtle entanglement in anthropogenic debris: a baseline for further action|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00865|journal=Endangered species research|volume=34|pages=431-448|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stelfox|first=martin|date=October 2016|title=A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs|url=DOI 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.034|journal=Marine pollution bulletin|volume=111|pages=6-17|via=ScienceDirect Journals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parton|first=KJ|date=July 2019|title=Global review of shark and ray entanglement in anthropogenic marine debris|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00964|journal=Endangered species research|volume=39|pages=173-190|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref>.
Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms including lobsters, crayfish, and a variety of crab. However, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and untargeted crab species may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaiser|first=MJ|date=1996|title=Catches in 'ghost fishing' set nets|url=https://gw2jh3xr2c.search.serialssolutions.com/?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&url_ctx_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft.atitle=Catches+in+%27ghost+fishing%27%27+set+nets&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.auinit=MJ&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info:doi/10.3354%2Fmeps145011&rft.epage=16&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft.issue=1-3&rft.jtitle=MARINE+ECOLOGY+PROGRESS+SERIES&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.pages=11-16&rfr_id=info:sid/webofscience.com:WOS:WOS&rft.spage=11&rft.stitle=MAR+ECOL+PROG+SER&rft.volume=145&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+MJ&rft.au=Bullimore%2C+B&rft.au=Newman%2C+P&rft.au=Lock%2C+K&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+S|journal=Marine ecology. Progress series (Halstenbek)|volume=145|pages=11-16|via=}}</ref>. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die in the fishing nets, many will be injured enough to impair them from swimming and functioning properly again.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap fish by the gills or the appendages of mammals, especially when sections of the net are ripped for the larger animals to get stuck in. Smaller marine animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. Larger animals like whales may not see floating ghost gear until it's too late and get tangled. These mammals may also interact with ghost gear like in '''Figure 6.''', not knowing what it is and accidentally getting an appendage caught. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the ecological impact, invasive potential of ghost fishing gear, and financial consequences. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

The possibility of gear loss and subsequent ghost fishing present themselves wherever fishing gear is used<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Impact of "Ghost Fishing" via Derelict Fishing Gear|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. This is why ghost fishing and gear will continue to be problematic for as long as the fishing industry is alive, and afterward, as the gear survives in the water. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>, allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen in over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. The sinking occurs when nets become weighted, with the catch of species like sea turtles, porpoises, sharks, and other large organisms, as well as the accumulation of small organisms, culminating in the damage of benthic specimens, like the breakage corals<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hancock|first=L.|date=|title=Our oceans are haunted by ghost nets: Why that's scary and what we can do|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/our-oceans-are-haunted-by-ghost-nets-why-that-s-scary-and-what-we-can-do--24|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-08|website=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents their breakdown <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>. With the passing of time and the presence of gear in the water, the trapping of animals exacerbates.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|591x591px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />|alt=|350x350px]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To communities that depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. For example, a community in the Philippines experienced a 240 percent rise in fishing due to stock-damaging practices since 1960<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Selgrath|first=Jennifer et al.|date=March 2018|title=Shifting gears: Diversification, intensification, and effort increases in small-scale fisheries (1950-2010)|url=|journal=PLOS One|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource by which fishermen earn their keep, perpetuated by the increase in deployed nets in an attempt to compensate for lost stock<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parker|first=Laura|date=|title=These communities turn discarded fishing nets, or ghost nets, into carpets|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/heather-koldeway-explorer-nets-plastic-philippines-ocean-culture|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-07|website=}}</ref>. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress, whether that be from decreased catch or increased effort. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally anthropogenic, much of lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 8.''' Pellets like these were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have received funding to retrieve ghost gear located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref>. Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>.

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghostfishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were led by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. The Malahat Nation removes ghost gear from the Salish sea through the combined efforts of dive teams, Elders, and a remote-controlled submersible. The First Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing and suggests anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>. Collaboration at the provincial level has also increased. The Marine Plan Partnership is an agreement between 17 coastal First Nations and the BC Government facilitating monitoring, stewardship and marine zoning to protect ecosystems from harm, including those caused by ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Marine Plan Partnership for the North Pacific Coast (MaPP)|url=http://mappocean.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=MaPP}}</ref>.

=====Global Solutions=====
Ghost fishing is a global problem and therefore requires global solutions. Despite this, most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghostfishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghostfishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghostfishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative (GGGI) have seen some success. The GGGI provides funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>. Even with these efforts the vast majority of ghost gear in the ocean is untracked and continues to damage ecosystems<ref>{{Cite book|title=Clean Nordic Oceans main report - a network to reduce marine litter and ghost fishing|last=Langedal, Gjermund, Aarbakke, Bård, Larsen, Finn, Stadig, Charlotta|first=|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers|year=2020|isbn=978-92-893-6560|location=|pages=31-34}}</ref> demonstrating that current solutions are insufficient.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-03-08T20:13:29Z

ChingZhang: /* Trammel nets */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are nets with a buoyant top line and weighted bottom line. Between these lines is a vertically suspended net that serves to catch any fish that swim into it. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become lost from their areas of use when the top or bottom line is dislodged, and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way. Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm or as large as 300mm, and depending on the size of the holes, may affect a greater variety of species and bycatch.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" />

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two sheets with larger mesh is a fine mesh that traps fish the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by killing unwanted bycatch if abandoned. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not. Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 3.''' Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered. <ref name=":10" />|alt=]]'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|'''Figure 4.''' Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]'''Location'''
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofouling biofouling] occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''

Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]
==== Case studies ====
[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Cornwall, UK]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=A case study on the impact of ghost fishing gear in Cornwall, UK|url=https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf|journal=WSPA|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> : WSPA studied the types and amount of ghost gear present along Cornwall's coast, as well as the risk to marine animals. They then gave severity ratings to the different types of abandonment fishing gear. Buoys were the most common lost equipment, but nets and pots posed the greatest risk.

[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Nova Scotia, CA]<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=33 tonnes of ghost gear pulled from Nova Scotia shores last year, group says|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CBC News}}</ref>: NPO group Coastal Action collected lost and discarded lobster traps off the coast of Nova Scotia. Over 32 tonnes of gear were retrieved, some dating back to the 80s.
==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Due to the large range of gillnet hole sizes, they target small pelagic fish, and bigger fish like tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.[[File:Manatee playing with a crab trap line.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' A manatee plays with a crab trap line|alt=|299x299px]]Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals, including: Orcas, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, turtles, sharks, rays, seals, seabirds, and even the endangered dugong<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duncan|first=EM|date=December 2017|title=A global review of marine turtle entanglement in anthropogenic debris: a baseline for further action|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00865|journal=Endangered species research|volume=34|pages=431-448|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stelfox|first=martin|date=October 2016|title=A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs|url=DOI 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.034|journal=Marine pollution bulletin|volume=111|pages=6-17|via=ScienceDirect Journals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parton|first=KJ|date=July 2019|title=Global review of shark and ray entanglement in anthropogenic marine debris|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00964|journal=Endangered species research|volume=39|pages=173-190|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref>.
Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms including lobsters, crayfish, and a variety of crab. However, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and untargeted crab species may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaiser|first=MJ|date=1996|title=Catches in 'ghost fishing' set nets|url=https://gw2jh3xr2c.search.serialssolutions.com/?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&url_ctx_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft.atitle=Catches+in+%27ghost+fishing%27%27+set+nets&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.auinit=MJ&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info:doi/10.3354%2Fmeps145011&rft.epage=16&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft.issue=1-3&rft.jtitle=MARINE+ECOLOGY+PROGRESS+SERIES&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.pages=11-16&rfr_id=info:sid/webofscience.com:WOS:WOS&rft.spage=11&rft.stitle=MAR+ECOL+PROG+SER&rft.volume=145&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+MJ&rft.au=Bullimore%2C+B&rft.au=Newman%2C+P&rft.au=Lock%2C+K&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+S|journal=Marine ecology. Progress series (Halstenbek)|volume=145|pages=11-16|via=}}</ref>. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die in the fishing nets, many will be injured enough to impair them from swimming and functioning properly again.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap fish by the gills or the appendages of mammals, especially when sections of the net are ripped for the larger animals to get stuck in. Smaller marine animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. Larger animals like whales may not see floating ghost gear until it's too late and get tangled. These mammals may also interact with ghost gear like in '''Figure 6.''', not knowing what it is and accidentally getting an appendage caught. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the ecological impact, invasive potential of ghost fishing gear, and financial consequences. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

The possibility of gear loss and subsequent ghost fishing present themselves wherever fishing gear is used<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Impact of "Ghost Fishing" via Derelict Fishing Gear|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. This is why ghost fishing and gear will continue to be problematic for as long as the fishing industry is alive, and afterward, as the gear survives in the water. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>, allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen in over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. The sinking occurs when nets become weighted, with the catch of species like sea turtles, porpoises, sharks, and other large organisms, as well as the accumulation of small organisms, culminating in the damage of benthic specimens, like the breakage corals<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hancock|first=L.|date=|title=Our oceans are haunted by ghost nets: Why that's scary and what we can do|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/our-oceans-are-haunted-by-ghost-nets-why-that-s-scary-and-what-we-can-do--24|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-08|website=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents their breakdown <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>. With the passing of time and the presence of gear in the water, the trapping of animals exacerbates.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|591x591px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />|alt=|350x350px]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To communities that depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. For example, a community in the Philippines experienced a 240 percent rise in fishing due to stock-damaging practices since 1960<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Selgrath|first=Jennifer et al.|date=March 2018|title=Shifting gears: Diversification, intensification, and effort increases in small-scale fisheries (1950-2010)|url=|journal=PLOS One|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource by which fishermen earn their keep, perpetuated by the increase in deployed nets in an attempt to compensate for lost stock<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parker|first=Laura|date=|title=These communities turn discarded fishing nets, or ghost nets, into carpets|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/heather-koldeway-explorer-nets-plastic-philippines-ocean-culture|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-07|website=}}</ref>. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress, whether that be from decreased catch or increased effort. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 8.''' Pellets like these were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have received funding to retrieve ghost gear located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref>. Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>.

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were led by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. The Malahat Nation removes ghost gear from the Salish sea through the combined efforts of dive teams, Elders, and a remote controlled submersible. The First Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing and suggests anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>. Collaboration at the provincial level has also increased. The Marine Plan Partnership is an agreement between 17 coastal First Nations and the BC Government facilitating monitoring, stewardship and marine zoning to protect ecosystems from harm, including those caused by ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Marine Plan Partnership for the North Pacific Coast (MaPP)|url=http://mappocean.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=MaPP}}</ref>.

=====Global Solutions=====
Ghost fishing is a global problem and therefore requires global solutions. Despite this, most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGGI) have seen some success. The GGGI provides funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>. Even with these efforts the vast majority of ghost gear in the ocean is untracked and continues to damage ecosystems<ref>{{Cite book|title=Clean Nordic Oceans main report - a network to reduce marine litter and ghost fishing|last=Langedal, Gjermund, Aarbakke, Bård, Larsen, Finn, Stadig, Charlotta|first=|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers|year=2020|isbn=978-92-893-6560|location=|pages=31-34}}</ref> demonstrating that current solutions are insufficient.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-03-08T20:08:14Z

ChingZhang: /* What is the problem? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are nets with a buoyant top line and weighted bottom line. Between these lines is a vertically suspended net that serves to catch any fish that swim into it. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become lost from their areas of use when the top or bottom line is dislodged, and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way. Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm or as large as 300mm, and depending on the size of the holes, may affect a greater variety of species and bycatch.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" />

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not. Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 3.''' Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered. <ref name=":10" />|alt=]]'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|'''Figure 4.''' Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]'''Location'''
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofouling biofouling] occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''

Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]
==== Case studies ====
[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Cornwall, UK]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|title=A case study on the impact of ghost fishing gear in Cornwall, UK|url=https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf|journal=WSPA|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> : WSPA studied the types and amount of ghost gear present along Cornwall's coast, as well as the risk to marine animals. They then gave severity ratings to the different types of abandonment fishing gear. Buoys were the most common lost equipment, but nets and pots posed the greatest risk.

[https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf Nova Scotia, CA]<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=33 tonnes of ghost gear pulled from Nova Scotia shores last year, group says|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CBC News}}</ref>: NPO group Coastal Action collected lost and discarded lobster traps off the coast of Nova Scotia. Over 32 tonnes of gear were retrieved, some dating back to the 80s.
==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Due to the large range of gillnet hole sizes, they target small pelagic fish, and bigger fish like tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.[[File:Manatee playing with a crab trap line.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' A manatee plays with a crab trap line|alt=|299x299px]]Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals, including: Orcas, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, turtles, sharks, rays, seals, seabirds, and even the endangered dugong<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duncan|first=EM|date=December 2017|title=A global review of marine turtle entanglement in anthropogenic debris: a baseline for further action|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00865|journal=Endangered species research|volume=34|pages=431-448|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stelfox|first=martin|date=October 2016|title=A review of ghost gear entanglement amongst marine mammals, reptiles and elasmobranchs|url=DOI 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.034|journal=Marine pollution bulletin|volume=111|pages=6-17|via=ScienceDirect Journals}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parton|first=KJ|date=July 2019|title=Global review of shark and ray entanglement in anthropogenic marine debris|url=DOI 10.3354/esr00964|journal=Endangered species research|volume=39|pages=173-190|via=Inter-Research - Open Access}}</ref>.
Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms including lobsters, crayfish, and a variety of crab. However, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and untargeted crab species may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaiser|first=MJ|date=1996|title=Catches in 'ghost fishing' set nets|url=https://gw2jh3xr2c.search.serialssolutions.com/?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&url_ctx_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft.atitle=Catches+in+%27ghost+fishing%27%27+set+nets&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.auinit=MJ&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info:doi/10.3354%2Fmeps145011&rft.epage=16&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft.issue=1-3&rft.jtitle=MARINE+ECOLOGY+PROGRESS+SERIES&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.pages=11-16&rfr_id=info:sid/webofscience.com:WOS:WOS&rft.spage=11&rft.stitle=MAR+ECOL+PROG+SER&rft.volume=145&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+MJ&rft.au=Bullimore%2C+B&rft.au=Newman%2C+P&rft.au=Lock%2C+K&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+S|journal=Marine ecology. Progress series (Halstenbek)|volume=145|pages=11-16|via=}}</ref>. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die in the fishing nets, many will be injured enough to impair them from swimming and functioning properly again.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap fish by the gills or the appendages of mammals, especially when sections of the net are ripped for the larger animals to get stuck in. Smaller marine animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. Larger animals like whales may not see floating ghost gear until it's too late and get tangled. These mammals may also interact with ghost gear like in '''Figure 6.''', not knowing what it is and accidentally getting an appendage caught. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the ecological impact, invasive potential of ghost fishing gear, and financial consequences. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

The possibility of gear loss and subsequent ghost fishing present themselves wherever fishing gear is used<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Impact of "Ghost Fishing" via Derelict Fishing Gear|url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/publications-files/Ghostfishing_DFG.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>. This is why ghost fishing and gear will continue to be problematic for as long as the fishing industry is alive, and afterward, as the gear survives in the water. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>, allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen in over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. The sinking occurs when nets become weighted, with the catch of species like sea turtles, porpoises, sharks, and other large organisms, as well as the accumulation of small organisms, culminating in the damage of benthic specimens, like the breakage corals<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hancock|first=L.|date=|title=Our oceans are haunted by ghost nets: Why that's scary and what we can do|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/our-oceans-are-haunted-by-ghost-nets-why-that-s-scary-and-what-we-can-do--24|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-08|website=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents their breakdown <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>. With the passing of time and the presence of gear in the water, the trapping of animals exacerbates.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|591x591px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />|alt=|350x350px]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To communities that depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. For example, a community in the Philippines experienced a 240 percent rise in fishing due to stock-damaging practices since 1960<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Selgrath|first=Jennifer et al.|date=March 2018|title=Shifting gears: Diversification, intensification, and effort increases in small-scale fisheries (1950-2010)|url=|journal=PLOS One|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource by which fishermen earn their keep, perpetuated by the increase in deployed nets in an attempt to compensate for lost stock<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parker|first=Laura|date=|title=These communities turn discarded fishing nets, or ghost nets, into carpets|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/heather-koldeway-explorer-nets-plastic-philippines-ocean-culture|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2023-03-07|website=}}</ref>. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress, whether that be from decreased catch or increased effort. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 8.''' Pellets like these were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have received funding to retrieve ghost gear located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref>. Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>.

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were led by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. The Malahat Nation removes ghost gear from the Salish sea through the combined efforts of dive teams, Elders, and a remote controlled submersible. The First Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing and suggests anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>. Collaboration at the provincial level has also increased. The Marine Plan Partnership is an agreement between 17 coastal First Nations and the BC Government facilitating monitoring, stewardship and marine zoning to protect ecosystems from harm, including those caused by ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Marine Plan Partnership for the North Pacific Coast (MaPP)|url=http://mappocean.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=MaPP}}</ref>.

=====Global Solutions=====
Ghost fishing is a global problem and therefore requires global solutions. Despite this, most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGGI) have seen some success. The GGGI provides funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>. Even with these efforts the vast majority of ghost gear in the ocean is untracked and continues to damage ecosystems<ref>{{Cite book|title=Clean Nordic Oceans main report - a network to reduce marine litter and ghost fishing|last=Langedal, Gjermund, Aarbakke, Bård, Larsen, Finn, Stadig, Charlotta|first=|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers|year=2020|isbn=978-92-893-6560|location=|pages=31-34}}</ref> demonstrating that current solutions are insufficient.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-15T00:00:49Z

ChingZhang: /* Why was This Allowed to Continue ? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.|alt=]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|450x450px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

=====Global Solutions=====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-14T23:59:33Z

ChingZhang: /* Indigenous Partnerships */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.|alt=]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|400x400px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is one such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

=====Global Solutions=====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-14T23:56:23Z

ChingZhang: /* Lost or malfunctioning equipment */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|500x500px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.|alt=]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|400x400px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a lead on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is once such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

=====Global Solutions=====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-14T23:55:47Z

ChingZhang: /* Why was This Allowed to Continue ? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|421x421px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />|alt=|400x400px]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a led on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is once such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

=====Global Solutions=====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-14T23:52:19Z

ChingZhang: /* Given the impact, what are the solutions? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|421x421px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

=====Local Solutions=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

=====Indigenous Partnerships=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a led on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is once such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

=====Global Solutions=====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-14T23:51:55Z

ChingZhang: /* Given the impact, what are the solutions? */

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|421x421px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

====='''Local Solutions'''=====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

====='''Indigenous Partnerships'''=====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a led on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is once such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

====='''Global Solutions'''=====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-14T23:51:27Z

ChingZhang: /* Given the impact, what are the solutions? */ formatting

== What is the problem? ==
Ghost fishing is anthropogenic marine phenomenon caused by the leftover (lost, discarded, abandoned or otherwise not currently used by humans) fishing equipment that is left to float within marine environments, and the subsequent environmental impacts this gear has when it continues to function unmanned <ref>{{Cite web|last=NOAA|first=|date=20/01/23|title=What is ghost fishing?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ghostfishing.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>.

=== Types of ghost fishing equipment ===

==== Gillnets ====
[[File:Gillnet illustration.PNG|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Gillnet%20illustration.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a gillnet setup. (NOAA)]]
Gillnets are vertically suspended fishing nets with a buoyant top and weighted bottom line. The perpendicular arrangement of the nets and their design are intended for catching fish by their gills, or otherwise tangling them within the nets so they cannot swim out<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wikipedia|first=|date=18/09/22|title=Gillnetting|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillnetting|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Wikipedia}}</ref>. Gillnets can become dislodged or abandoned from their areas of use and travel via currents, trapping fish and wildlife along the way.

==== Trammel nets ====
Trammel nets are modified gillnets that are composed of three layers of netting<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Trammel Nets|url=https://www.seafish.org/responsible-sourcing/fishing-gear-database/gear/trammel-nets/#:~:text=Trammel%20nets%20are%20similar%20to,surface%20to%20target%20pelagic%20fish.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Seafish}}</ref>. Sandwiched between two larger meshed sheets is a fine mesh that entangles fish much the same way a gillnet does. Unfortunately, much like a gillnet, trammel nets can also contribute to ghost fishing by entangling unwanted fish or bycatch while abandoned or drifting through marine currents. Due to their more complex netting structure, they can pose a more harmful risk to a greater variety of species, including mammals, crabs and cetaceans.

==== Traps ====
[[File:Lobster trap.jpg|link=https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Lobster%20trap.jpg|thumb|A lobster trap, illustrating the netting and design used to trap and hold lobsters.]]
There are a wide variety of fishing traps intended for different target species, but all pose a risk to marine wildlife via ghost fishing if abandoned or lost at sea. The majority include pot/bottle traps, which are portable and allow animals to swim or walk in, but not out (usually for fish, crustaceans or crabs)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fishing Gear: Traps and Pots|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-traps-and-pots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NOAA}}</ref>. These post a risk for ghost fishing due to their convenient and efficient deployment - meaning they also can be abandoned or lost easily. A big risk of these traps are not only the traps themselves, but also the buoyant ropes used to hold them in place and anchor them to their deployed locations. Marine mammals can get stuck in these ropes and die from starvation or lack of oxygen.

=== How does ghost fishing occur? ===
Ghost fishing occurs when fishing equipment like the net types mentioned above become derelict, abandoned or lost at sea. These nets and traps can come from different places and intents - maliciously or not.

==== Illegal dumping ====
Much of the gear lost in the ocean comes from illegal or unethical dumping into the ocean. There are many reasons for this, including evasion of disposal taxes and costs<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Carr, H. A., & Harris, J.|first=|date=1997|title=Ghost-fishing gear: have fishing practices during the past few years reduced the impact?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-8486-1_11|journal=Marine debris: sources, impacts, and solutions|volume=|pages=141-151|via=Springer}}</ref>, driven by the development of newer and more efficient gear.

==== Lost or malfunctioning equipment ====
Commonly seen in trawler nets, many of these equipment pieces wear out over time or get stuck on benthic structures and the seabed. To fishermen, these nets are replaceable or mendable if chunks have been ripped off or damaged, but occasionally a net may get stuck enough that it has to be abandoned. In these cases, the net is left to drift down to the seabed where it is stuck, ready to trap and kill fish that may get stuck in it<ref name=":3" />.

'''<big>How has ghost fishing become a more salient issue?</big>'''

Fishing equipment is becoming stronger as the fishing industry continues to use more modern materials for their nets and traps<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=New Innovations throughout History {{!}} Fishing Net|url=https://www.storyboardthat.com/innovations/fishing-net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Storyboard That}}</ref>. Unfortunately, the synthetic materials take longer to degrade, persisting for a longer duration of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown et. al|first=|date=2007|title=Ghost fishing in European waters: Impacts and management responses|url=https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0308597X07000024?token=8E183F3A08425A2CE564B138BE8720FF46481FCCA8A17F3B0EC76149820C71CFC0BB8FBC8A6B70608760AAB20A9E6D4A&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20230209042203|journal=Marine Policy|volume=31(4)|pages=488-504|via=}}</ref>. Durable materials such as nylon could last for up to a decade in marine environments<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kühn, S et, al|first=|date=2015|title=Deleterious Effects of Litter on Marine Life|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_4|journal=Marine Anthropogenic Litter|volume=|pages=75-116|via=Springer}}</ref>. This lengthened time of exposure to the ocean means that the equipment can sink further, affecting the organisms throughout many depths of the ocean, from the epipelagic to the bathypelagic and deeper.

'''<big>Where does this problem occur?</big>'''

'''Location'''
[[File:Ghost Fishing Map.jpg|thumb|421x421px|Locations where ghost fishing equipment was recovered.]]
Evidence of ghost fishing can be found across the globe, with a majority occurring North of or near the equator, although equipment could be found as far south as Antarctica<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et. al|first=|date=2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.031|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222–229|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. This increase in discarded nets and traps found in the Northern Hemisphere shows how ghost fishing is due to industrial fishing, supplying food to population centers.

'''Depth'''

Some traps are already placed on the seafloor, but others are left at the sea surface. As these traps begin to gather biomass, because of the aforementioned reasons of accumulation, these nets can occasionally sink to deep water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saldanha, H. J. et al.|first=|date=2003|title=The use of biofouling for ageing lost nets: a case study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783603002133|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=64(2-3)|pages=141-150|via=}}</ref>. Due to little movement of water in deep environments, very little biofouling occurs, which would normally aid in the degradation of ghost fishing equipment. This is another reason that equipment can persist for long periods of time<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hareide, N. R. et al.|first=|date=2005|title=A preliminary investigation on shelf edge and deepwater fixed net fisheries to the west and north of Great Britain, Ireland, around Rockall and Hatton Bank|url=https://savethehighseas.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/DEEPNETfinalreport.pdf|journal=ICES CM|volume=07|pages=9|via=}}</ref>.

'''<big>Why is ghost fishing significant?</big>'''

'''Effects on the organisms'''

As will be discussed later in this page, ghost fishing affects vast amounts of marine wildlife, from pelagic fish to marine mammals to benthic organisms. Even nets designed for shallow waters can eventually sink to the sea floor, they can affect the recolonization of organisms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angiolillo|first=Michela|date=2019|title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00015-2.|journal=Academic Press|volume=|pages=251-268|via=}}</ref>. Because the nets last for so long, organisms accumulate in the equipment and draw in other predatory organisms or scavengers. However, these opportunistic organisms also fall victim to ghost fishing as they often are trapped as well<ref name=":9" />. The involvement of several trophic levels means that ghost fishing affects much more than the organisms it was designed to trap.

'''Effects on humans'''
[[File:Outboard entanglement.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Fishing net tangled in a boat propeller]]
Because ghost fishing affects so many parts of the marine food web, it also indirectly damages fish stocks as well. Acknowledging and understanding the detriment ghost fishing causes the fishing industry is particularly important as it disincentivizes the negligent practices that lead to ghost fishing initially.

Discarded nets can even cause issues for industrial and recreational sea vessels, either obstructing channels for transport or trapping boats as nets become tangled in propellers and rudders<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fishing Booker Blog|first=|date=2021|title=Explained: Ghost Fishing|url=https://fishingbooker.com/blog/ghost-fishing-explained/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

'''Amount of fishing material lost'''

For much of history, discarded fishing material was not recorded. According to recent research, approximately 2% of all fishing gear is lost, totaling nearly 100000 km2 of lost gear, hundreds of thousands of longline mainlines and traps and pots estimated to exceed 25 million units<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson, K. et al.|first=|date=2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|journal=Science Advances|volume=8, 41|pages=|via=Science}}</ref>.

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==
===== General impacts =====
Roughly 640,000 tons of fishing gear is lost in the ocean each year, and totals about 10% of the overall marine debris lost<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Fishing Gear is Killing Marine Life|url=https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Ocean Wise}}</ref>.

https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071
[[File:Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.jpg|alt=|thumb|Grey Seal caught in discarded fishing net Photo by Alex Mustard<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Grey seal in discarded net. Lundy Island, UK.|url=https://www.amustard.com/library/nineteen/LDY10_am-12417.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Alex Mustard}}</ref>]]

==== Bycatch species ====
Nearly any fish species may be affected by ghost fishing nets, depending on the type and size of the net holes used.

Gillnet hole sizes may be as small as 30mm and may be used to target small pelagic fish, or as large as 300mm and used to target tuna, lumpfish, and halibut<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=A SHORT DESCRIPTION OF GILLNET AND LONGLINE GEARS|url=https://www.fao.org/3/x7788e/X7788E02.htm#:~:text=Mesh%20sizes%20are%20commercially%20available,monofilament%2C%20multimonofilament%20or%20multifilament%20nylon.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Small Mesh Gill Net Rules Modification|url=https://deq.nc.gov/media/17343/download#:~:text=Gill%20net%20trips%20for%20sea,%2C%204%2C%20and%205).|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=North Carolina Marine Fisheries}}</ref>.

Trammel nets are similar to gillnets but have multiple layers and thus can catch a wider variety of marine organisms<ref name=":0" />. Due to the range of hole sizes and trapping style of these nets, abandoned and partially damaged trammel nets may also entangle larger animals like orcas, dolphins, porpoises, turtles and seals, as well as other animals such as seabirds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxgHAZUcsGo This YouTube video] shows a seal getting freed from an abandoned fishing net and other plastic on Walvis Bay in Namibia, and the effort it takes to save animals from ghost fishing equipment. Even if these species don't die to fishing nets, most will be injured enough to impair them from properly swimming again.

Pot traps and bottle traps are designed to catch benthic organisms. This includes lobsters, crayfish, various species of crab, whelk, eels, cuttlefish, scup, small fish, and other seafloor dwellers that may wander in and become stuck by these traps<ref name=":1" />. Over 90% of the species that get trapped in all nets and traps have a commercial value<ref name=":2" />. One study showed that a single abandoned net can catch $20,000 worth of Dungeness crab over a ten-year period<ref name=":2" />.

'''Species vulnerability'''

The simple design of most fishing nets can trap essentially anything with gills or appendages, especially when sections of the net are ripped for larger animals to get stuck in. Many aquatic animals will hide under rocks and naturally occurring formations to escape from predators, and as they do so may accidentally force themselves into a hole of a fishing net that was also caught on the rocks<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Nets - Tangled Up in Ghost Nets|url=https://www.plasticsoupfoundation.org/en/plastic-problem/plastic-environment/ghost-nets/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Plastic Soup Foundation}}</ref>. As fish and other marine animals get caught in these nets, struggling makes the situation worse and most will become severely entangled.

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
The severity of ghost fishing on marine ecosystems can be assessed through the financial consequences, ecological impact, and invasive potential of ghost fishing gear. It was found that ghost fishing has harmed and killed over 557 marine animals, 66% of marine mammals, 50% of birds, and all species of sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost gear are the most lethal threat of plastic waste in the world|url=https://www.wwf.org.ec/?365018/Ghost-gear-are-the-most-lethal-threat-of-plastic-waste-in-the-world|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref>. Furthermore, ghost gear was found to be four times more likely to entangle and impact marine life than any other form of human-generated marine debris<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghosts beneath the waves|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/sites/default/files/media/us_files/ghosts_beneath_the_waves.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>.

==== The Effects as Time Progresses ====

With an increasing demand for marine resources over the years, there has also been a rise in the amount of fishing. One of the ever-growing masses of accumulating ocean debris, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, consists of a colossal 46 percent of fishing nets<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lebreton|first=L. et al.|date=March 2018|title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22939-w#Abs1|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>. Newer, durable synthetics help derelict gear survive in the environment for longer periods of time<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=October 2015|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X1500175X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=60|pages=225-239|via=}}</ref>. allowing accumulation, and continuing to harm marine life for years after it has been left behind.

The danger of “ghost gear” is not exclusive to creatures living in the water, but the seabirds in the surrounding area, as well<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Good|first=Thomas|date=January 2009|title=GHOSTS OF THE SALISH SEA: THREATS TO MARINE BIRDS IN PUGET SOUND AND THE NORTHWEST STRAITS FROM DERELICT FISHING GEAR|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256464558_GHOSTS_OF_THE_SALISH_SEA_THREATS_TO_MARINE_BIRDS_IN_PUGET_SOUND_AND_THE_NORTHWEST_STRAITS_FROM_DERELICT_FISHING_GEAR|journal=Marine Ornithology|volume=37|pages=67-76|via=}}</ref>. An example of the detrimental effects of ghost fishing can be seen by over a thousand nets found in the coastal waters of Washington, USA (Puget Sound), where about 400 were over a year old and still causing damage to marine life<ref name=":4" />. Nets are often buoyant and entangle life near the surface, especially with the development of long-lasting materials from which they are produced. However, they can also sink and smother benthic areas, damaging the habitats and residents within these communities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=Kelsey et al.|date=January 2019|title=Building evidence around ghost gear: Global trends and analysis for sustainable solutions at scale|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18308087#bb0175|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume=138|pages=222-229|via=}}</ref>. Additionally, it is thought that this issue of ghost fishing is exacerbated by large numbers of pots and (crustacean) traps, as their relatively sturdy material prevents the breakdown of these structures<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Scheld|first=A.M. et al.|date=January 2016|title=The Dilemma of Derelict Gear|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19671|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

==== Why was This Allowed to Continue ? ====
Ghost fishing has been allowed to occur due to a combination of factors, including inadequate gear management, weak regulations and enforcement of fishing practices, a lack of incentives for fishers to retrieve lost gear, and a general lack of awareness about the environmental impacts of ghost fishing.
[[File:Sciadv.webp|thumb|Fig. 1. Global fishing gear losses for ('''A''') all nets in m², ('''B''') pots and traps, ('''C''') longline mainlines in m, and ('''D''') longline hooks. Retrieved from <ref name=":7" />]]
Fishing gear can end up lost or discarded in the ocean due to a variety of reasons such as storms, equipment malfunctions, tangling with underwater obstacles, and human error. In those instances, the loss of fishing gear may be accidental, but in many cases, it is a deliberate act of discarding by fishers who no longer require it or are unable to retrieve it due to the high cost or impracticality of doing so. In a study, it's estimated that 25 million pots and traps are lost to the ocean annually<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=12 Oct 2022|title=Global estimates of fishing gear lost to the ocean each year|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abq0135|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Advances}}</ref>.

Regulations are often focused on ensuring the sustainability of fishing, often overlooking the issue of ghost fishing, which can have the opposite effect and make the fishing industry less sustainable. However even those regulations fail, according to FAO around 31% of the global fish stocks are overfished. Many of this illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) happens at night which only increases the likelihood of purposeful abandonment and human error in usage of fishing gear. In addition, gear is often abandoned to avoid capture by authorities for overfishing<ref name=":2" />.

The scale of the problem is also often underestimated, and there is a lack of awareness and education regarding the impacts of ghost fishing among fishing communities and the general public. As a result, it has not been a priority for many fishing communities and stakeholders to address the issue, and ghost fishing has been allowed to persist.

==== An Indirect and Long-term Effect ====
[[File:CostvsRev potremoval.png|thumb|A visual representation of the costs of pot removal and the resulting revenue. Costs are indicated by squares and gains are indicated by circles.<ref name=":5" />]]
The abandonment of nets and traps can cause issues extending beyond environmental interference, creating socioeconomic complications. To those communities which depend on the fishing industry, the employment of sustainable practices is essential to their means of living<ref name=":5" />. Derelict gear contributes to the destruction of a commonly shared resource, by which fishermen earn their keep. If there is no change to the standards surrounding fishing, economic loss will progress. Marine species are continually caught and killed without reason; overfishing depletes the stock of potential profit, without allowing fishermen to reap the benefits of the catch<ref name=":5" />.

Global estimates of removing under 10 percent of abandoned gear from crustacean fisheries lead to an annual approximation of $830 million USD in monetary gain to be reclaimed<ref name=":5" />. With such models, fishermen may be incentivized to practice more sustainable methods, motivated by the improvement that is sure to be seen when the fishing industry is void of unnecessary dumping. By these motivations, the likelihood of fishermen adhering to potential solutions increases.

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
While some ghost fishing impacts are intentionally human-caused, such as illegal fishing and dumping of equipment, much of the lost gear is due to poor weather conditions, accidents, or malfunction. Thus, one of the common proposed solutions is to invest in biodegradable fishing gear, or fishing gear that will become escapable for trapped species after a certain time of disuse<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka, T., Nakashima, T., & Nagasawa, N.|first=|date=2005|title=A review of ghost fishing: scientific approaches to evaluation and solutions|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2005.01019.x|journal=Fisheries Science|volume=71|pages=691-702|via=Springer}}</ref>.

Another proposed solution is the retrieval of lost or damaged fishing equipment. This is a costly and time intensive project but has downsides and drawbacks. It has been discussed that retrieval of fishing gear may not be possible in certain cases where the gear cannot be found again, is in a place not conveniently accessible, or is located somewhere that may cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem and environment should retrieval methods take place there<ref name=":2" />.

==== '''Local Solutions''' ====
Oceans and Fisheries Canada operates a Ghost Gear Fund<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Ghost Gear Fund|url=https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fisheries-peches/management-gestion/ghostgear-equipementfantome/program-programme/projects-projets-eng.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans}}</ref>. The Fund provides grants that reduce marine plastics related to ghost fishing. Roughly 10 million CAD is invested into the program each year<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Government of Canada is proud to commit $10 million to combat ghost gear through Canada’s Ghost Gear Fund and by partnering with the Global Ghost Gear Initiative|url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/government-canada-proud-commit-10-million-combat-ghost-gear-through-canadas-ghost-gear|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Sustainable Development}}</ref> funding over 40 projects in 2022. All projects receiving funding fall into at least one of the four following categories: ghost gear collection, appropriate disposal, purchase or development of technology, and international partnerships.
[[File:Plastic_pellets_at_Ocean_Legacy_Depot_on_the_west_coast_of_British_Columbia.jpg|thumb|Pellets like this were made from recycled abandoned fishing gear and will be used to create secondary products. (CNW Group/Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada)]]
Work has already begun in Canada to reduce ghost gear in the region. Private firms based in British Columbia such as the BC Shellfish Growers Association, Natural Resources Consultants, and the Pacific Prawn Fishermen’s Association have all received funding to retrieve ghost located near their facilities and expand safe disposal sites. Private advocacy groups and NGOs have also been involved. The Emerald Sea Protection Society, T Buck Suzuki Foundation, and many others are involved in ghost gear retrieval and prevention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Vancouver Island firms included in $8.3M grant to clean up 'ghost' fishing gear|url=https://vancouverisland.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-island-firms-included-in-8-3m-grant-to-clean-up-ghost-fishing-gear-1.5016587?cache=yes%3FclipId%3D89619|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CTV News Vancouver Island}}</ref> Recently a recycling facility in British Columbia opened that turns plastics from ghost gear into reusable plastic pellets for products like kayaks. It is estimated that over 739 tonnes of abandoned fishing gear was removed from the ocean due to the Ghost Gear Fund between January 2019 and December 2021<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Canada's Ghost Gear Fund delivering results for cleaner oceans|url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-s-ghost-gear-fund-delivering-results-for-cleaner-oceans-842664592.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=CISION Canada}}</ref>

==== '''Indigenous Partnerships''' ====
Indigenous communities and organizations have taken a led on efforts to combat ghost fishing. 14 of the 37 projects funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada were done in collaboration with Indigenous groups while 5 were lead by Indigenous organizations<ref name=":8" />. The Torngat Joint Fisheries Board is once such organization. Funding these groups has a dual purpose: to foster environmental education and Indigenous stewardship while allowing for the search and retrieval of ghost gear in coastal regions<ref name=":6" />. Some First Nations governments have begun to regulate and maintain their own waters. The Malahat Nation's Department of Environment, Fisheries & Sustainable Development works to locate ghost gear in the Salish Sea. The Nation's underwater surveying team, assisted by a remote operated marine vehicle, removes abandoned fishing gear in the region. The Malahat Nation also raises awareness about ghost fishing. They suggest anglers avoid fishing in bad weather or leaving traps out long in order to prevent the loss of fishing gear<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreton|first=Bailey|date=|title=Malahat Nation working to remove ‘ghost gear’ from Salish Sea|url=https://www.vancouverislandfreedaily.com/news/malahat-nation-working-to-remove-ghost-gear-from-salish-sea/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Vancouver Island Free Daily}}</ref>

==== '''Global Solutions''' ====
International regulations surrounding ghost gear remain relatively relaxed. Most international organizations tasked with regulating the ocean do not have mandates mentioning ghost fishing and fewer have binding regulations to limit ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilman|first=Eric|date=|title=Status of international monitoring and management of abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear and ghost fishing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1500175X|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Science Direct}}</ref>. Regulation of ghost fishing varies greatly country to country. 40% of global fishing occurs in countries territorial water as such national regulations have a massive effect on global ghost fishing<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cheney|first=Catherine|date=|title=How to protect, and why to prioritize, coastal waters|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-protect-and-why-to-prioritize-coastal-waters-103016#:~:text=While%20territorial%20seas%20%E2%80%94%20or%20the,40%25%20of%20fish%20are%20caught.|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Devex}}</ref>. Global partnerships between companies, countries, and NGOs such as the Global Ghost Gear Initiative(GGI) have seen some success. The GGGI proves funds for projects around the globe to clean up ghost gear. GGGI also compiles records of ghost gear sites in order to better target areas for retrieval<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=PROTECTING OUR OCEAN AND THE LIFE WITHIN IT|url=https://www.ghostgear.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Global Ghost Gear Initiative}}</ref>.

= References =
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-08T08:08:58Z

ChingZhang: /* Illegal dumping */

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-08T08:06:34Z

ChingZhang: /* Types of ghost fishing */

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-08T08:00:55Z

ChingZhang: /* Given the impact, what are the solutions? */

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-08T07:58:54Z

ChingZhang: /* Given the impact, what are the solutions? */

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-08T07:53:32Z

ChingZhang: /* Bycatch species */

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-08T07:53:16Z

ChingZhang: /* Case studies */

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-05T21:51:56Z

ChingZhang: content

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-02-05T03:43:21Z

ChingZhang: Added some sources and outlined page

== What is the problem? ==

==== Types of ghost fishing ====

* Gillnets
* Trammel nets
* Traps

·    Clearly identify what the problem is

·    What human actions cause the problem?

·    Where does the problem occur?

·    How pervasive is the problem?

== Ghost fishing effects on marine ecosystems ==

===== General impacts =====
https://ocean.org/blog/ghost-fishing-gear-is-killing-marine-life/

==== Case studies ====
Cornwall, UK : https://www.cornwallsealgroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/A-case-study-on-the-impact-of-ghost-fishing-gear-on-the-Cornish-coastline.pdf

Nova Scotia, CA: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ghost-fishing-gear-nova-scotia-1.6723071

·    How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

·    What organisms does it impact?

·    How and why does it impact this organism/s?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
·    What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

·    What is the present status compared to the past?

·    What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
·    What are the local solutions, if any?

·    What are the global solutions, if any?

== References ==
<references />

Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 9 - Cause and Effect: Ghostfishing

2023-01-27T20:46:59Z

ChingZhang: created page

== What is the problem? ==

·    Clearly identify what the problem is

·    What human actions cause the problem?

·    Where does the problem occur?

·    How pervasive is the problem?

== How does this problem impact marine ecosystems? ==
·    How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

·    What organisms does it impact?

·    How and why does it impact this organism/s?

·    Are their unique characteristics of this organism/s that make it vulnerable?

== What is the extent of the problem? ==
·    What are the measurable ecosystem changes that have occurred?

·    What is the present status compared to the past?

·    What is the prognosis for the future if we continue on our current trajectory?

== Given the impact, what are the solutions? ==
·    What are the local solutions, if any?

·    What are the global solutions, if any?

== References ==
<references />

User:ChingZhang

2023-01-21T03:21:57Z

ChingZhang: Created page with "Hello! My name is Ching and I'm a second year Biology major here at UBC. I'm originally from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakville,_Ontario Oakville], Ontario, but was born..."

Hello! My name is Ching and I'm a second year Biology major here at UBC.

I'm originally from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakville,_Ontario Oakville], Ontario, but was born in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hefei Hefei], Anhui, and grew up in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto Toronto].

I'm taking [[Course:EOSC270|EOSC270]] this term to expand my interests further than cookie-cutter biology classes (thank you, BIOL200 last term, for having great lectures to fall asleep in). Jokes aside, I'm really passionate about different types of biology, and as it's my first time living and going to school in a city so close to the ocean, I really want to get to know it (and the things living in it) better.

Outside of class, I do research at the [https://somalab.psych.ubc.ca/ Soma] and [https://ciernialab.med.ubc.ca/ Ciernia] labs, and raise a lot of plants in my apartment! I also love cafe hopping and searching for the best places to get a matcha latte in Vancouver.

You can find me on [https://www.instagram.com/chiingzhang/ Instagram] here :)