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Course:ARST573/Archives and War

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American Historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands. <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa,"N. Bonaparte," photograph, 2012, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records through the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584," photograph, 2011, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. </ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of Monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011): 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Wavel in Krakow, Poland," photograph, 2007, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. </ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai Br'ith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in the Netherlands dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archaeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and the Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970," ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945," photograph, 2013, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" ''College & Research Libraries'' 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf," photograph, 2004, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf." Photograph. 2004. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584." Photograph. 2011. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG.

WeHaKa. "N. Bonaparte." Photograph. 2012. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945." Photograph. 2013. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg.

Rj1979. "Wavel in Krakow, Poland." Photograph. 2007. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T06:10:30Z

ChelseaBailey: typo

Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands. <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa,"N. Bonaparte," photograph, 2012, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records through the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584," photograph, 2011, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. </ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Wavel in Krakow, Poland," photograph, 2007, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. </ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai Br'ith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in the Netherlands dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archaeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and the Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945," photograph, 2013, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf," photograph, 2004, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf." Photograph. 2004. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584." Photograph. 2011. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG.

WeHaKa. "N. Bonaparte." Photograph. 2012. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945." Photograph. 2013. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg.

Rj1979. "Wavel in Krakow, Poland." Photograph. 2007. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T05:24:28Z

ChelseaBailey: adjusted photograph citations

Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands. <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa,"N. Bonaparte," photograph, 2012, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records through the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584," photograph, 2011, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. </ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Wavel in Krakow, Poland," photograph, 2007, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. </ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai Br'ith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in the Netherlands dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archaeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and the Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945," photograph, 2013, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf," photograph, 2004, ''Wikimedia Commons'', accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf." Photograph. 2004. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584." Photograph. 2011. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG.

WeHaKa. "N. Bonaparte." Photograph. 2012. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945." Photograph. 2013. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg.

Rj1979. "Wavel in Krakow, Poland." Photograph. 2007. ''Wikimedia Commons''. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T02:23:09Z

ChelseaBailey: typo fixed

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands. <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records through the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai Br'ith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in the Netherlands dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archaeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and the Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T02:14:33Z

ChelseaBailey: typos fixed

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands. <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records through the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai Br'ith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in the Netherlands dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archaeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and the Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T01:56:17Z

ChelseaBailey: spelling typo

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands. <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T01:54:26Z

ChelseaBailey: spelling typo

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove existing property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T00:27:21Z

ChelseaBailey:

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 29 July 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 18 October 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 14 May 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-13T00:24:11Z

ChelseaBailey:

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', [The Hague], 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' [The Hague], 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954=====
The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ UNESCO Convention and Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', [The Hague], 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The Hague Convention and Protocol of 1954 was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T23:41:59Z

ChelseaBailey: edits

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref> – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war has impacted Iraq's sense of sovereignty and independence as its records remain jeopardized through the seizure and lengthy restitution process led by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience the impact of war through:
* aerial bombardment,<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
* seizures,<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>
* mob attacks, <ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 140.</ref>
* and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref>
War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection,<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref> conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism,<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref> and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T23:08:12Z

ChelseaBailey: edits

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the United Kingdom's Public Record Office and the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, America's national archives.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration's management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front. English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activities which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the close of the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T22:54:58Z

ChelseaBailey: editing

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and occupying military forces during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Examples of the impact of war on archives may be seen through an examination of ancient Egypt events, Alexander the Great's military campaigns, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of the empire's private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-217.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> Yet, it was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure that the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War. Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T22:05:41Z

ChelseaBailey: citation fixes

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456.</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists<ref>Cantwel, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref><ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T22:02:18Z

ChelseaBailey: citation fix

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists<ref>Cantwel, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref><ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', 2011, accessed 25 March 2013 from: http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T21:50:12Z

ChelseaBailey: added intro to WWI section

{{draft}}

Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted archival management practices, the use of records, and the role of archival repositories.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377.</ref> World War I was largely fought on continental Europe, leading to new dangers and roles for archives and archivists<ref>Cantwel, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref><ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> However, countries removed from continental Europe, such as England, were also impacted by the events of World War I.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377-378.</ref>

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 377.</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T21:10:42Z

ChelseaBailey:

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
The following photographs, all within the public domain, were used throughout this wiki:

Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T21:09:09Z

ChelseaBailey: citations for photos

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGEV07 1801.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Krakow_101.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Krakow_101.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T21:05:29Z

ChelseaBailey: citations for pictures

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte was the leader of France during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>WeHaKa, "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2012, accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers.<ref>Daderot, "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2011, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG, public domain.</ref>]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above.<ref>Rj1979, "Wavel in Krakow, Poland," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2007, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg, public domain.</ref>]] Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb damage in London 1939 - 1945.<ref>Imperial War Museum, "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2013, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004.<ref>Ashley Brokop, "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg," ''Wikimedia Commons'', 2004, accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg, public domain.</ref>]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Brokop, Ashley. "United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Wavel in Krakow, Poland." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T20:52:47Z

ChelseaBailey: added picture

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
[[File:Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum - Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG|thumb|German occupation forces in Belgium issued their own records, such as these Belgium identity papers. Image from: Daderot, 2011.]] Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|left|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above. Image from: Rj1979, 2007.]]Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945. Image from: Imperial War Museum, 2013.]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|left|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004. Image from: Brokop, 2004.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Brokop, Ashley. "A Solider looks through binoculars at smoke rising near the An Najaf cemetery in Iraq." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Daderot. "Belgium identity papers issued by German occupation government - National World War I Museum, Kansas City, MO - DSC07584.JPG" ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2011. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Belgium_identity_papers_issued_by_German_occupation_government_-_National_World_War_I_Museum_-_Kansas_City,_MO_-_DSC07584.JPG. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Wavel in Krakow, Poland." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T20:19:51Z

ChelseaBailey: added pictures

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|left|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

[[File:Kraków 101.jpg|thumb|Kazimierz is a district in Krakow, Poland, shown above. Image from: Rj1979, 2007.]]Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|left|Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945. Image from: Imperial War Museum, 2013.]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:United States soldier during the Battle of Najaf.jpg|thumb|Troops from America, Britain, and Australia entered Iraq in April 2004. Image from: Brokop, 2004.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Brokop, Ashley. "A Solider looks through binoculars at smoke rising near the An Najaf cemetery in Iraq." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2004. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_soldier_during_the_Battle_of_Najaf.jpg. Public domain.

Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

Rj1979. "Wavel in Krakow, Poland." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2007. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krak%C3%B3w_101.jpg. Public domain.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T18:34:31Z

ChelseaBailey: add photo

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
[[File:Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945 HU59004.jpg|thumb|left|Bomb Damage in London 1939 - 1945. Image from: Imperial War Museum, 2013.]]
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
1. Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain.

2. Imperial War Museum. "Bomb Damage in London 1939-1945 HU59004." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 12 April 2013 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bomb_Damage_in_London_1939_-_1945_HU59004.jpg. Public domain.

3. WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T06:53:14Z

ChelseaBailey: added a category

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
1. Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

2. WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]] [[Category:War]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T06:47:38Z

ChelseaBailey:

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation which states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
1. Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

2. WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T06:42:12Z

ChelseaBailey: editing references

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460.</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454.</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459.</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41.</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465.</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477.</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240.</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213.</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215.</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213.</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214.</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8.</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11.</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11.</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16.</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13.</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224.</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472.</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224.</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215.</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215.</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86.</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89.</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226.</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226.</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147.</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151.</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154.</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157.</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135.</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215.</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid.</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225.</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222.</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225.</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89.</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86.</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89.</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96.</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61.</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65.</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73.</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73.</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463.</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158.</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159.</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160.</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89.</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94.</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94.</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89.</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88.</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94.</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95.</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95.</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503.</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502.</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502.</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503.</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510.</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511.</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733.</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733.</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140.</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141.</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140.</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212.</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212.</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214.</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216.</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231.</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230.</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28.</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459.</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
1. Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

2. WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T05:57:13Z

ChelseaBailey:

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid., 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid., http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid., http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
1. Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

2. WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T05:51:09Z

ChelseaBailey:

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid., 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: The International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid., http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid., http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T05:48:39Z

ChelseaBailey: added ibid to references

{{draft}}

Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid., 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Ibid., 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Ibid., 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Ibid., 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Ibid., http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Ibid., 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Ibid., http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Ibid., http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Ibid., 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Ibid., 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Ibid., 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Ibid., 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Ibid., 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Ibid., 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Ibid., 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Ibid., 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T05:42:42Z

ChelseaBailey: ibid additions

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid., 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Ibid.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Ibid.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Ibid., 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Ibid., 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Ibid., 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Ibid., 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Ibid., 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Ibid., 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Ibid., 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Ibid., 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Ibid., 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Ibid., 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Ibid., 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Ibid., 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Ibid., 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Ibid., 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Ibid., 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Ibid., 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Ibid., 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Ibid., 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Ibid., 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Ibid., 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Ibid., 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Philip C.Brooks , “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Ibid., 159, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Ibid., 160, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Philip C. Brooks, “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Ibid., 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Ibid., 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Ibid., 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Ibid., 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Ibid., 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Ibid., doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Ibid., 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-12T05:31:15Z

ChelseaBailey: adding ibids in citations

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land]<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>, created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations]<ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref>, created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict]<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref>, was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Ibid., 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Ibid., 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Ibid., 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Ibid., 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Ibid., http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Ibid., 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Ibid., 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Ibid., 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Ibid., http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Ibid., 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Ibid.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-11T22:25:07Z

ChelseaBailey: Image attributions

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land], created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations], created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict], was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-11T22:23:34Z

ChelseaBailey: reference addition

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land], created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations], created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict], was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg]<ref>Archivopedia contributors, "Schellenberg, T.R. (Theodore R.), 1903-1970,: ''Archivopedia'', http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970</ref>, argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-11T22:13:19Z

ChelseaBailey: 1907 Hague Regulations edit

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land], created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations], created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>''Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land,'' 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict], was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg], argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-11T22:05:03Z

ChelseaBailey: references adjustment

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land], created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations], created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict], was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg], argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-11T18:47:37Z

ChelseaBailey: edits

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land], created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations], created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict], was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Ancient Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Ancient Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous countries' records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the cessation of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg], argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens."<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences in the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* early printed German books;
* drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg

==References==
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[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]

Course:ARST573/Archives and War

2013-04-11T18:01:05Z

ChelseaBailey: references

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Archives have been impacted by war throughout history. Archives in occupied countries and countries that are geographically removed from the battlefront experience the repercussions of war both during combat and the years following the close of war due to the destruction and seizure of records.<ref>Douglas Cox, “National Archives and International Conflicts: The Society of American Archivists and War,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011): 451-455, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> This wiki entry explores the value of archives in war and issues that result from the damaging impact of war on archives – legislation, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and restitution. Examples from antiquity, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Iraq War illuminate the dangers war poses for an archives and its records and the role of legislation, cultural nationalism, cultural internationalism, and restitution.

== Value of Archives in War ==
Archives are valued by the military, state leaders, and citizens during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, provide useful information for occupying troops – such as legal and administrative facts which assist forces orchestrating military occupations.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 456, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Populations experiencing severe rationing may place value on archives as the records they contain may be used for raw resources to ignite fires.<ref>Ernst Posner, “Public Records Under Military Occupation,” ''The American historical Review'' 49, no. 2 (1944): 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Buildings that house archives also hold value during times of war – occupying troops may take refuge in archival repositories which may lead to the disorganization of records during their stay.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The value archives hold during times of war may cause them to become targets of attack. Archives in war zones may be destroyed through artillery combat and aerial bombardment.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives represent a nation’s values and important historical moments and thus the seizure and destruction of records, regardless if intentional or unintentional, will damage the morale of a nation.<ref>Richard Cox, "Archives, War, and Memory: Building a Framework," ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Archives often experience looting by citizens and foreign troops, destruction, and the seizure of records by occupying military personnel during times of war due to their value and ability to represent a nation.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, the value governments, citizens, and occupying forces place on archives make them targets in military conflicts.

==Issues==
Three issues concerning the impact of war on archives are legislation, conflicts between cultural internationalism and cultural nationalism, and the restitution of seized records following the close of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Sanja Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes for the Destruction of Libraries and archives During Times of Armed Conflict,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 40, no. 2 (2005): 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Legislation and the restitution of records may illustrate the international and national repercussions of war on archives. Thus, legislation, cultural internationalism, cultural nationalism, and restitution illuminate the impact of war on archives throughout the globe.

===Legislation===
Legislation that pertains to the treatment of archives during times of war may illustrate the impact of war on archives. International legislation regarding the protection of an archives’ collections in war zones spans from the late 19th century to present day.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land, the 1907 Hague Regulations, and the 1954 Hague Convention show the evolving legal acceptance of archives as cultural property and recognition of the dangers records face during times of war.

=====1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land], created on 29 July 1899, was one of the first pieces of legislation that sought to provide protection to cultural property during times of war.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The 1899 Laws and Customs of War on Land discusses general conduct during times of war, such as how to manage prisoners of war, spies, and the sick and wounded in occupied regions.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> The protection of historical monuments is only mentioned briefly in Article 56 of the legislation.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> Article 56 states that the seizure and destruction of religious and educational institutions, historical monuments, and works of art and science is prohibited by law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899, c 5, a. 56. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref> However, archives were not specifically identified within the law.<ref>''Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land'', 1899. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/150</ref>

=====1907 Hague Regulations=====
The [http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/full/195 1907 Hague Regulations], created on 18 October 1907, expanded legislation on the treatment of cultural property in war zones.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1907 Hague Regulations claim that institutions which hold artistic, scientific, and historical monuments should not be attacked during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Historical monuments and institutions were provided a sense of protection in war zones in 1907.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, archives are not specifically mentioned within the 1907 Hague Regulations and thus their security in war zones was not guaranteed until the mid-20th century.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 460, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

=====1954 Hague Convention=====
The 1954 Hague Convention, also known as [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/ The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict], was created on 14 May 1954 as a response to the impact of World War II on cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was one of the first times legislation specifically labeled archives as cultural property that required protection during times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 461, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention claims that the destruction of one nation’s cultural property during times of war negatively impacts the entire world’s cultural heritage.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention suggests that all nation states should recognize the value of records and protect both their own and other nations through the appropriate transportation of records during times of war, enabling archival personnel to continue working in occupied regions, and the identification of collections via internationally recognized emblems that denote the collections' historical and cultural significance and thus need for protection.<ref>''The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict'', 1954. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/movable-heritage-and-museums/armed-conflict-and-heritage/text-of-the-convention-and-its-1st-protocol/</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was revised in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to emphasize the obligation of occupying military units to respect cultural property and to provide increased protection to historic sites and institutions that have significant historical value for occupied nations.<ref>George P. Mackenzie, “Working for the Protection of the World’s Cultural Heritage: the International Committee of the Blue Shield," ''Journal of the Society of Archivists'' 21, no. 1 (2000): 6, http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjsa20/current</ref>

===Cultural Nationalism vs. Cultural Internationalism===
Legislation concerning the treatment of archives during times of war comes into conflict with many archives’ desires to protect their nations’ records and information from occupying troops.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> International legislation - such as that of 1899, 1907, and 1954 - is often premised on cultural internationalism, or the notion that one nation’s archives may be seen as part of international culture.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many nations exercise cultural nationalism, or the notion that archives belong to one nation and that their collections should be protected to ensure that they do not reach the hands of enemies in times of war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The seizure of records for military purposes is one example of the conflict between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism during times of war.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention permits the seizure of records for military purposes – such as obtaining military and administrative intelligence on an occupied region in order to maintain effective rule during war.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 459-462, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, many occupied nations have acted in accordance with cultural nationalism and have hidden their records or destroyed them in order to avoid occupying forces from obtaining further information about the region.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, legislation concerning the destruction and seizure of records illustrates international and national tensions for a nation’s archives during times of war.

===Restitution===
Restitution is the act of returning records that were seized during military occupation for intelligence purposes or via the looting activities of occupying forces to their original archival institution.<ref>Cox, “Archives, War,” 40-41, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> The restitution of records following war may help nations return to a sense of normalcy in rule while retaining their historical identity.<ref>Michelle Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much, Now Give Them Back”: Cultural Property and the Fight Over the Iraqi Baath Party Records,” ''The American Archivist'' 74, no. 1 (2011) 233-234, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The restitution of archival records following a war is ordered by international legislation.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 464-465, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, some nations have interpreted laws differently in order to allow them to retain seized records.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> For example, some nations may retain seized records indefinitely due to national security concerns or under the guise of preserving records for the future.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Thus, interpretation of international legislation is subjective and varies across nations.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 475-477, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Examples of lengthy procedures for the restitution of records following war includes the Allies return of German records following World War II – which began in 1958 – and the American return of Iraqi Ba’ath Party records seized in Operation Iraqi Freedom which largely remain in American custody today.<ref>Astrid M. Eckert, ''The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Return of German Archives After the Second World War'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012): 271.</ref><ref>Caswell, ““Thank You Very Much,” 237-240, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

==Antiquity to the French Revolution==
Archives have been impacted by war since the earliest years of recorded history.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives and records are often targeted by disgruntled citizens and military occupiers during military campaigns.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 213-215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Pharaonic Egypt, Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the medieval and early modern era, and the French Revolution are just some examples of the impact of war on archives.

====Pharaonic Egypt====
Archival institutions and records were seen as means for social control in ancient Egypt.<ref>Ernst Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient World'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 85.</ref> Egypt's Sixth Dynasty was overthrown in 2200 B.C. leading to much internal strife.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref> It was at this time that archival institutions and records were attacked and destroyed by mobs who wished to remove exiting property rights from the area and claim their own land.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient,'' 85.</ref>

====Alexander the Great====
Alexander the Great, who reigned during the 300s B.C., utilized archival records to his advantage following his military conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Archival records gained during military combat assisted with his administration of newly conquered lands.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> Alexander the Great kept the most important records of his reign with him at all times, including accompaniment on military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref> However, this lead to numerous records being destroyed through a fire in a military tent during one of Alexander the Great's military campaigns.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 127.</ref>

====The Roman Empire====
The Roman Empire, spanning from 26 B.C. to 1453 A.D., had an extensive archival system that sought to incorporate records from their conquered lands <ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 160.</ref> Roman emperors would force Prisoners of War to carry their state's recently seized artifacts of national significance throughout Roman towns in order to illustrate their new-found subjugation to the empire.<ref>Ernst Posner, "Effects of Changes of Sovereignty on Archives," in ''Archives and the Public Interest,'' edited by Ken Munden (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 173.</ref> However, the Romans were not free from the destruction of their own records. In 6 B.C., the Gauls invaded Rome and burned a number of private and public records.<ref>Posner, ''Archives in the Ancient'', 172.</ref>

====Medieval and Early Modern Era====
The destruction of archives, both the buildings and the records they contain, were seen as natural repercussions of war during the medieval and early modern era, or the 400s to late 1700s.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Archives were destroyed and seized by occupying forces who wanted to gain complete control of a region and by citizens who sought to destroy records to erase aspects of their personal histories.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, archives were a prime target of war throughout this period.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 213, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

====The French Revolution====
The French Revolution and its corresponding wars, spanning from 1789 to 1799, sparked the public's interest in creating archival repositories to preserve records that held historical and national importance.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 173.</ref> In part, this movement may have been created by victorious French armies who forced defeated countries to send their historical artifacts to France.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was believed that if "...a nation is robbed of its archives[, it] loses more than the heaps of dusty papers."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> The July 25, 1794 decree, made by the French state, caused all records of the French nation to become public property and thus publicly accessible.<ref>Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," in ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science'', edited by Allen Kent and Carolyn M. Hall, vol. 59 (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1997), 4.</ref> Therefore, archives were recognized for their national significance, historical value, and reinforcement of a nation's identity through the experiences of the French Revolution and its wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Yet, it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that society began to recognize the need to protect a nation’s scientific, cultural, and artistic possessions.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 214, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801.jpg|thumb|Napoleon Bonaparte, 1801. From: WeHaKa, 2012.]]

''“… All victorious armies looted as a matter of course: loot was the major reason why the underpaid private soldier put his body voluntarily at risk.”''<ref>Brian M. Owens, “The Archival manuscript and the Book: Tools of Knowledge and Artifacts of Destruction During the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 25, no. 1 (2012): 17, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

Napoleon Bonaparte - the leader of France and the Napoleonic Wars during the late 1700s and early 1800s - strove to create a French Empire and a corresponding imperial archives during the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> Napoleon believed that removing archival records from the countries that he conquered would help solidify their subjugation under the French nation.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> It was during the Napoleonic Wars that archives began to experience extensive amounts of destruction and pillage that has been traditionally associated with artwork.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref> In fact, the Napoleonic Wars have been termed the "rape of the archives."<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

Numerous country's records were seized by Napoleon's armies during the Wars.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon’s forces sought to seize records from all of their conquered lands, which led to a total of approximately 1528 seized manuscripts.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-8, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> In 1809, Napoleon enacted a decree that made all foreign manuscripts the property of the French state.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Manuscripts and the records of archives were transported to France through secret treaties between nations and raids performed by Napoleon’s troops.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 7-11, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Archival records from Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria were seized by Napoleon's troops and brought to Paris to be preserved in an archival repository.<ref>Posner, "Effects of Changes," 174.</ref>

The Napoleonic Wars signify the first nationalized seizure of records though the looting of archives during times of war.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 16, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Napoleon seized records under the desire to make France the global centre of culture and military prowess.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Furthermore, the removal and destruction of European archives by Napoleon’s troops symbolized France’s power over the surrounding states.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref> Thus, Napoleon’s forces seized other nation’s records and destroyed their archives in an assertion of power during the Napoleonic Wars of the early nineteenth century.<ref>Owens, “The Archival Manuscript,” 13, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.660615</ref>

==World War I==

===Continental Europe===
Archives in continental Europe were largely run by occupying forces during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215-224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Many European archivists enrolled for military combat in World War I, leaving the management of archives to other archival staff.<ref>Cox, "National Archives," 472, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It was the responsibility of occupying forces to protect cultural property, including archives, from destruction and theft by soldiers and civilians during World War I.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, in 1915, German archivists visited Belgium and France to create a system to protect archival records and to ensure than the management and care of archives continued during occupation.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> However, German occupying forces in Belgium burned many of their own archives on October 11, 1918.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> This reflects the notion that when occupying forces begin to see the end of their rule they will destroy records denoting their activities and presence in the region.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 224, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===England===
World War I, spanning from 1914 to 1918, impacted the Public Record Office's archival practices.<ref>John D. Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office 1838-1958'' (London: HMSO, 1991), 377</ref> Many archival staff at the Public Record Office - England's national archives at the time - were enlisted in military combat in continental Europe and, in total, seven members of staff died in battle.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> The archives still received requests for records - especially, census reports and documents to identify illegal aliens - from the British public and government during the war.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 380.</ref> However, archival practices adjusted to the war environment through the lack of special events and exhibits.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Thus, the Public Record Office emphasized the need to properly care for and manage archival records before meeting the archives' outreach needs.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 378.</ref> Beginning in 1915, the Public Record Office began to transport records of national significance out of their London headquarters.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> Yet, it was not until 1918 that the Domesday Book and Chancery Enrollments were evacuated out of the Public Record Office and into Bodmin Prison.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> The Public Record Office remained largely unscathed by the physical damages of war - the building was not bombed and only received small shrapnel damage throughout the war years.<ref>Cantwell, ''The Public Record Office'', 379.</ref> However, archival practices did adjust to meet wartime demands.

==World War II==
The German occupation of Europe, Allied activity on continental Europe, American discourse, English activities on the home front, and the USSR's seizure of records impacted archives during the Second World War, spanning from 1939 to 1945.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Mason Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past”: The Protection and Preservation of monuments, Works of Art, Libraries, and Archives During and After World War II,” ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' 92 (1980): 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Hans C. Rasmussen, “Endangered Records and the Beginning of Professionalism Among Archivists in England, 1918-1945,” ''Library & Information History'' 21, no. 2 (2011) 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archives, and the records they contain, were pillaged, bombed, transported, and forced to reorganize management techniques during the Second World War.<ref>Posner, "Public Records, 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref><ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,"" 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref><ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records," 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The following is an exploration of the impact of war on German and Allied archives in the late 1930s and 1940s.

===Germany and the Occupation of Europe===
The National Socialist state, led by Adolf Hitler, seized and destroyed archival records throughout Europe during the Second World War in order to use them for research and to assist in the identification of the regime's enemies.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215-226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, National Socialist troops seized records – such as proclamations, drawings, and posters – throughout Poland in an effort to document their impact in the region and identify opponents to National Socialism.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 226, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the National Socialists seized records to fulfill the goals of the regime through the identification of Jewish, Roma, Sinti, handicapped, and homosexual individuals that would be soon deported to concentration camps throughout Europe.<ref>Marek Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish Libraries and Archives in Cracow During World War II,” ''Libraries & Culture'' 38, no. 2 (2003): 160-161, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref>

Many archives were targeted by National Socialists in their attempt to destroy distinct populations and their recorded history.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> Kazimierz, a district in Krakow, was the centre of Jewish culture, religion, and archival records in Poland prior to the war.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish," 147, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Jewish archives in Kazimierz held records ranging from rare manuscripts, documents concerning Jewish associations, B’nai B’rith and records from the 1500s.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 149-151, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> National Socialists began to systematically destroy and loot Jewish archival collections in Kazimierz in October 1939 – any material that was looted was taken to Berlin by January 1940.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 154, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> Synagogues and their corresponding records were plundered and burned.<ref>Sroka, “The Destruction of Jewish,” 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549089</ref> The National Socialist destruction of Jewish archives and the population itself became closely connected throughout the war resulting in the loss of countless records and documented heritage.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution of War Crimes," 135, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

National Socialist power over archival repositories throughout Europe spread as their military units advanced into the west.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> The National Socialists obtained control over European archives in the conquered states and claimed to provide protection to European cultural property during the war.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Some archival records did receive appropriate archival care but were utilized to further the National Socialists' research interests.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 215, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> European records that were under the care of National Socialists were analyzed to obtain information on political opponents, racial populations, and to perform research programs to support Nazi ideology.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 216, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

The National Socialists' seizure and control of archival records led some European populations to destroy their records before German occupation.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222-225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> For example, some Dutch citizens in Holland dressed in police uniforms and destroyed records of national importance – including population registers – to avoid German troops from gaining further information.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 222, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Poles destroyed and evacuated the majority of archival records from the Archives of Public Instruction, Statistical Office, and Foreign Office during the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref> Thus, the Second World War led to the destruction of vast amounts of archival records by citizens in warring states.<ref>Posner, “Public Records,” 225, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1838607</ref>

===Allies in Continental Europe===
Allied military activities and discourse often expressed the desire to protect archives in continental Europe during the Second World War.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> American troops discussed how to minimize and prevent the damage of cultural property, including archives, in The Roberts Commission that occurred prior to their engagement in World War II.<ref>Hammond, ““Remembrance of Things Past,” 86, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Allied forces enlisted historians, curators, and archivists in military units as a preventative measure to avoid the unneeded destruction of European cultural property.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 88-89, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> The Allies believed that they should not interfere with a region’s archives if they were being adequately preserved by their current employees.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 95, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> However, some Allied troops did loot and destroy records from European archives during their military tour.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref> Thus, the Allies incorporated the protection of archives within their military strategies but the individual activities of Allied troops remained in question.<ref>Hammond, “Remembrance of Things,” 96, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080869</ref>

One of the Allied responses to Germany’s destruction of archives throughout Europe was the creation of Monuments, Fire Arts, and Archives (MFAA) by American and British forces in 1943.<ref>Eleanor Mattern, “World War II Archivists: In the Field and on the Home Front,” ''Library & Archival Security'' 24, no. 2 (2011): 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> MFAA was established to provide protection to cultural property during the Second World War by making it the responsibility of military forces to protect, recover, and return cultural property, such as archives, during and after the war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 61, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was composed of historians, archeologists, curators, architects, and archivists from the Public Record Office, UK, and the National Archives and Record Administration, the United States of America.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 63-65, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> Archivists accompanied military units to provide assistance in the treatment of European archival records and created inventory lists to identify archives that required protection by the Allies military units.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 72-73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The MFAA was also responsible for orchestrating the restitution of European archival records following the close of war.<ref>Mattern, “World War II Archivists,” 73, doi: 10.1080/01960075.2011.599188</ref> The 1954 Hague Convention was a direct result of the impact of war on archives and Allies’ attempts to protect cultural property.<ref>Cox, “National Archives,” 463, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

===American Discourse on the Home Front===
Philip C. Brooks, an American archivist and employee of [http://archivopedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Schellenberg,_T._R._%28Theodore_R.%29,_1903-1970 T. R. Schellenberg], argued in 1943 that the role of an archivist changed during times of war.<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “The Archivist’s Concern in Records Administration,” ''The American Archivist'' 6, no. 3 (July 1943): 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Brooks asked Americans to "...consider the archivists of the nations, how they go; they fight not, neither do they produce munitions... yet archivists must direct their energies to the common war effort as conscientiously as other citizens".<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> American archivists were believed to hold specific roles during times of war - to protect cultural resources, analyze records to find useful information for the war effort, collect and preserve material related to the nation's war effort, create narratives about war experiences through documentation, and promote records management in government departments due to the large increase of documents being produced by the government.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> Thus, archivists in America during the Second World War acquired an active role in both the management of government records and documentation of the war effort.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 158. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The increasing importance of archivists in discourse concerning the war effort lead to new legislation:

* '''The National Archives Act of June 19, 1934'''
:This act provided archivists with the right to inspect federal records in America.<ref>Brooks, Philip C, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

* '''Resolution of July 25, 1942'''
:This resolution instructed archivists to inspect government agencies and inform their managers if they do not have proper records management practices in place.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref>

The National Archives' Records Administration Program was established in 1943 to enable archivists to assist with the filing, selection, and retention of government agency records prior to their transfer to the archives.<ref>Brooks, “The Archivist’s Concern,” 160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288349</ref> New disposal acts, which altered the required procedures for record destruction, were also introduced during the 1940s in order to improve The U.S. National Archives' management of the massive amount of records produced during the war<ref>Brooks, Philip C., “Archival Procedures for Planned Records Retirement,” ''The American Archivist'' 11, no. 4 (October 1948): 309-310. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40288696</ref>

===The English Home Front===
World War II impacted archives and the role of the archivist on the English home front.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archives and archivists gained a sense of professionalism and greater respect in society due to their experiences of the Second World War.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> England’s strive to protect their archives through transporting records to diverse locations and public awareness campaigns in 1939 and the 1940s solidified England's archival profession in society.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

The English transported records from the Public Record Office, their national archives in the 1940s, to diverse locations within England during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Starting in August 1939, archivists at the Public Record Office placed their most valuable records into steel-banded cardboard boxes and drove them out of London on trucks to avoid potential damage from aerial bombardment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 93-94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Approximately 2000 tonnes of records had been evacuated from the Public Record Office and placed in prisons, castles, and manor houses throughout England by 1942 - archival records were stored in over 400 locations in England with an additional 150 storage locations in London itself.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Archivists were trained to fight fires, patrol buildings, and extinguish small bombs that may strike the roofs of buildings holding archival records.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The packaging, transportation, relocation, and physical protection of England’s records caused archivists throughout England to collaborate to work towards the common goal of protecting their nation’s historical papers from German artillery and potential invasion.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, English archivists’ experiences during World War II led to the need to adapt archival procedures to meet the needs of the new environment.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

English archivists acquired a new role - to protect records through public awareness campaigns - in World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists became more collaborative and respected in society due to their response to internal threats to records – namely, English citizens and military personnel.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Much of England’s population wished to pulp archival records to obtain raw resources during the war’s dire shortages.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 88, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Military personnel overtook estate houses where archival records were located – such as at Tottenham House in Wiltshire where military personnel destroyed records through floods and fires.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 94, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> English archivists responded to the dangers records encountered on the home front by creating the Records Preservation Section in late 1939.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> The Records Preservation Section organized public awareness radio broadcasts concerning the care of records and sought to increase the public’s awareness of the value of archives.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref> Thus, archivists on the English home front became more assertive and collaborative in order to protect records and promote the value of records within society during World War II.<ref>Rasmussen, “Endangered Records,” 89-95, doi: 10.1179/175834911X12979933653167</ref>

===USSR Seizures===
The Soviet Union, or the USSR, seized archival records from numerous European states during and immediately after World War II.<ref>Ingo Kolasa, "Where Have All the Volumes Gone? A Contribution to the Discussion of "Captured Cultural Property" and "Trophy Commissions,"" College & Research Libraries 57, no. 6 (1996): 507, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets sought to obtain records from Germany and France that held historical importance, such as information related to World War I and National Socialist concentration camps.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, little academic research has been performed on USSR seizures of European records as knowledge of these events were unknown until the fall of Soviet power in the 1990s.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The records that were seized during World War II thus largely still remain in Russia.<ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimstead, "Captured Archives and Restitution Problems on the Eastern Front: Beyond the Bard Graduate Center Symposium," in ''The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property'', edited by Elizabeth Simpson (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, 1997),249-250.</ref>

The Soviets specifically targeted German records during the seizures of archival material during World War II.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 502, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviet's supported their actions by arguing that the USSR was obtaining compensation for prior German activity which had resulted in the loss of extensive amounts of Soviet artwork and library holdings.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Soviets also emphasized their desire to destroy Germany's economy and future academic research by removing important records and library materials from the German nation.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 503, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

The Soviets captured German records that they deemed were historically significant for the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> Beginning in 1945, the Soviets transported an extensive amount of archival records by freight cars to the USSR for military intelligence and as trophies of war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref> The Soviets captured three types of records: those that accounted for the Nazi regime, Russian and Soviet related records, and records from other European nations that the Germans had seized during the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 247.</ref>

=====Soviet Trophy Commission=====
The Soviet Trophy Commission existed during World War II to capture European cultural property - including museum, art, and archival collections - that were of interest to the USSR.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> Approximately nine thousand boxes of European literary and museum artifacts were captured by the Soviets at the close of the war.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref> The Soviet Trophy Commission seized archival materials such as:
* Manuscripts - Oriental, European, and materials from the Magdeburg City Archives in Germany;
* Early printed German books;
* Drawings, engravings, and negatives of art and architecture;
* and, Ethnographic materials.<ref>Grimstead, “Captured Archives,” 248.</ref>

=====Special Committee for Germany=====
The USSR formed the Special Committee for Germany, a secret organization that sought to seize Germany's cultural property, on February 25, 1945.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> The Special Committee for Germany identified cultural property, including archival records, that were to be captured by the USSR's military forces.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Joseph Stalin, the USSR's leader, was meant to give approval for the seizure of each artifact.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> However, USSR troops often captured Germany's cultural property for their own gain and without prior approval from the state.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 510, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref> Russia still retains some of the seized artifacts but many of the records have been destroyed or lost since the war.<ref>Kolasa, “Where Have All the Volumes Gone?,” 511, http://crl.acrl.org/</ref>

==Iraq War==
[[File:Iraq War montage.png|thumb|Images from the Iraq War. Image from: Futuretrillionaire, 2013.]]
The Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, began on March 20, 2003 when American, British, and Australian forces invaded Iraq.<ref>Nabil Al-Tikriti, ““Stuff Happens”: A Brief Overview of the 2003 Destruction of Iraqi Manuscript Collections, Archives, and Libraries,” ''Library Trends'' 55, no. 3 (2007): 730, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The Iraq War impacted archives in Baghdad, the nation’s capital, and sent repercussions to archives in North America.<ref>Al-Tikriti, "Stuff Happens," 731-733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> An examination of the destruction and seizure of records illustrates the role of legislation and restitution in the impact of war on archives.

===Destruction and Legislation===
The impact of the Iraq War on archives began in April 2003 when American troops entered Baghdad.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref> From April 10th to 14th, 2003, Baghdadis attacked their National Library and Archives (also known as ''Dar al-Kutub wa al-Watha’iq'') with incendiary materials and looted records from repositories throughout the city.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref> The Director-General of the National Library and Archives, Saad Eskander, claims that the archives’ employees were instructed to destroy all records that pertained to Ba’athist rule as they contained evidence of the regime’s atrocities.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> However, some archival employees and volunteers removed records to safe locations outside of the city during the weeks prior to military invasion and immediately following events on April 10th.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref> The looting and hiding of records, though one method destructive and the other preventative, represent Iraq’s strive to retain their cultural nationalism and prevent American forces from obtaining their records.<ref>Al-Tikriti, “Stuff Happens,” 733, http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/library_trends/</ref><ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906</ref>

The impact of the Iraq War on the National Library and Archives of Iraq illustrate issues related to the role of legislation in war. American forces did not protect Iraq’s archives though they knew locals were targeting the archives and international legislation, such as the 1954 Hague Convention, urge occupying forces to protect archives.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref> The persecution of those responsible for the looting and destruction of archives in Iraq did not occur.<ref>Zgonjanin, ‘The Prosecution,” 141, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref> The impact of the Iraq War on Iraqi archives illustrates the continued lack of international legal protection as laws are subjective, vary in interpretation, and do not balance cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism.<ref>Zgonjanin, “The Prosecution,” 140, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/25541906</ref>

===Seizure and Restitution===
Archives in Iraq continue to be impacted by the seizure of records during the Iraq War. One pivotal example of the seizure of records during the Iraq War and lengthy restitution process is that of Kanan Makiya, an Iraqi American exile.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Makiya seized a vast amount of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party records following the destruction of Iraqi archives in April 2003.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records included Saddam Hussein’s Ba’ath Party membership lists, files from the secret police, and court-martial documents – all containing highly sensitive information.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 212, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The seized records were transported to the United States of America in 2005 to be digitized by government contractors for military intelligence.<ref>Caswell, "Thank You Very Much,” 214, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> As of 2011, the records still remain in the United States of America despite Iraqi calls for restitution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 216, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref>

The debate on the restitution of Iraqi records seized by Makiya illustrates the impact of war on archives. The decision to return the records to Iraq is tied to ethical considerations.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> It may be argued that keeping the Iraqi records in the United States of America allows for increased accessibility to American researchers, human rights lawyers, and the international community while also ensuring that the records are appropriately cared for and preserved at an archival institution.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> However, ethical arguments in support for the restitution of the records cite that the records belong to Iraq, that Iraqis cannot access the records in the United States of America, and that the records will play an important role in Iraq’s nation-building process after the war.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The continuing debate on the restitution of records shows the long-term impact of war on archives as ten years have passed with little success.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> Archives and the records they contain are building blocks for national identity causing the seizure of records during war and lengthy restitution process to be problematic.<ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> Thus, war impacts a nation’s sense of sovereignty and independence when its records are jeopardized through seizure and restitution by foreign powers.<ref>Caswell, “Thank You Very Much,” 230-231, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, doi:10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref>

==Conclusion==
Archives have been impacted by war from antiquity to the contemporary era. Archives in war zones experience destruction through aerial bombardment, seizures, mob attacks, and the disorganization of records through the use of archival repositories as military headquarters - to name just a few examples.<ref>Posner, "Public Records," 214, http://www,jstor.org/stable/1838607.</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 27-28, 20i: doi: 10.1080/01960075.2012.657945</ref> War has impacted archives through the creation of specific pieces of legislation to act as protection, conflicts between cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism, and battles for the restitution of seized records.<ref>Zgonjanin, "The Prosecution," 135l, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541906.</ref><ref>Cox, "National Archives," 454, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref><ref>Cox, "Archives, War," 457-459, http://www2.archivists.org/american-archivist</ref> The future for archives in war zones remains unknown and further research should be performed in order to gain a broader understanding of the impact of war on archives.

==See Also==
A holistic examination of the short and long-term impact of war and conflict on archives may be seen by viewing the current article as a companion to other ARST 573 ''UBC Wiki'' articles, specifically:

* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Power|Archives and Power]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Archives_and_Repressive_Regimes|Archives and Repressive Regimes]]
* [[Course:ARST573/Military_%26_Secret_Service_Archives|Military & Secret Service Archives]]

==Image Attributions==
Futuretrillionaire. "Iraq War montage." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2013. Accessed 22 March 2103 from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq_War_montage.png

WeHaKa. "Napoleon Bonaparte AGE V07 1801." ''Wikimedia Commons''. 2012. Accessed 22 March 2013 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Napoleon_Bonaparte_AGE_V07_1801.jpg

==References==
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[[Category:Archival Studies]] [[Category:ARST]] [[Category:ARST573]]