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Significance of deadwood to biodiversity

2026-04-12T23:39:18Z

AngeloDeck: AngeloDeck moved page Significance of deadwood to biodiversity to Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

#REDIRECT [[Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-12T23:39:17Z

AngeloDeck: AngeloDeck moved page Significance of deadwood to biodiversity to Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree standing in forest ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forest types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Deadwood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leaching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long-term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor an abundance of flora and fauna which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, approximately 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts must focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside their living counterparts.

== Background ==
=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood and course woody debris has traditionally been discarded and removed from managed and urban forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest and often removed.<ref name=":0" /> The term 'debris' stemmed from the attitude towards deadwood, and its need for removal.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown until the 1970's when the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics; including the removal of dead trees and course woody debris.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Research now shows that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025 the Vancouver Park's Board began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees in Stanley Park following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref> Trees are often removed if they are diseased, dead, present a risk to infrastructure, or certain development is approved.<ref name=":16">City of Vancouver. (n.d.) ''Vancouvers Urban Forest''. https://vancouver.ca/parks-recreation-culture/urban-forest-strategy.aspx </ref> Although trees both dead and alive provide many ecological services to urban areas, public safety comes first.<ref name=":16" />

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris, as its small surface area acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Larger pieces of coarse woody debris provide ecological functions different from smaller pieces.<ref name=":17">Government of British Columbia. (2010) ''Chief Forester's Guidance Coarse Woody Debris Management''. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/chief_forester_short_cwd.pdf</ref> They often last longer, hold more moisture making them less flammable, and contribute more organic material to the soil.<ref name=":17" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce smaller scale coarse woody debris fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has also been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>
[[File:Paddenstoelen op dood hout. Locatie, Stuttebosch in de lendevallei. Provincie Friesland 04.jpg|thumb|Coarse woody debris]]

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Public concern regarding the actual motives behind deadwood removal have also sparked controversy following the mass removal of trees from Stanley Park in 2025.<ref name=":4" /> Debate on whether the removal of the dead trees was for economic or ecological reasons has stirred conservation groups, who claim the removal was unnecessary.<ref>Forest Emergency. (n.d.) Stop logging Stanley Park - Park board is cutting up to 25% of the trees in Stanley Park. https://forestemergency.org/stanley-park/</ref>

Preserving biodiversity in urban and managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, when possible large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future will be finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat ===
==== Shelter and nesting sites ====
Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential structural habitat for a wide range of forest organisms.<ref name=":5" /> These structures serve as shelter, nesting sites, and feeding substrates for birds, mammals, insects, and fungi, and are especially important in forest systems where natural habitat features are limited or have been reduced by management practices.<ref name=":5" /> Cavities formed in dead or decaying trees are widely used by cavity-nesting species. Many birds actively excavate these cavities, which are subsequently reused by a variety of secondary users such as small mammals, reptiles, and other bird species.<ref name=":5" /> This reuse increases habitat availability over time and supports ongoing ecological interactions, allowing deadwood to contribute to long-term habitat continuity within forest ecosystems. Beyond nesting functions, deadwood also acts as a critical ecological substrate that supports feeding activities and life-cycle processes. Decomposing wood hosts diverse communities of fungi and invertebrates that depend on deadwood for growth and reproduction. These organisms play a central role in breaking down organic material and, in turn, provide food resources for higher trophic levels such as birds and small mammals.<ref name=":1" /> Through these relationships, deadwood supports complex food webs and contributes to energy flow within forest ecosystems. Deadwood also influences habitat quality by modifying local environmental conditions. Logs and snags can buffer temperature fluctuations, retain moisture, and reduce exposure to desiccation.<ref name=":3" /> These microhabitats are particularly important for species that are sensitive to environmental stress, allowing them to persist under otherwise unfavorable conditions. As a result, deadwood enhances the stability of microclimatic conditions at small spatial scales. In addition, fallen logs contribute to the physical structure of the forest floor by acting as movement pathways and refuges for ground-dwelling organisms.<ref name=":3" /> These structures create protected routes that facilitate movement and provide shelter during extreme environmental conditions. By increasing structural complexity and spatial heterogeneity, deadwood supports biodiversity across multiple trophic levels and plays a key role in maintaining habitat diversity. Collectively, these functions demonstrate that deadwood is not merely a byproduct of tree mortality but a fundamental and dynamic component of forest habitat systems that supports a wide range of ecological processes.

==== Tree Microhabitats ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.
==== Structural complexity ====
The presence of deadwood adds variation to forest structure by introducing differences in form, size, and decay stage. This creates a range of microenvironments with varying levels of moisture, light, and temperature.<ref name=":1" /> Such variability allows different species to occupy different niches, reducing competition and supporting coexistence. In addition, the diversity of decay stages contributes to temporal heterogeneity within ecosystems. Newly fallen logs, moderately decomposed wood, and highly decayed substrates each provide distinct ecological conditions and support different biological communities.<ref name=":20" /> Over time, this structural diversity becomes an important component of ecosystem stability. Forests with more complex physical structures tend to support a wider range of organisms, highlighting the role of deadwood in maintaining both habitat diversity and ecological resilience.<ref name=":1" /> This structural complexity is particularly important in managed forests, where simplification of forest structure can reduce habitat availability. Retaining deadwood is therefore increasingly recognized as a key strategy for restoring structural diversity in these systems.<ref name=":22" />

=== Nutrient Cycling ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
==== Nutrient storage ====

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth.<ref name=":3" /> After the tree dies, these nutrients remain stored within the wood rather than being immediately released into the soil. Deadwood also intercepts litterfall and throughfall (rain passing through the canopy), allowing nutrients to be retained within logs instead of being rapidly transferred to the soil or lost through leaching.<ref name=":3" /> This retention helps regulate nutrient availability within the ecosystem. As a result, deadwood functions as a long-term nutrient reservoir, gradually releasing nutrients over extended periods of time. This slow release supports sustained ecosystem productivity and helps maintain nutrient balance in forest systems.
==== Soil and moisture effects ====
As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released back into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates.<ref name=":1" /> These organisms play a key role in breaking down complex organic materials such as lignin and cellulose, facilitating nutrient cycling within the ecosystem. Deadwood also improves soil structure and increases water-holding capacity, creating moist microhabitats that are important for many organisms, particularly in environments that experience seasonal dryness.<ref name=":3" /> These conditions can enhance seedling survival and microbial activity. In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs act as important substrates for seedling establishment, especially where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable due to competition or limited moisture. This process contributes to forest regeneration and supports long-term ecosystem resilience.

==== Decomposition processes ====
Decomposition is a key ecological process associated with deadwood and plays a central role in regulating nutrient cycling. This process is largely driven by fungi and other decomposers that break down complex compounds such as lignin and cellulose.<ref name=":23" /> The rate of decomposition can vary depending on environmental conditions, including moisture, temperature, and the characteristics of the wood itself. These variations influence how quickly nutrients are released and redistributed within the ecosystem, linking decomposition processes directly to broader ecosystem functioning.<ref name=":23" /> In addition, decomposition processes contribute to long-term carbon storage and release dynamics, making deadwood an important component of forest carbon budgets.<ref name=":23" />

=== Biodiversity ===
==== Habitat for specialized species ====
Deadwood created by natural disturbances, such as bark beetle outbreaks, provides important habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions.<ref name=":6" /> These species are often adapted to particular stages of wood decay or specific physical characteristics of dead trees. For example, barbastelle bats (''Barbastella barbastellus'') have been observed to roost beneath loose bark of dead trees, relying on structural features that are typically absent in living trees.<ref name=":6" /> This demonstrates how deadwood supports species with highly specialized habitat requirements. Such species are often dependent on the continued availability of deadwood, meaning that reductions in deadwood can directly impact their populations and ecological roles.

==== Increase in forest biodiversity ====
Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating new ecological niches and increasing structural heterogeneity within forests.<ref name=":1" /> These changes provide a wider range of habitat conditions that support diverse species. A substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood during some stage of their life cycle, particularly fungi, insects, and other saproxylic species.<ref name=":1" /> These organisms form the foundation of many forest food webs. In addition, forests with higher amounts of deadwood tend to support greater species diversity compared to intensively managed forests where deadwood is removed.<ref name=":7" /> This highlights the importance of deadwood in maintaining biodiversity at the ecosystem level. Overall, deadwood plays a fundamental role in shaping biodiversity patterns and supporting ecological processes within forest ecosystems.

==== Ecosystem-level implications ====
Beyond its role in supporting individual species, deadwood contributes to broader ecosystem functioning. By influencing habitat availability, nutrient cycling, and structural complexity, it helps shape biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem scale.<ref name=":20" /> Differences in the amount, type, and distribution of deadwood can lead to variations in community composition and ecological interactions. This demonstrates that deadwood is not only a habitat feature, but also a fundamental component of forest ecosystems that supports biodiversity across multiple spatial and temporal scales.<ref name=":22" />

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity ==
[[File:Mountain Pine Beetle damage in the Fraser Experimental Forest 2007.jpg|thumb|Mountain Pine Beetle damage in the Fraser Experimental Forest 2007]]

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref name=":22">Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref name=":25">Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref name=":24">Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>.

The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded among the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered to be species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harm of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old-growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>. In contrast to the extensive studies on beetles, saproxylic fungi are typically excluded from attempts to maintain ecosystem integrity when removing deadwood<ref>Moose, R. A., Schigel, D., Kirby, L. J., & Shumskaya, M. (2019). Dead wood fungi in North America: an insight into research and conservation potential. ''Nature Conservation'', ''32'', 1-17.</ref>. On top of the exclusion when trying to manage deadwood, restored deadwood does not provide these same benefits to fungi as natural deadwood, despite attempts to reinstate its ecosystem role<ref>Saine, S., Penttilä, R., Furneaux, B., Monkhouse, N., Zakharov, E. V., Ovaskainen, O., & Abrego, N. (2024). Natural deadwood hosts more diverse pioneering wood‐inhabiting fungal communities than restored deadwood. ''Restoration Ecology'', ''32''(1), e14056. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14056</nowiki></ref>.

Overall, the failure of forest management practices to consider potential harm to saproxylic organisms threatens the survival of a variety of populations and species.

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Pfeifer|first=Marion|last2=Lefebvre|first2=Veronique|last3=Turner|first3=Edgar|last4=Cusack|first4=Jeremy|last5=Khoo|first5=MinSheng|last6=Chey|first6=Vun K.|last7=Peni|first7=Maria|last8=Ewers|first8=Robert M.|date=28 April 2015|title=Deadwood biomass: an underestimated carbon stock in degraded tropical forests?|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|via=IOPScience}}</ref>. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood<ref name=":23">Wijas, B. J., Allison, S. D., Austin, A. T., Cornwell, W. K., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Eggleton, P., Fraver, S., Ooi, M. K. J., Powell, J. R., Woodall, C. W., & Zanne, A. E. (2024). The role of deadwood in the carbon cycle: Implications for models, forest management, and future climates. ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'', ''55''(1), 133–155. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327</nowiki></ref>. Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood<ref name=":15" />. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood<ref>Alessandro Paletto, Isabella de Meo, Paolo Cantiani, Fabrizio Ferretti. Effects of forest management on the amount of deadwood in Mediterranean oak ecosystems. ''Annals of Forest Science'', 2014, 71 (7), pp.791-800. ⟨10.1007/s13595-014-0377-1⟩. ⟨hal-01102882⟩</ref>. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage. To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained.

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions==

=== Deadwood Enrichment ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

=== Deadwood Management ===

==== Retaining Large Coarse Woody Debris ====
The Province of British Columbia stated in the [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/wt-guidance-05-2006.pdf Wildlife Tree Retention Management Guide] that a portion of the total area of all cut blocks harvested within a one-year period should be left behind for wildlife.<ref name=":18">Government of British Columbia. (2006). ''Wildlife Tree Retention: Management Guidance''. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/wt-guidance-05-2006.pdf</ref> If the wildlife trees set for retention are felled of blow down, they should be left to function as coarse woody debris unless they pose a significant threat to forest health or worker safety.<ref name=":18" /> [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/chief_forester_short_cwd.pdf The Chief Forester's Guidance on Coarse Woody Debris Management] acknowledged that larger pieces of course woody debris are less flammable and function differently from smaller pieces, and hence larger pieces should be left behind for ecological function and biodiversity. <ref name=":17" /> Monitoring of course woody debris in managed forests is an ongoing practice, and the methods used in forestry are always changing.<ref name=":17" /> Allowing removal of smaller hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention would benefit the future generation of forests to grow on the land.<ref name=":17" />

==== Practicing Correct Timing of Deadwood Removal ====
[[File:Tree Pruning (cropped).jpg|thumb|An arborist uses a hand saw to prune dead and hazardous limbs in the canopy of a tree.]]
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.<ref name=":19">Government of British Columbia. (n.d.) ''Best management practices for tree topping, limbing and removal in riparian areas''. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/natural-resource-stewardship/best-management-practices/hazardtree_26may_09.pdf</ref> Wildlife trees, which are defined as '<nowiki/>''a'' ''standing dead or live tree with special characteristics that provide food and shelter for wildlife''' are protected under the ''Wildlife Act'' ''(2004).''<ref name=":19" /> The ''Wildlife Act'' prohibits the killing, harming, harassment, capture or taking of species at risk and the damage or destruction of a residence of a species at risk except as authorized by regulation, permit or agreement.<ref name=":19" /> It also protects all birds and their eggs; nests while they are occupied by a bird or egg; and the nests of eagles, peregrine falcons, gyrfalcons, ospreys, and herons year-round.<ref name=":19" /> The loss of wildlife trees has been associated with declines of threatened wildlife, therefor when possible, the preferred option is limbing or topping rather than removing the tree in its entirety.<ref name=":19" />

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
Removal of any trees and dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional. Qualified professionals should asses trees before removal to see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat.<ref name=":18" /> Workers responsible for assessing dangerous trees must have successfully completed the Wildlife/Danger Tree Assessors Course and hold current certification.<ref name=":18" /> A qualified professional can also determine if the proposed tree for removal is providing wildlife habitat and should be left behind for ecological purposes.<ref name=":19" />

== Forestry Frameworks ==

==== Policies and Guidelines ====
Policy‑level actions such as tree retention guidelines provide legally enforceable management frameworks to ensure consistent biodiversity protection across forests. Such policies and guidelines have been implemented across national, regional and local levels. British Columbia’s Forest Planning and Practices Regulation (FPPR) has a default wildlife tree retention practice requirement for agreement holders to retain a minimum of 7% of the total area of harvested cut blocks annually as Wildlife Tree Retention (WTR), with at least 3.5% retained of each cut block<ref name=":18" /> . High value tree patches are defined as areas of trees with high wildlife value, including large dead or decaying trees that provide habitat sites for local fauna and benefit local biodiversity<ref name=":18" />. This also ensure long term production of coarse woody debris which supports forest nutrient cycling and soil moisture retention. BC’s FPPR wildlife tree retention practice embeds deadwood retention practices into regulatory forest law which supports and enforces compliance across operators. It is an example of the role of government bodies in biodiversity conservation. However, it has been criticized that the current FPPR as it lacks the support to adopt of new terminology of the retention systems rather than clearcut with reserves<ref name=":26">Beese, W. J., Deal, J., Dunsworth, B. G., Mitchell, S. J., & Philpott, T. J. (2019). Two decades of variable retention in British Columbia: A review of its implementation and effectiveness for biodiversity conservation. ''Ecological Processes'', ''8''(1), 33. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-019-0181-9</nowiki> </ref>. It has been proposed that the commitment to wildlife tree retention in legislation should be supported by silvicultural prescriptions that articulate the long-term intent reserve trees and involve adaptive management practices and long term monitoring to maintain effectiveness<ref name=":26" />.

==== Forest Certification ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity, including deadwood <ref>{{Cite web|last=Forest Stewardship Council Canada|date=2018|title=FSC National Forest Stewardship Standard of Canada|url=https://fsc.org/sites/default/files/2019-05/FSC-STD-01-001%20V5-2%20EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=PFEC Canada|date=2025|title=PEFC Canada - Sustainable Forest Management Document|url=https://www.pefccanada.org/docs/pefc-canada-sustainable-forest-management-standard-pefc-can-st-1001-2025-latest-2026.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests<ref>Sverdrup-Thygeson, A., Borg, P., & Bergsaker, E. (2008). A comparison of biodiversity values in boreal forest regeneration areas before and after forest certification. ''Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research'', ''23''(3), 236–243. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580802158228</nowiki></ref>. Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products<ref>Deniz, T. (2023). The Effect of Forest Certification on Log Sale Prices: A Case Study in Northwestern Turkey. ''Forests'', ''14''(3), 596. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030596</nowiki></ref>. Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalizes the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

==Summary==
Historically, forest management practices have involved the removal of deadwood to maintain forest integrity, ensure safety of people using recreational forests, and manage fire. Additionally, the economic incentives of salvage logging have further increased the drive to remove deadwood from forest ecosystems. As research into deadwood revealed its ecological value, concern for the harms of its removal became prominent in the mainstream.

The ecological value of deadwood is expansive. Deadwood provides habitat and microhabitats for birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and other organisms. Nutrient cycles are dependent on deadwood for its ability to retain nutrients and later release those nutrients back into soil, continuing nutrient cycling. Contributions to forest biodiversity are also a key feature of deadwood with its ability to sustain specialized saproxylic organisms and create ecosystem niches.

Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease is most notably harmful to saproxylic organisms and the ecosystem functions that deadwood provides. Management practices that prioritize the removal of deadwood directly contribute to reductions in populations for saproxylic organisms. Furthermore, these management practices impact the ecosystem services that deadwood provides, harming the health of forest ecosystems.

A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Many conservation strategies have already been employed, including enrichment, planning deadwood removal in accordance with crucial events for wildlife, partial removal practices, and professional assessment.

To further protect deadwood and maintain its important ecosystem role, solutions continue to be developed. Policy and guideline implementations hope to regulate deadwood removal to align with conservation goals. Alongside policies, certification strategies require forest management practices to retain and enhance deadwood in order to receive certification. This certification incentivizes companies to ensure deadwood is well-maintained even in extensively managed forests. Together with existing remedial strategies, these solutions highlight the ecological importance of deadwood and aim to conserve its ecosystem services and role in biodiversity.

==References==
<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:Significance of deadwood to biodiversity

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Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

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#REDIRECT [[Course:Significance of deadwood to biodiversity]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

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Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

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Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

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AngeloDeck: /* Forest Management Practices */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree standing in forest ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background ==
=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood and course woody debris has traditionally been discarded and removed from managed and urban forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest and often removed.<ref name=":0" /> The term 'debris' stemmed from the attitude towards deadwood, and its need for removal.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown until the 1970's when the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics; including the removal of dead trees and course woody debris.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Research now shows that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025 the Vancouver Park's Board began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees in Stanley Park following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref> Trees are often removed if they are diseased, dead, present a risk to infrastructure, or certain development is approved.<ref name=":16">City of Vancouver. (n.d.) ''Vancouvers Urban Forest''. https://vancouver.ca/parks-recreation-culture/urban-forest-strategy.aspx </ref> Although trees both dead and alive provide many ecological services to urban areas, public safety comes first.<ref name=":16" />

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris, as its small surface area acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Larger pieces of coarse woody debris provide ecological functions different from smaller pieces.<ref name=":17">Government of British Columbia. (2010) ''Chief Forester's Guidance Coarse Woody Debris Management''. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/chief_forester_short_cwd.pdf</ref> They often last longer, hold more moisture making them less flammable, and contribute more organic material to the soil.<ref name=":17" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce smaller scale coarse woody debris fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has also been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>
[[File:Paddenstoelen op dood hout. Locatie, Stuttebosch in de lendevallei. Provincie Friesland 04.jpg|thumb|Coarse woody debris]]

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Public concern regarding the actual motives behind deadwood removal have also sparked controversy following the mass removal of trees from Stanley Park in 2025.<ref name=":4" /> Debate on whether the removal of the dead trees was for economic or ecological reasons has stirred conservation groups, who claim the removal was unnecessary.<ref>Forest Emergency. (n.d.) Stop logging Stanley Park - Park board is cutting up to 25% of the trees in Stanley Park. https://forestemergency.org/stanley-park/</ref>

Preserving biodiversity in urban and managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, when possible large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future will be finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat ===
==== Shelter and nesting sites ====
Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential structural habitat for a wide range of forest organisms.<ref name=":5" /> These structures serve as shelter, nesting sites, and feeding substrates for birds, mammals, insects, and fungi, and are especially important in forest systems where natural habitat features are limited or have been reduced by management practices.<ref name=":5" /> Cavities formed in dead or decaying trees are widely used by cavity-nesting species. Many birds actively excavate these cavities, which are subsequently reused by a variety of secondary users such as small mammals, reptiles, and other bird species.<ref name=":5" /> This reuse increases habitat availability over time and supports ongoing ecological interactions, allowing deadwood to contribute to long-term habitat continuity within forest ecosystems. Beyond nesting functions, deadwood also acts as a critical ecological substrate that supports feeding activities and life-cycle processes. Decomposing wood hosts diverse communities of fungi and invertebrates that depend on deadwood for growth and reproduction. These organisms play a central role in breaking down organic material and, in turn, provide food resources for higher trophic levels such as birds and small mammals.<ref name=":1" /> Through these relationships, deadwood supports complex food webs and contributes to energy flow within forest ecosystems. Deadwood also influences habitat quality by modifying local environmental conditions. Logs and snags can buffer temperature fluctuations, retain moisture, and reduce exposure to desiccation.<ref name=":3" /> These microhabitats are particularly important for species that are sensitive to environmental stress, allowing them to persist under otherwise unfavorable conditions. As a result, deadwood enhances the stability of microclimatic conditions at small spatial scales. In addition, fallen logs contribute to the physical structure of the forest floor by acting as movement pathways and refuges for ground-dwelling organisms.<ref name=":3" /> These structures create protected routes that facilitate movement and provide shelter during extreme environmental conditions. By increasing structural complexity and spatial heterogeneity, deadwood supports biodiversity across multiple trophic levels and plays a key role in maintaining habitat diversity. Collectively, these functions demonstrate that deadwood is not merely a byproduct of tree mortality but a fundamental and dynamic component of forest habitat systems that supports a wide range of ecological processes.

==== Tree Microhabitats ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.
==== Structural complexity ====
The presence of deadwood adds variation to forest structure by introducing differences in form, size, and decay stage. This creates a range of microenvironments with varying levels of moisture, light, and temperature.<ref name=":1" /> Such variability allows different species to occupy different niches, reducing competition and supporting coexistence. In addition, the diversity of decay stages contributes to temporal heterogeneity within ecosystems. Newly fallen logs, moderately decomposed wood, and highly decayed substrates each provide distinct ecological conditions and support different biological communities.<ref name=":20" /> Over time, this structural diversity becomes an important component of ecosystem stability. Forests with more complex physical structures tend to support a wider range of organisms, highlighting the role of deadwood in maintaining both habitat diversity and ecological resilience.<ref name=":1" /> This structural complexity is particularly important in managed forests, where simplification of forest structure can reduce habitat availability. Retaining deadwood is therefore increasingly recognized as a key strategy for restoring structural diversity in these systems.<ref name=":22" />

=== Nutrient Cycling ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
==== Nutrient storage ====

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth.<ref name=":3" /> After the tree dies, these nutrients remain stored within the wood rather than being immediately released into the soil. Deadwood also intercepts litterfall and throughfall (rain passing through the canopy), allowing nutrients to be retained within logs instead of being rapidly transferred to the soil or lost through leaching.<ref name=":3" /> This retention helps regulate nutrient availability within the ecosystem. As a result, deadwood functions as a long-term nutrient reservoir, gradually releasing nutrients over extended periods of time. This slow release supports sustained ecosystem productivity and helps maintain nutrient balance in forest systems.
==== Soil and moisture effects ====
As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released back into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates.<ref name=":1" /> These organisms play a key role in breaking down complex organic materials such as lignin and cellulose, facilitating nutrient cycling within the ecosystem. Deadwood also improves soil structure and increases water-holding capacity, creating moist microhabitats that are important for many organisms, particularly in environments that experience seasonal dryness.<ref name=":3" /> These conditions can enhance seedling survival and microbial activity. In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs act as important substrates for seedling establishment, especially where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable due to competition or limited moisture. This process contributes to forest regeneration and supports long-term ecosystem resilience.

==== Decomposition processes ====
Decomposition is a key ecological process associated with deadwood and plays a central role in regulating nutrient cycling. This process is largely driven by fungi and other decomposers that break down complex compounds such as lignin and cellulose.<ref name=":23" /> The rate of decomposition can vary depending on environmental conditions, including moisture, temperature, and the characteristics of the wood itself. These variations influence how quickly nutrients are released and redistributed within the ecosystem, linking decomposition processes directly to broader ecosystem functioning.<ref name=":23" /> In addition, decomposition processes contribute to long-term carbon storage and release dynamics, making deadwood an important component of forest carbon budgets.<ref name=":23" />

=== Biodiversity ===
==== Habitat for specialized species ====
Deadwood created by natural disturbances, such as bark beetle outbreaks, provides important habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions.<ref name=":6" /> These species are often adapted to particular stages of wood decay or specific physical characteristics of dead trees. For example, barbastelle bats (''Barbastella barbastellus'') have been observed to roost beneath loose bark of dead trees, relying on structural features that are typically absent in living trees.<ref name=":6" /> This demonstrates how deadwood supports species with highly specialized habitat requirements. Such species are often dependent on the continued availability of deadwood, meaning that reductions in deadwood can directly impact their populations and ecological roles.

==== Increase in forest biodiversity ====
Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating new ecological niches and increasing structural heterogeneity within forests.<ref name=":1" /> These changes provide a wider range of habitat conditions that support diverse species. A substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood during some stage of their life cycle, particularly fungi, insects, and other saproxylic species.<ref name=":1" /> These organisms form the foundation of many forest food webs. In addition, forests with higher amounts of deadwood tend to support greater species diversity compared to intensively managed forests where deadwood is removed.<ref name=":7" /> This highlights the importance of deadwood in maintaining biodiversity at the ecosystem level. Overall, deadwood plays a fundamental role in shaping biodiversity patterns and supporting ecological processes within forest ecosystems.

==== Ecosystem-level implications ====
Beyond its role in supporting individual species, deadwood contributes to broader ecosystem functioning. By influencing habitat availability, nutrient cycling, and structural complexity, it helps shape biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem scale.<ref name=":20" /> Differences in the amount, type, and distribution of deadwood can lead to variations in community composition and ecological interactions. This demonstrates that deadwood is not only a habitat feature, but also a fundamental component of forest ecosystems that supports biodiversity across multiple spatial and temporal scales.<ref name=":22" />

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity ==
[[File:Mountain Pine Beetle damage in the Fraser Experimental Forest 2007.jpg|thumb|Mountain Pine Beetle damage in the Fraser Experimental Forest 2007]]

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref name=":22">Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref name=":25">Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref name=":24">Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>.

The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded among the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered to be species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harm of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old-growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>. In contrast to the extensive studies on beetles, saproxylic fungi are typically excluded from attempts to maintain ecosystem integrity when removing deadwood<ref>Moose, R. A., Schigel, D., Kirby, L. J., & Shumskaya, M. (2019). Dead wood fungi in North America: an insight into research and conservation potential. ''Nature Conservation'', ''32'', 1-17.</ref>. On top of the exclusion when trying to manage deadwood, restored deadwood does not provide these same benefits to fungi as natural deadwood, despite attempts to reinstate its ecosystem role<ref>Saine, S., Penttilä, R., Furneaux, B., Monkhouse, N., Zakharov, E. V., Ovaskainen, O., & Abrego, N. (2024). Natural deadwood hosts more diverse pioneering wood‐inhabiting fungal communities than restored deadwood. ''Restoration Ecology'', ''32''(1), e14056. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14056</nowiki></ref>.

Overall, the failure of forest management practices to consider potential harm to saproxylic organisms threatens the survival of a variety of populations and species.

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Pfeifer|first=Marion|last2=Lefebvre|first2=Veronique|last3=Turner|first3=Edgar|last4=Cusack|first4=Jeremy|last5=Khoo|first5=MinSheng|last6=Chey|first6=Vun K.|last7=Peni|first7=Maria|last8=Ewers|first8=Robert M.|date=28 April 2015|title=Deadwood biomass: an underestimated carbon stock in degraded tropical forests?|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|via=IOPScience}}</ref>. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood<ref name=":23">Wijas, B. J., Allison, S. D., Austin, A. T., Cornwell, W. K., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Eggleton, P., Fraver, S., Ooi, M. K. J., Powell, J. R., Woodall, C. W., & Zanne, A. E. (2024). The role of deadwood in the carbon cycle: Implications for models, forest management, and future climates. ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'', ''55''(1), 133–155. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327</nowiki></ref>. Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood<ref name=":15" />. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood<ref>Alessandro Paletto, Isabella de Meo, Paolo Cantiani, Fabrizio Ferretti. Effects of forest management on the amount of deadwood in Mediterranean oak ecosystems. ''Annals of Forest Science'', 2014, 71 (7), pp.791-800. ⟨10.1007/s13595-014-0377-1⟩. ⟨hal-01102882⟩</ref>. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage. To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained.

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions==

=== Deadwood Enrichment ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

=== Deadwood Management ===

==== Retaining Large Coarse Woody Debris ====
The Province of British Columbia stated in the [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/wt-guidance-05-2006.pdf Wildlife Tree Retention Management Guide] that a portion of the total area of all cut blocks harvested within a one-year period should be left behind for wildlife.<ref name=":18">Government of British Columbia. (2006). ''Wildlife Tree Retention: Management Guidance''. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/wt-guidance-05-2006.pdf</ref> If the wildlife trees set for retention are felled of blow down, they should be left to function as coarse woody debris unless they pose a significant threat to forest health or worker safety.<ref name=":18" /> [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/conservation-habitat-management/wildlife-conservation/wildlife-tree-committee/chief_forester_short_cwd.pdf The Chief Forester's Guidance on Coarse Woody Debris Management] acknowledged that larger pieces of course woody debris are less flammable and function differently from smaller pieces, and hence larger pieces should be left behind for ecological function and biodiversity. <ref name=":17" /> Monitoring of course woody debris in managed forests is an ongoing practice, and the methods used in forestry are always changing.<ref name=":17" /> Allowing removal of smaller hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention would benefit the future generation of forests to grow on the land.<ref name=":17" />

==== Practicing Correct Timing of Deadwood Removal ====
[[File:Tree Pruning (cropped).jpg|thumb|An arborist uses a hand saw to prune dead and hazardous limbs in the canopy of a tree.]]
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.<ref name=":19">Government of British Columbia. (n.d.) ''Best management practices for tree topping, limbing and removal in riparian areas''. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/natural-resource-stewardship/best-management-practices/hazardtree_26may_09.pdf</ref> Wildlife trees, which are defined as '<nowiki/>''a'' ''standing dead or live tree with special characteristics that provide food and shelter for wildlife''' are protected under the ''Wildlife Act'' ''(2004).''<ref name=":19" /> The ''Wildlife Act'' prohibits the killing, harming, harassment, capture or taking of species at risk and the damage or destruction of a residence of a species at risk except as authorized by regulation, permit or agreement.<ref name=":19" /> It also protects all birds and their eggs; nests while they are occupied by a bird or egg; and the nests of eagles, peregrine falcons, gyrfalcons, ospreys, and herons year-round.<ref name=":19" /> The loss of wildlife trees has been associated with declines of threatened wildlife, therefor when possible, the preferred option is limbing or topping rather than removing the tree in its entirety.<ref name=":19" />

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
Removal of any trees and dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional. Qualified professionals should asses trees before removal to see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat.<ref name=":18" /> Workers responsible for assessing dangerous trees must have successfully completed the Wildlife/Danger Tree Assessors Course and hold current certification.<ref name=":18" /> A qualified professional can also determine if the proposed tree for removal is providing wildlife habitat and should be left behind for ecological purposes.<ref name=":19" />

== Forestry Frameworks ==

==== Policies and Guidelines ====
Policy‑level actions such as tree retention guidelines provide legally enforceable management frameworks to ensure consistent biodiversity protection across forests. Such policies and guidelines have been implemented across national, regional and local levels. British Columbia’s Forest Planning and Practices Regulation (FPPR) has a default wildlife tree retention practice requirement for agreement holders to retain a minimum of 7% of the total area of harvested cut blocks annually as Wildlife Tree Retention (WTR), with at least 3.5% retained of each cut block<ref name=":18" /> . High value tree patches are defined as areas of trees with high wildlife value, including large dead or decaying trees that provide habitat sites for local fauna and benefit local biodiversity<ref name=":18" />. This also ensure long term production of coarse woody debris which supports forest nutrient cycling and soil moisture retention. BC’s FPPR wildlife tree retention practice embeds deadwood retention practices into regulatory forest law which supports and enforces compliance across operators. It is an example of the role of government bodies in biodiversity conservation. However, it has been criticized that the current FPPR as it lacks the support to adopt of new terminology of the retention systems rather than clearcut with reserves<ref name=":26">Beese, W. J., Deal, J., Dunsworth, B. G., Mitchell, S. J., & Philpott, T. J. (2019). Two decades of variable retention in British Columbia: A review of its implementation and effectiveness for biodiversity conservation. ''Ecological Processes'', ''8''(1), 33. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-019-0181-9</nowiki> </ref>. It has been proposed that the commitment to wildlife tree retention in legislation should be supported by silvicultural prescriptions that articulate the long-term intent reserve trees and involve adaptive management practices and long term monitoring to maintain effectiveness<ref name=":26" />.

==== Forest Certification ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity, including deadwood <ref>{{Cite web|last=Forest Stewardship Council Canada|date=2018|title=FSC National Forest Stewardship Standard of Canada|url=https://fsc.org/sites/default/files/2019-05/FSC-STD-01-001%20V5-2%20EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=PFEC Canada|date=2025|title=PEFC Canada - Sustainable Forest Management Document|url=https://www.pefccanada.org/docs/pefc-canada-sustainable-forest-management-standard-pefc-can-st-1001-2025-latest-2026.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests<ref>Sverdrup-Thygeson, A., Borg, P., & Bergsaker, E. (2008). A comparison of biodiversity values in boreal forest regeneration areas before and after forest certification. ''Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research'', ''23''(3), 236–243. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580802158228</nowiki></ref>. Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products<ref>Deniz, T. (2023). The Effect of Forest Certification on Log Sale Prices: A Case Study in Northwestern Turkey. ''Forests'', ''14''(3), 596. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030596</nowiki></ref>. Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalizes the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

==Summary==
Historically, forest management practices have involved the removal of deadwood to maintain forest integrity, ensure safety of people using recreational forests, and manage fire. Additionally, the economic incentives of salvage logging have further increased the drive to remove deadwood from forest ecosystems. As research into deadwood revealed its ecological value, concern for the harms of its removal became prominent in the mainstream.

The ecological value of deadwood is expansive. Deadwood provides habitat and microhabitats for birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and other organisms. Nutrient cycles are dependent on deadwood for its ability to retain nutrients and later release those nutrients back into soil, continuing nutrient cycling. Contributions to forest biodiversity are also a key feature of deadwood with its ability to sustain specialized saproxylic organisms and create ecosystem niches.

Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease is most notably harmful to saproxylic organisms and the ecosystem functions that deadwood provides. Management practices that prioritize the removal of deadwood directly contribute to reductions in populations for saproxylic organisms. Furthermore, these management practices impact the ecosystem services that deadwood provides, harming the health of forest ecosystems.

A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Many conservation strategies have already been employed, including enrichment, planning deadwood removal in accordance with crucial events for wildlife, partial removal practices, and professional assessment.

To further protect deadwood and maintain its important ecosystem role, solutions continue to be developed. Policy and guideline implementations hope to regulate deadwood removal to align with conservation goals. Alongside policies, certification strategies require forest management practices to retain and enhance deadwood in order to receive certification. This certification incentivizes companies to ensure deadwood is well-maintained even in extensively managed forests. Together with existing remedial strategies, these solutions highlight the ecological importance of deadwood and aim to conserve its ecosystem services and role in biodiversity.

==References==
<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T06:08:29Z

AngeloDeck: /* Saproxylic Organisms */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970s, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> Scientists now know Athat dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>.

The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded among the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered to be species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harm of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old-growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>. In contrast to the extensive studies on beetles, saproxylic fungi are typically excluded from attempts to maintain ecosystem integrity when removing deadwood<ref>Moose, R. A., Schigel, D., Kirby, L. J., & Shumskaya, M. (2019). Dead wood fungi in North America: an insight into research and conservation potential. ''Nature Conservation'', ''32'', 1-17.</ref>. On top of the exclusion when trying to manage deadwood, restored deadwood does not provide these same benefits to fungi as natural deadwood, despite attempts to reinstate its ecosystem role<ref>Saine, S., Penttilä, R., Furneaux, B., Monkhouse, N., Zakharov, E. V., Ovaskainen, O., & Abrego, N. (2024). Natural deadwood hosts more diverse pioneering wood‐inhabiting fungal communities than restored deadwood. ''Restoration Ecology'', ''32''(1), e14056. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14056</nowiki></ref>.

Overall, the failure of forest management practices to consider potential harm to saproxylic organisms threatens the survival of a variety of populations and species.

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Pfeifer|first=Marion|last2=Lefebvre|first2=Veronique|last3=Turner|first3=Edgar|last4=Cusack|first4=Jeremy|last5=Khoo|first5=MinSheng|last6=Chey|first6=Vun K.|last7=Peni|first7=Maria|last8=Ewers|first8=Robert M.|date=28 April 2015|title=Deadwood biomass: an underestimated carbon stock in degraded tropical forests?|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|via=IOPScience}}</ref>. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood<ref>Wijas, B. J., Allison, S. D., Austin, A. T., Cornwell, W. K., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Eggleton, P., Fraver, S., Ooi, M. K. J., Powell, J. R., Woodall, C. W., & Zanne, A. E. (2024). The role of deadwood in the carbon cycle: Implications for models, forest management, and future climates. ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'', ''55''(1), 133–155. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327</nowiki></ref>. Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood<ref name=":15" />. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood<ref>Alessandro Paletto, Isabella de Meo, Paolo Cantiani, Fabrizio Ferretti. Effects of forest management on the amount of deadwood in Mediterranean oak ecosystems. ''Annals of Forest Science'', 2014, 71 (7), pp.791-800. ⟨10.1007/s13595-014-0377-1⟩. ⟨hal-01102882⟩</ref>. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage. To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained.

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have involved the removal of deadwood to maintain forest integrity, ensure safety of people using recreational forests, and manage fire. Additionally, the economic incentives of salvage logging have further increased the drive to remove deadwood from forest ecosystems. As research into deadwood revealed its ecological value, concern for the harms of its removal became prominent in the mainstream.

The ecological value of deadwood is expansive. Deadwood provides habitat and microhabitats for birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and other organisms. Nutrient cycles are dependent on deadwood for its ability to retain nutrients and later release those nutrients back into soil, continuing nutrient cycling. Contributions to forest biodiversity are also a key feature of deadwood with its ability to sustain specialized saproxylic organisms and create ecosystem niches.

Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease is most notably harmful to saproxylic organisms and the ecosystem functions that deadwood provides. Management practices that prioritize the removal of deadwood directly contribute to reductions in populations for saproxylic organisms. Furthermore, these management practices impact the ecosystem services that deadwood provides, harming the health of forest ecosystems.

A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Many conservation strategies have already been employed, including enrichment, planning deadwood removal in accordance with crucial events for wildlife, partial removal practices, and professional assessment.

To further protect deadwood and maintain its important ecosystem role, solutions continue to be developed. Policy and guideline implementations hope to regulate deadwood removal to align with conservation goals. Alongside policies, certification strategies require forest management practices to retain and enhance deadwood in order to receive certification. This certification incentivizes companies to ensure deadwood is well-maintained even in extensively managed forests. Together with existing remedial strategies, these solutions highlight the ecological importance of deadwood and aim to conserve its ecosystem services and role in biodiversity.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:58:07Z

AngeloDeck: /* Saproxylic Organisms */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970s, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> Scientists now know Athat dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>.

The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded among the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered to be species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harm of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old-growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>. [Fungi]. Restored deadwood does not provide these same benefits to fungi as natural deadwood, despite attempts to reinstate its ecosystem role<ref>Saine, S., Penttilä, R., Furneaux, B., Monkhouse, N., Zakharov, E. V., Ovaskainen, O., & Abrego, N. (2024). Natural deadwood hosts more diverse pioneering wood‐inhabiting fungal communities than restored deadwood. ''Restoration Ecology'', ''32''(1), e14056. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14056</nowiki></ref>. For saproxylic organisms to thrive, forests must be managed with consideration of their dependence on deadwood.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Pfeifer|first=Marion|last2=Lefebvre|first2=Veronique|last3=Turner|first3=Edgar|last4=Cusack|first4=Jeremy|last5=Khoo|first5=MinSheng|last6=Chey|first6=Vun K.|last7=Peni|first7=Maria|last8=Ewers|first8=Robert M.|date=28 April 2015|title=Deadwood biomass: an underestimated carbon stock in degraded tropical forests?|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|via=IOPScience}}</ref>. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood<ref>Wijas, B. J., Allison, S. D., Austin, A. T., Cornwell, W. K., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Eggleton, P., Fraver, S., Ooi, M. K. J., Powell, J. R., Woodall, C. W., & Zanne, A. E. (2024). The role of deadwood in the carbon cycle: Implications for models, forest management, and future climates. ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'', ''55''(1), 133–155. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327</nowiki></ref>. Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood<ref name=":15" />. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood<ref>Alessandro Paletto, Isabella de Meo, Paolo Cantiani, Fabrizio Ferretti. Effects of forest management on the amount of deadwood in Mediterranean oak ecosystems. ''Annals of Forest Science'', 2014, 71 (7), pp.791-800. ⟨10.1007/s13595-014-0377-1⟩. ⟨hal-01102882⟩</ref>. To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have involved the removal of deadwood to maintain forest integrity, ensure safety of people using recreational forests, and manage fire. Additionally, the economic incentives of salvage logging have further increased the drive to remove deadwood from forest ecosystems. As research into deadwood revealed its ecological value, concern for the harms of its removal became prominent in the mainstream.

The ecological value of deadwood is expansive. Deadwood provides habitat and microhabitats for birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and other organisms. Nutrient cycles are dependent on deadwood for its ability to retain nutrients and later release those nutrients back into soil, continuing nutrient cycling. Contributions to forest biodiversity are also a key feature of deadwood with its ability to sustain specialized saproxylic organisms and create ecosystem niches.

Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease is most notably harmful to saproxylic organisms and the ecosystem functions that deadwood provides. Management practices that prioritize the removal of deadwood directly contribute to reductions in populations for saproxylic organisms. Furthermore, these management practices impact the ecosystem services that deadwood provides, harming the health of forest ecosystems.

A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Many conservation strategies have already been employed, including enrichment, planning deadwood removal in accordance with crucial events for wildlife, partial removal practices, and professional assessment.

To further protect deadwood and maintain its important ecosystem role, solutions continue to be developed. Policy and guideline implementations hope to regulate deadwood removal to align with conservation goals. Alongside policies, certification strategies require forest management practices to retain and enhance deadwood in order to receive certification. This certification incentivizes companies to ensure deadwood is well-maintained even in extensively managed forests. Together with existing remedial strategies, these solutions highlight the ecological importance of deadwood and aim to conserve its ecosystem services and role in biodiversity.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:52:48Z

AngeloDeck: /* Ecosystem services */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970s, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> Scientists now know Athat dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Pfeifer|first=Marion|last2=Lefebvre|first2=Veronique|last3=Turner|first3=Edgar|last4=Cusack|first4=Jeremy|last5=Khoo|first5=MinSheng|last6=Chey|first6=Vun K.|last7=Peni|first7=Maria|last8=Ewers|first8=Robert M.|date=28 April 2015|title=Deadwood biomass: an underestimated carbon stock in degraded tropical forests?|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=10|via=IOPScience}}</ref>. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood<ref>Wijas, B. J., Allison, S. D., Austin, A. T., Cornwell, W. K., Cornelissen, J. H. C., Eggleton, P., Fraver, S., Ooi, M. K. J., Powell, J. R., Woodall, C. W., & Zanne, A. E. (2024). The role of deadwood in the carbon cycle: Implications for models, forest management, and future climates. ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'', ''55''(1), 133–155. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327</nowiki></ref>. Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood<ref name=":15" />. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood<ref>Alessandro Paletto, Isabella de Meo, Paolo Cantiani, Fabrizio Ferretti. Effects of forest management on the amount of deadwood in Mediterranean oak ecosystems. ''Annals of Forest Science'', 2014, 71 (7), pp.791-800. ⟨10.1007/s13595-014-0377-1⟩. ⟨hal-01102882⟩</ref>. To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have involved the removal of deadwood to maintain forest integrity, ensure safety of people using recreational forests, and manage fire. Additionally, the economic incentives of salvage logging have further increased the drive to remove deadwood from forest ecosystems. As research into deadwood revealed its ecological value, concern for the harms of its removal became prominent in the mainstream.

The ecological value of deadwood is expansive. Deadwood provides habitat and microhabitats for birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and other organisms. Nutrient cycles are dependent on deadwood for its ability to retain nutrients and later release those nutrients back into soil, continuing nutrient cycling. Contributions to forest biodiversity are also a key feature of deadwood with its ability to sustain specialized saproxylic organisms and create ecosystem niches.

Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease is most notably harmful to saproxylic organisms and the ecosystem functions that deadwood provides. Management practices that prioritize the removal of deadwood directly contribute to reductions in populations for saproxylic organisms. Furthermore, these management practices impact the ecosystem services that deadwood provides, harming the health of forest ecosystems.

A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Many conservation strategies have already been employed, including enrichment, planning deadwood removal in accordance with crucial events for wildlife, partial removal practices, and professional assessment.

To further protect deadwood and maintain its important ecosystem role, solutions continue to be developed. Policy and guideline implementations hope to regulate deadwood removal to align with conservation goals. Alongside policies, certification strategies require forest management practices to retain and enhance deadwood in order to receive certification. This certification incentivizes companies to ensure deadwood is well-maintained even in extensively managed forests. Together with existing remedial strategies, these solutions highlight the ecological importance of deadwood and aim to conserve its ecosystem services and role in biodiversity.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:44:28Z

AngeloDeck: /* Summary - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970s, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> Scientists now know Athat dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have involved the removal of deadwood to maintain forest integrity, ensure safety of people using recreational forests, and manage fire. Additionally, the economic incentives of salvage logging have further increased the drive to remove deadwood from forest ecosystems. As research into deadwood revealed its ecological value, concern for the harms of its removal became prominent in the mainstream.

The ecological value of deadwood is expansive. Deadwood provides habitat and microhabitats for birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and other organisms. Nutrient cycles are dependent on deadwood for its ability to retain nutrients and later release those nutrients back into soil, continuing nutrient cycling. Contributions to forest biodiversity are also a key feature of deadwood with its ability to sustain specialized saproxylic organisms and create ecosystem niches.

Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease is most notably harmful to saproxylic organisms and the ecosystem functions that deadwood provides. Management practices that prioritize the removal of deadwood directly contribute to reductions in populations for saproxylic organisms. Furthermore, these management practices impact the ecosystem services that deadwood provides, harming the health of forest ecosystems.

A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Many conservation strategies have already been employed, including enrichment, planning deadwood removal in accordance with crucial events for wildlife, partial removal practices, and professional assessment.

To further protect deadwood and maintain its important ecosystem role, solutions continue to be developed. Policy and guideline implementations hope to regulate deadwood removal to align with conservation goals. Alongside policies, certification strategies require forest management practices to retain and enhance deadwood in order to receive certification. This certification incentivizes companies to ensure deadwood is well-maintained even in extensively managed forests. Together with existing remedial strategies, these solutions highlight the ecological importance of deadwood and aim to conserve its ecosystem services and role in biodiversity.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:23:30Z

AngeloDeck: /* History of Deadwood in Managed Forests */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly-managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970s, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> Scientists now know Athat dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests.

However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:21:06Z

AngeloDeck: /* Summary - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970s, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> Scientists now know Athat dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests.

However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:16:40Z

AngeloDeck: /* Biogeochemical cycling */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. The concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as the concentration in managed forests<ref name=":14" />. Deadwood removal prevents deadwood from leaching nutrients into soil as it decays, directly impacting biogeochemical flows that are necessary to maintain forest ecosystem health.

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:13:26Z

AngeloDeck: /* Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />. The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
[[File:Morimus asper funereus - oo 152101.jpg|thumb|Morimus asper, a saproxylic beetle.]]
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests<ref name=":14" />.

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T05:09:53Z

AngeloDeck: /* Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />.he integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Beetles and fungi make up the majority of these organisms, along with other saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Populations of saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>. The impacts of deadwood removal are recorded amongst the various groups of saproxylic organisms. As the largest and most diverse group dependent on deadwood, beetles are well-studied and many are considered as species at risk<ref>Bače, R., Svoboda, M., & Vítková, L. (2019). Deadwood management in production forests. ''Management guidelines for forest managers in Central European temperate forests'', (s 31).</ref>. In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened<ref>Floren, A., & Schmidl, J. (2008). Introduction: canopy arthropod research in Europe. ''Bioform Entomology, Nuremberg''.</ref>. Including beetles, all saproxylic insects face the harms of deadwood removal. Due to extensive forest management, many saproxylic insect populations are regarded as threatened<ref>Ranius, T. (2006). Measuring the dispersal of saproxylic insects: A key characteristic for their conservation. ''Population Ecology'', ''48''(3), 177–188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3</nowiki></ref>. The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects <ref>Ulyshen, M. D., & Šobotník, J. (2018). An introduction to the diversity, ecology, and conservation of saproxylic insects. In M. D. Ulyshen (Ed.), ''Saproxylic Insects: Diversity, Ecology and Conservation'' (pp. 1–47). Springer International Publishing. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1</nowiki></ref>.

Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

#

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests<ref name=":14" />.

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

== Solutions (feel free to move this split around & rename) ==

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T04:56:02Z

AngeloDeck: /* Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />.he integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices<ref>Thorn, S., Bässler, C., Brandl, R., Burton, P. J., Cahall, R., Campbell, J. L., Castro, J., Choi, C., Cobb, T., Donato, D. C., Durska, E., Fontaine, J. B., Gauthier, S., Hebert, C., Hothorn, T., Hutto, R. L., Lee, E., Leverkus, A. B., Lindenmayer, D. B., … Müller, J. (2018). Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', ''55''(1), 279–289. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12945</nowiki></ref>. In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood<ref>Graf, M., Seibold, S., Gossner, M. M., Hagge, J., Weiß, I., Bässler, C., & Müller, J. (2022). Coverage based diversity estimates of facultative saproxylic species highlight the importance of deadwood for biodiversity. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''517'', 120275. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120275</nowiki> </ref>.

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (1).

# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (1)

# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests<ref name=":14" />.

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T04:45:55Z

AngeloDeck: /* Saproxylic Organisms */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />.he integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects<ref>Lassauce, A., Paillet, Y., Jactel, H., & Bouget, C. (2011). Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''11''(5), 1027–1039. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.02.004</nowiki></ref>. Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1). In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood (3)

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112722002699

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (1).

# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (1)

# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil<ref>Edelmann, P., Weisser, W. W., Ambarlı, D., Bässler, C., Buscot, F., Hofrichter, M., Hoppe, B., Kellner, H., Minnich, C., Moll, J., Persoh, D., Seibold, S., Seilwinder, C., Schulze, E.-D., Wöllauer, S., & Borken, W. (2023). Regional variation in deadwood decay of 13 tree species: Effects of climate, soil and forest structure. ''Forest Ecology and Management'', ''541'', 121094. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121094</nowiki></ref>. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils<ref name=":14">Hollands, C., Shannon, V. L., Sawicka, K., Vanguelova, E. I., Benham, S. E., Shaw, L. J., & Clark, J. M. (2022). Management impacts on the dissolved organic carbon release from deadwood, ground vegetation and the forest floor in a temperate Oak woodland. ''Science of The Total Environment'', ''805'', 150399. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150399</nowiki></ref>. Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests<ref name=":14" />.

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T04:41:34Z

AngeloDeck: /* Forest Management Practices */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]] -- what happened here? ---. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaser|first=Stefan|last2=Prati|first2=Daniel|last3=Senn-Irlet|first3=Beatrice|last4=Fischer|first4=Markus|date=15 September 2013|title=Effects of forest management on the diversity of deadwood-inhabiting fungi in Central European forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=304|pages=42-48|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed <ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Oettel|first=Janine|last2=Zolles|first2=Anita|last3=Gschwantner|first3=Thomas|last4=Lapin|first4=Katharina|last5=Kinderman|first5=Georg|last6=Schweiner|first6=Karl-Manfred|last7=Gossner|first7=Martin M.|last8=Essl|first8=Franz|date=11 January 2023|title=Dynamics of standing deadwood in Austrian forests under varying forest management and climatic conditions|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=60|pages=696-713|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests<ref name=":13" />.he integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often a point of tense when implementing forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences<ref name=":9" />.

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" />. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity <ref name=":12" />. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects (2). Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1). In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood (3)

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/saproxylic-organism
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112722002699

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (1).

# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (1)

# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1). In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils (2). Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests (2).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T04:27:05Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flint|first=Courtney G.|last2=McFarlane|first2=Bonnie|last3=Muller|first3=Martin|date=05 September 2008|title=Human Dimensions of Forest Disturbance by Insects: An International Synthesis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4|journal=Environmental Management|volume=43|pages=1174-1186|via=Springer Nature}}</ref>. However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=20 July 2017|title=European Commission urges logging ban in ancient Białowieża Forest|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309|journal=Nature|volume=547|pages=267-268}}</ref>. Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied <ref name=":11" />. Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered the natural composition of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects (2). Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1). In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood (3)

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/saproxylic-organism
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112722002699

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (1).

# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (1)

# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1). In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils (2). Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests (2).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T02:07:32Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leverkus|first=Alexandro B.|last2=Gustafsson|first2=Lena|last3=Lindenmayer|first3=David B.|last4=Castro|first4=Jorge|last5=Benayas|first5=Jose Maria Rey|last6=Ranius|first6=Thomas|last7=Thorn|first7=Simon|date=08 June 2020|title=Salvage logging effects on regulating ecosystem services and fuel loads|url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume=18|pages=391-400|via=ESA Journals}}</ref>. Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=Jorg|last2=Noss|first2=Reed F.|last3=Thorn|first3=Simon|last4=Bassler|first4=Claude|last5=Leverkus|first5=Alexandro B.|last6=Lindenmayer|first6=Davis|date=09 March 2018|title=Increasing disturbance demands new policies to conserve intact forest|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=12|via=CONBIO}}</ref>. In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects (2). Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1). In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood (3)

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/saproxylic-organism
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112722002699

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (1).

# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (1)

# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1). In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils (2). Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests (2).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T01:54:21Z

AngeloDeck: /* Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend upon deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects (2). Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1). In many regions, saproxylic species are among the most threatened due to forest management practices that reduce the number of deadwood (3)

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/saproxylic-organism
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112722002699

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (1).

# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (1)

# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1). In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils (2). Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests (2).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-11T01:48:33Z

AngeloDeck: /* Biogeochemical cycling */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms are those which depend on deadwood for their survival. Fungi and beetles make up the majority of these organisms, along with saproxylic insects (2). Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1). The disturbance of deadwood in old growth forests directly contributes to the decrease in biodiversity of saproxylic insects (3). In Germany, 86% of beetles that depend on deadwood are threatened (4).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/saproxylic-organism
# https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-75937-1_1
# https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen-Schmidl/publication/249313671_Introduction_Canopy_Arthropod_Research_in_Europe/links/00b7d51e3f095b3205000000/Introduction-Canopy-Arthropod-Research-in-Europe.pdf

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1). In addition to acting as carbon sinks, deadwood decay acts as an important source of organic carbon leaching into forest soils (2). Concentration of organic carbon in soils is twice as high in unmanaged forests as those in managed forests (2).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286
# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721054760

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
Forest certification such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) use a market-based incentive approach to encourage forest managers to retain deadwood as a method in increase or maintain biodiversity. These certification standards require forest management maintains or enhances structural elements essential for biodiversity (ADD REFERNCE TO FSC AND PEFC STANDARDS), including deadwood. Environmentally, post-certified forests show higher retention rates of trees left during harvesting to provide live and dead or decaying wood as habitat than non‑certified forests. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02827580802158228?needAccess=true#d1e1042) Economically, forest certification increases the market value of sustainably sourced timber as certified wood products often sell at a premium price across markets where there is high buyer demand for sustainably sourced products. (https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/3/596). Certification also shifts public and industry attitudes toward deadwood as it normalises the presence of deadwood within forests and provides consumers with transparency of forest management practices.

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T23:18:13Z

AngeloDeck: /* Biodiversity - Fangze */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

==== Concern Surrounding Deadwood Removal ====
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Western Screech Owls Stewardship Project in the Gulf Islands has credited the decline of the species to habitat loss due to logging and the removal of old dead and decaying trees.<ref name=":10">Ferguson, R. (n.d.) Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project – Our First Year, Salt Spring Island Conservancy. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/</ref> Preserving biodiversity in managed forests can be a challenge. To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, large dead and woody debris should be left to be a part of regular nutrient cycling.<ref name=":0" /> The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref name=":10" />]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b00052
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all necessary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Deadwood removal ====
If removal of deadwood is deemed necessary, Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

==== Certification Incentives ====
FSC etc.

Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a technical, '''social''', cultural, '''economic''', financial, '''political''' and/or legal points of view

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:44:08Z

AngeloDeck: /* Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies five carbon pools which are vital for climate change mitigation (3). Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). Despite these benefits, the role of deadwood as a carbon pool is vastly underestimated compared to living wood (3). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). To maintain the carbon storage functions of forests, deadwood must be maintained. Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327
# https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019/meta

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:39:52Z

AngeloDeck: /* Salvage Logging */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Overall, salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests and threatens the presence of deadwood in forest ecosystems.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:38:59Z

AngeloDeck: /* Carbon storage */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is plays a significant role in the carbon cycle as one of many forms of carbon storage. Across the globe, approximately 8% of carbon storage in forests is done by deadwood (2). In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1). Forest management that removes deadwood interrupts the natural carbon cycle and disturbs deadwood's role of carbon storage.

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/
# https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110421-102327

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1).

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:35:04Z

AngeloDeck: /* Salvage Logging */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>
== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is significant for storing carbon. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1).

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1)

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:34:28Z

AngeloDeck: /* Summary - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is significant for storing carbon. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1).

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1)

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historically, forest management practices have been to view deadwood as wasteful debris and remove it from managed forests. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:32:18Z

AngeloDeck: /* Summary - Angelo */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has become common practice to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as '''any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn''<nowiki/>'.<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood has been found to be more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> Historically, in ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management to reduce these fuel loads.<ref name=":9">The Government of British Columbia. (2026, January 29). ''Cultural and prescribed fire.''https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/wildfire-status/prevention/prescribed-burning</ref> These cultural burns can help reduce the intensity of wildfires by periodically removing small scale fuel.<ref name=":9" /> The banning of cultural burning and overall negative attitude towards fire has resulted in large fuel build ups and associated negative attitudes towards deadwood.<ref>Cultural Burning and Prescribed Fire. (n.d.) ''History of Fire''. Retrieved April 10, 2026 from: https://prescribedfire.ca/history-of-fire/ </ref>

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has caused an increase in public awareness of forest structure and systems, including deadwood.

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [<nowiki/>[[6|<nowiki>6]</nowiki>]]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, and public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to unintended ecological consequences [11].

Studies suggest that removing deadwood can disrupt natural regeneration processes and reduce ecosystem resilience by eliminating important structural and biological legacies left after disturbances [9][11]. Deadwood contributes to post-disturbance recovery by providing habitat, maintaining nutrient cycling, and supporting species that depend on decaying wood.

As a result, forest management strategies increasingly recognize the need to balance risk reduction with biodiversity conservation. Retaining a certain amount of deadwood is now considered an important component of sustainable forest management aimed at maintaining ecological integrity [16]. This highlights the importance of integrating ecological knowledge into forest management decisions.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is significant for storing carbon. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1).

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1)

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Historical forest management practices have been to remove deadwood due to its consideration as wasteful debris. However, there has been an increasing recognition of the various biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services that deadwood provides. Harmful human activity such as salvage logging and extensive forest management has decreased the amount of dead wood in forested ecosystems. This decrease impacts saproxylic organisms that are dependent upon deadwood and reduces the ecosystem services that deadwood typically provides. A growth in recognition of the significance of deadwood for biodiversity and ecosystem services has led to increasing attempts to conserve deadwood. Because of this recognition, management strategies, laws and policies, and on-ground conservation strategies are being implemented to protect and restore deadwood in forest ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:20:07Z

AngeloDeck: /* Saproxylic Organisms */

[[File:Trees Capilano Park Vancouver British Columbia Canada 07.jpg|alt=A tree that is no longer alive still stands in a forest with moss covering it.|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree ]]

==Overview==
[[File:Mossy tree stump - geograph.org.uk - 1831090.jpg|thumb|Mossy Dead Tree Stump]]
Dead trees are an important part of biodiversity in many forests types, but they have a history of being overlooked in conservation measures, especially in urban environments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalman & Whitehead|first=Harold & Lorne|date=2011|title=Conservation of the Hollow Tree in Vancouver’s Stanley Park|url=https://www.apti.org/assets/docs/Kalman-42-4.pdf|journal=Journal of Preservation Technology,|pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seibold, S., C. Bässler, R. Brandl, M.M. Gossner, S. Thorn, M. D. Ulyshen, & J. Müller.|first=|date=2015|title=Experimental studies of dead-wood biodiversity — A review identifying global gaps in knowledge.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320715002293|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=191|pages=139-149|via=Science Direct}}</ref> Dead wood is removed from forests as a part of forest management, for aesthetic purposes, safety precautions or for fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lombardi, F., & B. Mali.|date=2016|title=Dead wood as a driver of forest functions|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X|journal=Italian Journal of Agronomy|volume=11|pages=23-26|via=Science Direct}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Dead woody debris plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, releasing a slow and steady flow of nutrients, minimizing loss by leeching.<ref name=":0" /> On top of being an important part of long term nutrient availability, dead trees harbor a host of flora and fauna, which rely on these distinct microhabitats for survival.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Paillet|first=Yoan|last2=Archaux|first2=Frédéric|last3=Boulanger|first3=Vincent|last4=Debaive|first4=Nicolas|last5=Fuhr|first5=Marc|last6=Glig|first6=Olivier|last7=Gosselin|first7=Frédéric|last8=Guilbert|first8=Eric|date=9 January 2017|title=Snags and large trees drive higher tree microhabitat densities in strict forest reserves|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716312300#b0190|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=389|pages=176-186|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> In Europe’s boreal forests, 20-25% of species depend on dead trees for their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pasanen, H., K. Junninen, J. Boberg, S. Tatsumi, J. Stenlid, & J. Kouki.|date=2018|title=Life after tree death: Does restored dead wood host different fungal communities to natural woody substrates?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112717306448|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=409|pages=863-871|via=Science Direct}}</ref> For forest ecosystems, dead trees play a vital and irreplaceable role. To preserve the biodiversity of these forest ecosystems, conservation efforts need to focus on the preservation of dead trees alongside living ones.

== Background - Paige ==
''Background on the issue or problem – Historical information, scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue;''

=== History of Removal of Deadwood in Managed Forests ===
Deadwood has traditionally been discarded and removed from forests as a part of regular forest management.<ref name=":0" /> Deadwood was seen as a sign of a poorly managed forest, often described as 'debris' and hence removed.<ref name=":0" /> The ecological value of woody debris was widely unknown.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauhus, J., Baber, K., & Müller, J.|date=2018|title=Dead Wood in Forest Ecosystems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristin-Baber/publication/324161761_Dead_Wood_in_Forest_Ecosystems/links/5ac499f2aca27218eabc5c46/Dead-Wood-in-Forest-Ecosystems.pdf|journal=Advances in Ecological Research|volume=16|via=Research Gate}}</ref> In the 1970's, the rise of threatened species in managed forests caused scientists to rethink forest ecosystem dynamics, including the removal of dead woody debris.<ref name=":1" /> We know now that dead wood, including standing trees, weakened trees, fallen logs and coarse woody debris play a key role in ecosystem function and nutrient cycling.<ref name=":1" />

==== Removal of Deadwood in Urban Parks ====
In parks and protected areas with lots of human activity, deadwood is often removed for safety reasons and to mitigate fire risk.<ref name=":4" /> In 2025, Stanley Park began the removal of thousands of dead and decaying trees following extreme drought conditions and a hemlock looper outbreak.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-stanley-park-tree-cutting-1.7149032|title=Plan to remove Stanley Park trees faces growing criticism|date=Mar 19, 2024 5:01 PM PDT|work=CBC News|access-date=March 6th, 2026}}</ref> Other locations in Metro Vancouver like Lynn Canyon in the District of North Vancouver go about removing hazard trees as they pose a risk to public safety due to risk of tree failure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 9th, 2026|title=Parks, Trails and Recreation: Managing Hazard Trees|url=https://www.dnv.org/parks-trails-recreation/managing-hazard-trees-in-natural-parklands|url-status=live|website=District of North Vancouver}}</ref>

==== Removal of Deadwood for Fire Management ====
With climate change, increasing temperatures and drought conditions, it has been recommended to remove deadwood from forests to remove fuel loads from the understory.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Sorenson|first=Quinn M.|last2=Wayman|first2=Rebecca Bewley|last3=Ursell|first3=Tara L.|last4=Safford|first4=Hugh D.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees after mass drought mortality enhances fire-adapted tree recruitment, reduces future fire severity, and has mixed effects on carbon stocks|url=https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1691015|journal=Frontiers For Global Change|volume=8}}</ref> Fuel can be described as "any organic matter, living or dead, in the ground, on the ground, or in the air that can ignite and burn".<ref name=":7">Government of Northwest Territories, Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). ''Wildfire science''. <nowiki>https://www.gov.nt.ca/ecc/en/services/wildfire-operations/wildfire-science</nowiki> </ref> The accumulation of deadwood in forest understory's can lead to an increase in flammable material.<ref name=":7" /> However, a build up of small material deadwood is more of an issue compared to larger woody debris as it acts as kindling for sparks.<ref name=":7" /> L

In ecosystems where fire is a natural part of the landscape, Indigenous cultures have often integrated fire into land management as prescribed burns. Prescribed burns can help reduce the intensity of future wildfires. this small scale fuel build up while leaving behind more established

==== Economic History of Dead Tree Removal and Salvage Logging ====
A principal driver of dead tree removal has been economics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=DellaSala|first=D. A.|last2=Buma|first2=B.|last3=Leverkus|first3=A. B.|last4=Lindenmayer|first4=D. B.|last5=Müller|first5=J.|last6=Price|first6=K.|last7=Six|first7=D. L.|last8=Zylstra|first8=P.|last9=Burton|first9=P. J.|date=2025|title=Removing dead trees will not save us from fast-moving wildfires|url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2510922122|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=122(47)}}</ref> After large scale disturbances, foresters aimed to remove salvageable dead trees for wood products before rot or further damage from insects, fungi, and other natural processes further damaged the wood.<ref name=":8" /> Dead tree removal following insect outbreaks has been used to attempt to buffer or defer the infestation, however salvaging rates could not keep up with insect movement, and results were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dobor|first=Laura|last2=Hlásny|first2=Tomáš|last3=Rammer|first3=Werner|last4=Zimová|first4=Soňa|last5=Barka|first5=Ivan|last6=Seidl|first6=Rupert|date=September 28, 2019|title=Is salvage logging effectively dampening bark beetle outbreaks and preserving forest carbon stocks?|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13518|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57(1)|pages=67-76}}</ref>

=== Public Concern ===
The rise of threatened species and loss of biodiversity has had

Gulf islands - loss of Screech Owl due to habitat loss- Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project. https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/

Preserving biodiversity in managed forests is a challenge,

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122 - removing dead trees will not save us from wildfire

Deadwood in forested areas is becoming increasingly accepted as a vital part of ecosystem function, and it's removal is seeing more backlash as we begin to understand the ecological relationships that they hold.<ref name=":1" /> To properly protect biodiversity, ecosystem functions, nutrient cycling and the habitat of species at risk, dead and woody debris should

is removing deadwood more helpful or harmful?

The challenge for the future is finding a balance between active forest management, reduction of fire fuel-load, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystem services.<ref name=":6" />

==Ecosystem Role ==
[[File:Screech Owl in Tree Hollow (51834209816).jpg|thumb|Screech owl in dead tree. Screech owls often use dead and decaying trees for shelter<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ferguson|first=Ren|date=Accessed March 9th, 2026|title=Western Screech-Owl Stewardship Project|url=https://saltspringconservancy.ca/western-screech-owl-stewardship-project-our-first-year/|url-status=live|website=Salt Spring Island Conservatory}}</ref>]]

=== Habitat - Fangze ===
'''Shelter and nesting sites'''

Standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs provide essential shelter, nesting sites, and feeding areas for a wide range of forest organisms, including birds, mammals, insects, and fungi. Many cavity-nesting birds excavate holes in dead trees, which are subsequently reused by other species, increasing habitat availability and supporting species interactions within forest ecosystems [5].

Deadwood also functions as protective cover, offering microhabitats that reduce exposure to environmental stress such as temperature fluctuations and desiccation. In addition, fallen logs can act as movement corridors and refuges for organisms on the forest floor [3]. These structural features contribute to habitat complexity and support biodiversity across multiple trophic levels.

==== Tree Microhabitats - Alex ====
Tree microhabitats are essential for providing homes for forest-dwelling species and driving ecosystem biodiversity. Microhabitats are morphological features present on trees that are used by highly specialized species in at least one part of their lifecycle, such as cavities, cracks, bark features, or fungal fruiting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Field Guide to Tree-Related Microhabitats|last=Bütler|first=Rita|last2=Lachat|first2=Thibault|last3=Krumm|first3=Frank|last4=Kraus|first4=Daniel|last5=Larrieu|first5=Laurent|publisher=Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape|year=2024|location=Birmensdorf}}</ref>. These features act as shelters, breeding locations or critical hibernation or feeding spots for many species. The decay process of dead trees is a main mechanism for the production of microhabitats. Microhabitats can be formed directly linked to the cause of death (bark peels, crack and conks of fungi) or formed indirectly such as the softening or drying of wood making it easier for woodpeckers to forage and excavate compared to the harder living wood<ref name=":5" />.

'''Microhabitats for forest species - This a repetition'''

Deadwood supports insects and fungi and provides moist microhabitats used by amphibians and small mammals. The presence of cavities, cracks, and bark features in dead trees creates specialized habitats that support a wide range of forest species and increase biodiversity.

<nowiki>https://sfmn.ualberta.ca/sfmn/wpcontent/uploads/sites/83/2018/09/RN_en_Deadwood_and_habitat.pdf?ver=2016-02-23-155808-707</nowiki>

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/027_CMaguire.pdf&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077228386514&usg=AOvVaw20LwqiRtuxIuaeBfJHbyXj

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.12.014&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773077362327796&usg=AOvVaw23N496p0wxInvKf4qbEF78

=== Nutrient Cycling - Fangze ===
[[File:IMG 9232.jpeg|thumb|Fungi growing on a decomposing fallen log. ]]
'''Nutrient storage'''

Deadwood contributes significantly to nutrient storage by accumulating nutrients in woody tissues during tree growth and retaining inputs from litterfall and throughfall. This process allows nutrients to be held within the forest system and released gradually over time [3]. As a result, deadwood acts as a long-term nutrient reservoir that supports ecosystem productivity.

'''Soil and moisture effects'''

As deadwood decomposes, nutrients are gradually released into the soil through the activity of fungi, microorganisms, and invertebrates, forming key pathways in nutrient cycling [7]. Deadwood also enhances soil structure and increases water retention, creating moist microhabitats that support a range of organisms and ecological processes [3].

In some forest ecosystems, decaying logs provide suitable substrates for seedling establishment, particularly where conditions on the forest floor are less favorable. These processes contribute to forest regeneration and long-term ecosystem stability.

[https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S112547182400464X&sa=D&sorce=editors&ust=1773116787520361&usg=AOvVaw1rCp0_Uxyot_-QSvvs6NWv]
[[File:Forest Service personnel remove soil from the roots of the 2024 (54093998164).jpg|thumb]]

=== Biodiversity - Fangze ===
'''Habitat for specialized species'''

Deadwood created by natural disturbances provides habitat for specialized species that depend on specific structural conditions. Numerous studies have shown that deadwood is a critical resource for saproxylic organisms, which rely on decaying wood during at least part of their life cycle [6]. These species are closely associated with deadwood, and their persistence depends on its availability within forest ecosystems.

'''Increase in forest biodiversity'''

Natural disturbances that generate deadwood can increase biodiversity by creating structural heterogeneity and new ecological niches within forests. These changes support a wider range of species and ecological interactions. It has been estimated that a substantial proportion of forest organisms depend on dead or decaying wood at some stage of their life cycle [7].

Experimental and global-scale studies indicate that increasing the availability of deadwood can enhance biodiversity, particularly for species associated with decaying wood [2]. Forests with greater amounts of deadwood—such as those affected by natural disturbances or reduced management—tend to support higher species diversity compared to intensively managed forests [14][15]. This suggests that deadwood plays a key role in shaping biodiversity patterns at the ecosystem level.

'''Management considerations and ecological trade-offs'''

The ecological importance of deadwood is often in tension with forest management practices. Deadwood is frequently removed due to concerns related to wildfire risk, timber value, or public safety. However, scientific evidence indicates that large-scale removal of dead trees does not necessarily reduce wildfire risk and may lead to negative ecological consequences, including reduced ecosystem resilience and disrupted regeneration processes [11]. Dead trees also function as biological legacies that support ecosystem recovery following disturbances.

The removal of deadwood has been associated with biodiversity loss and changes in ecosystem functioning, emphasizing its importance in maintaining ecological stability [14]. As a result, forest management involves trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and economic or operational objectives [16].

In addition, research suggests that not only the quantity but also the diversity of deadwood—such as variation in tree species, decay stages, and microclimatic conditions—plays a critical role in supporting biodiversity. Different species depend on different types of deadwood, and heterogeneous deadwood conditions can enhance species richness and community composition [15]. Maintaining a diversity of deadwood characteristics is therefore important for sustaining overall forest biodiversity.

https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12359

==Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo ==

=== Salvage Logging ===
Salvage logging is a practice in which damaged or dead trees are removed from disturbed forest ecosystems. The practice of salvage logging occurs after natural disasters, including windstorms, wildfires, and insect outbreaks, with the intention of retaining the economic value of impacted ecosystems (1). Due to an increase in the number of disturbances to forest ecosystems, the implementation rates of salvage logging practices have seen significant growth worldwide (2). In part, this growth can additionally be explained by attitudes toward disturbed forests. In general, disturbed forests are seen as unwanted and thus are suitable candidates for extractive practices (3). However, salvage logging is a controversial practice. With regard to Poland’s Białowieża Forest, a significant hotspot for biodiversity, the European Commission strongly urged the banning of salvage logging due to its impacts on biodiversity and environmental integrity (4). Another point of controversy is that salvage logging occurs at rates greater than traditional logging practices. In 23 studied cases from Europe, 55% of disturbed forests were salvage-logged, including 68% of protected forests studied (2). Salvage logging has drastic impacts on removal rates of deadwood from forests.

Sources as cited - need to format this

# <nowiki>https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2219</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12449</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-008-9193-4</nowiki>
# <nowiki>https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2017.22309</nowiki>

=== Forest Management Practices ===
Forest management practices have altered natural compositions of forests and the amount of deadwood present within them. Managed forests have less dead wood than natural forests, and the deadwood that is present is different in diversity of species, size, and type (1). Standing deadwood, known as snags, occurs at very low rates in managed and formerly-managed forests compared to those which have never been managed (2). In Austria, studies of managed forests compared to never-managed forests concluded that snags represent on average 2.5% of standing volume in managed forests, and up to 8.9% in never-managed forests (2). The integrity of deadwood in managed forests depends on the employed management strategies, which can severely impact the proportion of deadwood in these forests.

# <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112713002880#b0005</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14359</nowiki>

== Impact on Saproxylic Organisms and Ecosystem Services - Angelo ==

==== Saproxylic Organisms ====
Saproxylic organisms decrease after salvage logging practices (1).

Sources

# https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12945

==== Beetles ====
Significant proportion of beetles dependent on deadwood (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/83062650/Deadwood_20management-libre.pdf?1648871147=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DDeadwood_Management_in_Production_Forest.pdf&Expires=1775859022&Signature=V9KVvpq2j8Dgg8oT7B3n1X5~Wp2m9PDVQi31dy9ka6~V6hznZ0F2VDF-R~vDsNQnQ43mEllfq~dOb-VYVJQ69to2B7KdWab-K-1EgDL1kVl3CztWi-NjnqlZDlx9nXLdZAHe~3YC1MPjWl5N9AM9gbAJhtpAhD82G3kM34xnPHd5gFQst6vRkLoPbubBOPWY2NG31LCXE2ZwXTjObrSOkkxpg7Agfyj3ltnagaGxB8DM1zNIXR5TikliKRa4lZTdgtY7Z-g7UvxrhUxvcJYLtFZnE~r4C4J6kpshp2J3Go4iCTZZry6vATPGQGMLJkCMizqrmoDhyXusIiQFsPXIIg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA)

==== Fungi ====
Deadwood hosts different fungi species (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112717306448)

==== Insects ====
Insects threatened by loss of habitat in managed forests (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-006-0262-3)

=== Ecosystem services ===

==== Carbon storage ====
Deadwood is significant for storing carbon. In forests where deadwood has been removed, the total amount of carbon storage by deadwood is significantly lower than those which employ management strategies that allow for the retention of deadwood (1).

Sources - need to format

# https://hal.science/hal-01102882/

==== Biogeochemical cycling ====
The decay of deadwood in forests helps to maintain the natural flow of biogeochemical cycles. These biogeochemical cycles are essential for maintaining soil nutrient content, and the removal of deadwood leads to a decrease in available nutrients in soil (1)

Sources -

# https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112723003286

==Current Remedial Actions - Paige and Alex==

=== Forest Management ===

==== Passive Enrichment ====
Passive deadwood enrichment involves forest preservation process that completely exclude forms of anthropogenic disturbances, such as logging, to foster production of deadwood. This includes designating forests as protected areas or protecting single habitat tree or tree groups<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chisika|first=Sylvester Ngome|last2=Yoem|first2=Chunho|date=05 March 2021|title=Enhancing Ecologically Sustainable Management of Deadwood in Kenya’s Natural Forests|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/6647618|journal=International Journal of Forestry Research|volume=2021|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>. This allows deadwood to accumulate via natural processes like aging or biological disturbances<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Vogel,|first=Sebastian|last2=Gossner|first2=Martin M.|last3=Mergner|first3=Ulrich|last4=Müller|first4=Jörg|last5=Thorn|first5=Simon|date=28 April 2020|title=Optimizing enrichment of deadwood for biodiversity by varying sun exposure and tree species: An experimental approach|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13648|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=57|pages=2075-2085|via=British Ecological Society}}</ref>. Retaining living trees and allowing them to reach the end of their life space is an effective method of increasing future deadwood availability. It ensures the availability of microhabitats for insects, provides a foundation for further development of deadwood, provides a supply of seeds for forest rejuvenation and supports the development of old growth areas in forests<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Vítková|first=Lucie|last2=Bače|first2=Radek|last3=Kjučukov|first3=Petr|last4=Svoboda|first4=Miroslav|date=24 July 2018|title=Deadwood management in Central European forests: Key considerations for practical implementation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112718307230#b0015|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=429|pages=394-405|via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>. Another method of passive enrichment is the retention of deadwood at all decay stages<ref name=":3" />. Which ensures that the deadwood's roles in habitat availability and in nutrient cycling are balanced throughout all nesseccary stages.

==== Active Enrichment ====
Active deadwood enrichment uses human intervention to add or preserve deadwood in forest ecosystems. Active strategies aim to integrate economic and ecological demands via leaving tree parts, such as tree tops or tree stumps, after harvest and logging activities<ref name=":2" />. This artificial creation of deadwood can promote biodiversity within managed forests by introducing and increasing the amount of deadwood in the forest and thus the number of microhabitats available for dependent species<ref name=":3" />.

==== Timing of Operations ====
Removal should be scheduled to avoid breeding, nesting, and rearing seasons for birds and wildlife.

==== Retaining Large Woody Debris ====
allowing removal of hazard trees, but leaving behind larger, non hazardous deadwood within the forest to act as nutrient source, soil stabilizer, habitat and moisture retention.

==== Assessments by Professionals ====
In conclusion, all removal of dead woody debris should be conducted by a professional, qualified professionals should asses trees before removal (see if they are true hazards or can be left behind for habitat)

==== Introduction of Artificial Deadwood? ====
Analyses and evaluates at least 2 additional solutions and recommendations from a '''technical''', social, cultural, '''economic''', '''financial''', political and/or legal points of view

==== Development of Policies and Guidelines ====
Comment from draft: Include policy level actions that have been implemented any where in the world and mention how that might be useful.. example:Tree Retention Guidelines

- Variable Retention Forestry

-studies advocating for dead trees

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2510922122

protecting species at risk that nest/use dead trees, and in turn protecting dead trees

==Summary - Angelo==
Rough conclusion:

Dead wood is a significant part of forest ecosystems, both for species that depend on dead wood and species that do not. It promotes forest biodiversity and has a variety of ecosystem services. Harmful human activity such as logging, management, and using dead wood for fuel has decreased the amount of dead wood and thus impacted biodiversity in these ecosystems. Conservation strategies are in place to help maintain dead wood's role within ecosystems.

==References/Formatting - Paige==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:13:50Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats to Deadwood Integrity - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T21:00:03Z

AngeloDeck: /* Salvage Logging */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:58:49Z

AngeloDeck: /* Background - Paige */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:57:39Z

AngeloDeck: /* Deadwood Removal Practices - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:54:49Z

AngeloDeck: /* Deadwood Removal Practices - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:52:16Z

AngeloDeck: /* Logging */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:50:44Z

AngeloDeck: /* Overview */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:49:12Z

AngeloDeck: /* Carbon storage */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:43:21Z

AngeloDeck: /* Saproxylic Organisms */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:33:22Z

AngeloDeck: /* Deadwood Removal Practices - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T20:24:28Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats to Deadwood and Saproxylic Organisms - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T19:37:44Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-04-10T19:30:01Z

AngeloDeck: /* Conclusion - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-03-06T22:45:27Z

AngeloDeck: /* Conclusion - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-03-06T22:41:33Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-03-06T22:35:06Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-03-06T22:31:47Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats - Angelo */

Significance of deadwood to forest ecosystems

2026-03-06T22:28:53Z

AngeloDeck: /* Threats - Angelo */