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Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-12T00:27:54Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|288x288px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. a''ssamica''], a tea plant variety primarily cultivated in Yunnan Province, China.<ref>Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. "Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Royle ex Hook.) Steenis." ''Plants of the World Online'', 2026, <nowiki>https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2</nowiki></ref><ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena, and John Richard Stepp. "Pu-erh Tea." ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention'', edited by Victor R. Preedy, Academic Press, 2013, pp. 59–71. </ref> Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation, during which microbial activity after initial processing gradually alters the tea's flavour, aroma, and chemical composition as it ages.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, et al. "Pu-erh Tea Tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of Drinkers' Perceptions to Phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'', vol. 132, no. 1, 2010, pp. 176–185. </ref>

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before becoming an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":5" /> It was historically traded along the Southwest Silk Road, or [http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/2004vol2num1/tea.htm Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref>Yang, Fuquan. "The ‘Ancient Tea and Horse Caravan Route,’ the ‘Silk Road’ of Southwest China." The Silk Road, vol. 2, no. 1, 2004.</ref>. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, naturally aging the tea and creating a more mellow flavour over time.<ref name=":9" /> Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions.<ref name=":10" />

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies.<ref name=":10" />

== Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]Traditionally, Pu-erh tea leaves are hand-plucked, with young shoots and tender leaves selected from tea trees during the harvesting season. Hand harvesting allows producers to choose leaves according to maturity and quality, whereas modern tea agriculture increasingly uses handheld or mechanized harvesters to reduce labour requirements and increase harvesting efficiency. However, mechanical harvesting is less selective and may collect leaves of less uniform maturity.<ref name=":10" /> After collection, the fresh leaves are spread to reduce moisture, then heated in a process known as ''sha qing'' (“kill-green”) to limit enzymatic oxidation. The softened leaves are rolled and subsequently sun-dried to produce ''mao cha'', the basic material used for further Pu-erh production.<ref name=":10" /> Traditional processing relies heavily on manual pan-heating, hand rolling, and natural sun-drying, whereas modern commercial production increasingly uses mechanical equipment and more standardized processing conditions to improve efficiency and consistency.<ref name=":4" />

Safety concerns during production include pesticide residues, microbial contamination, and fungal metabolites. Because microorganisms contribute to Pu-erh fermentation and aging, bacterial and fungal populations can change substantially during storage.<ref name=":4" /> Regulation also differs between markets. In Canada, imported tea must meet Health Canada food-safety requirements and CFIA import controls, including requirements related to contaminants and pesticide residues.<ref>Canadian Food Inspection Agency. “Importing Food to Canada: Overview.” ''Government of Canada'', 2019, <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca/en/food-safety-industry/toolkit-food-businesses/importing-food</nowiki>.</ref> In China, tea production is subject to national food-safety requirements covering tea products, pesticide residues, processing hygiene, and production controls. China’s market regulator also identifies pesticide residues, heavy metals, sanitation, processing conditions, and storage as important safety-control points in tea production.<ref>State Administration for Market Regulation of China. “Production Licensing Review Requirements for Tea and Related Tea Products.” ''State Administration for Market Regulation'', 2023, www.samr.gov.cn.</ref>

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":13">Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>

== Storage Conditions Influencing the Pu-erh Tea Aging Process ==
Storage conditions, particularly temperature and humidity, influence the metabolite and flavour changes that occur during the aging process of Pu-erh tea. While high temperature and high humidity can cause changes in taste and metabolites faster, colder and drier storage conditions generally result in a more stable flavour profile. Furthermore, it was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments. Resultantly, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments.<ref name=":8">Xu, Shanshan, et al. "Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of Raw Pu-Erh Tea."''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 67, no. 43, 2019, pp. 12084-12093.</ref>

The particular aroma that develops in raw Pu-erh tea during the aging process, which is not present in freshly produced raw Pu’er tea, is in part attributed to the environmental conditions in which the tea is stored. When raw Pu-erh tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma.<ref name=":7" /> In comparison, ripe Pu-erh tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma.<ref name=":11">Lv, Shidong, et al. "Application of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Chemometrics Methods for Assessing Volatile Profiles of Pu-Erh Tea with Different Processing Methods and Ageing Years." ''RSC Advances'', vol. 5, no. 107, 2015, pp. 87806-87817.</ref><ref>Pang, Xueli, et al. "Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 67, no. 47, 2019, pp. 13139-13149.</ref> A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu-erh tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas.<ref name=":7" />

== Effects of Storage Duration on Pu-erh Tea Quality and Safety ==
<gallery>
</gallery>Longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality, as for both types of tea, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months before starting to decrease, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage.<ref name=":12">Tian, Jianqing, et al. "Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'Er Tea Samples of Different Ages." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 78, no. 8, 2013, pp. M1249-M1256.</ref> Additionally, it was found that ripe Pu-erh tea has higher levels of tea polyphenols compared to raw Pu-erh tea. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions.<ref name=":7" /> Teas rich in polyphenols are associated with several health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological diseases.<ref>Khan, Naghma, and Hasan Mukhtar. "Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health." ''Nutrients'', vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp. 39.</ref>

Storage duration affects the microbial population of Pu-erh tea, as bacteria and fungi are involved in its fermentation and long-term aging process. A study examining Pu-erh teas of different ages observed changes in bacterial and fungal communities, as well as the presence of potentially pathogenic bacteria in samples subjected to long-term storage. These microbial changes are particularly significant because Pu-erh tea relies on microorganisms during its characteristic aging process, while certain microorganisms may pose food safety concerns during long-term storage.<ref name=":12" /> For this reason, storage duration must be considered in balancing product stability and food safety with the desired effects of aging. Consequently, aging time alone is not considered a definitive indicator of tea quality.

== Packaging of Pu-erh Tea (Traditional versus Modern) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>

Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.

== Conservation Challenges in Pu-erh Tea Production ==
Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>

Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Exam Question ==
Question: '''Which option explains the effect of long-term storage on Pu-erh tea?'''

'''A.''' Pu-erh tea quality (e.g., number of aroma-enhancing compounds) and food safety always increase as storage time increases.

'''B.''' Long-term storage completely stops microbial activity in Pu-erh tea.

'''C'''. Long-term storage can promote desirable changes in Pu-erh tea’s quality, but these benefits may diminish with very prolonged storage, which can also raise microbial-related food safety concerns.

'''D.''' Temperature and humidity have no effect on Pu-erh tea quality in long-term storage.

Correct answer: C

Explanation: During storage, microbial-driven chemical changes contribute to the aging of Pu-erh tea, which can produce desirable changes in its quality, such as increases in aroma-enhancing compounds. However, longer storage does not necessarily result in an increase of these desirable changes and may introduce food safety concerns associated with microbial activity. This question should be included on the FNH 200 final exam because it tests students’ understanding of FNH concepts, including food storage, microbial activity, and food safety, highlighting the paradox that conditions promoting desirable changes in a food product can also contribute to undesirable changes over time.

== References ==
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-12T00:22:22Z

AlissaGama: updated references intro + inital production paragraphs

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|288x288px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. a''ssamica''], a tea plant variety primarily cultivated in Yunnan Province, China.<ref>Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. "Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Royle ex Hook.) Steenis." ''Plants of the World Online'', 2026, <nowiki>https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2</nowiki></ref><ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena, and John Richard Stepp. "Pu-erh Tea." ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention'', edited by Victor R. Preedy, Academic Press, 2013, pp. 59–71. </ref> Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation, during which microbial activity after initial processing gradually alters the tea's flavour, aroma, and chemical composition as it ages.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. </ref>

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before becoming an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":5" /> It was historically traded along the Southwest Silk Road, or [http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/2004vol2num1/tea.htm Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref>Yang, Fuquan. "The ‘Ancient Tea and Horse Caravan Route,’ the ‘Silk Road’ of Southwest China." The Silk Road, vol. 2, no. 1, 2004.</ref>. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, naturally aging the tea and creating a more mellow flavour over time.<ref name=":9" /> Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions.<ref name=":10" />

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies.<ref name=":10" />

== Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]Traditionally, Pu-erh tea leaves are hand-plucked, with young shoots and tender leaves selected from tea trees during the harvesting season. Hand harvesting allows producers to choose leaves according to maturity and quality, whereas modern tea agriculture increasingly uses handheld or mechanized harvesters to reduce labour requirements and increase harvesting efficiency. However, mechanical harvesting is less selective and may collect leaves of less uniform maturity.<ref name=":10" /> After collection, the fresh leaves are spread to reduce moisture, then heated in a process known as ''sha qing'' (“kill-green”) to limit enzymatic oxidation. The softened leaves are rolled and subsequently sun-dried to produce ''mao cha'', the basic material used for further Pu-erh production.<ref name=":10" /> Traditional processing relies heavily on manual pan-heating, hand rolling, and natural sun-drying, whereas modern commercial production increasingly uses mechanical equipment and more standardized processing conditions to improve efficiency and consistency.<ref name=":4" />

Safety concerns during production include pesticide residues, microbial contamination, and fungal metabolites. Because microorganisms contribute to Pu-erh fermentation and aging, bacterial and fungal populations can change substantially during storage.<ref name=":4" /> Regulation also differs between markets. In Canada, imported tea must meet Health Canada food-safety requirements and CFIA import controls, including requirements related to contaminants and pesticide residues.<ref>Canadian Food Inspection Agency. “Importing Food to Canada: Overview.” ''Government of Canada'', 2019, <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca/en/food-safety-industry/toolkit-food-businesses/importing-food</nowiki>.</ref> In China, tea production is subject to national food-safety requirements covering tea products, pesticide residues, processing hygiene, and production controls. China’s market regulator also identifies pesticide residues, heavy metals, sanitation, processing conditions, and storage as important safety-control points in tea production.<ref>State Administration for Market Regulation of China. “Production Licensing Review Requirements for Tea and Related Tea Products.” ''State Administration for Market Regulation'', 2023, www.samr.gov.cn.</ref>

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":13">Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>

== Storage Conditions Influencing the Pu-erh Tea Aging Process ==
Storage conditions, particularly temperature and humidity, influence the metabolite and flavour changes that occur during the aging process of Pu-erh tea. While high temperature and high humidity can cause changes in taste and metabolites faster, colder and drier storage conditions generally result in a more stable flavour profile. Furthermore, it was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments. Resultantly, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments.<ref name=":8">Xu, Shanshan, et al. "Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of Raw Pu-Erh Tea."''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 67, no. 43, 2019, pp. 12084-12093.</ref>

The particular aroma that develops in raw Pu-erh tea during the aging process, which is not present in freshly produced raw Pu’er tea, is in part attributed to the environmental conditions in which the tea is stored. When raw Pu-erh tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma.<ref name=":7" /> In comparison, ripe Pu-erh tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma.<ref name=":11">Lv, Shidong, et al. "Application of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Chemometrics Methods for Assessing Volatile Profiles of Pu-Erh Tea with Different Processing Methods and Ageing Years." ''RSC Advances'', vol. 5, no. 107, 2015, pp. 87806-87817.</ref><ref>Pang, Xueli, et al. "Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 67, no. 47, 2019, pp. 13139-13149.</ref> A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu-erh tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas.<ref name=":7" />

== Effects of Storage Duration on Pu-erh Tea Quality and Safety ==
<gallery>
</gallery>Longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality, as for both types of tea, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months before starting to decrease, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage.<ref name=":12">Tian, Jianqing, et al. "Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'Er Tea Samples of Different Ages." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 78, no. 8, 2013, pp. M1249-M1256.</ref> Additionally, it was found that ripe Pu-erh tea has higher levels of tea polyphenols compared to raw Pu-erh tea. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions.<ref name=":7" /> Teas rich in polyphenols are associated with several health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological diseases.<ref>Khan, Naghma, and Hasan Mukhtar. "Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health." ''Nutrients'', vol. 11, no. 1, 2018, pp. 39.</ref>

Storage duration affects the microbial population of Pu-erh tea, as bacteria and fungi are involved in its fermentation and long-term aging process. A study examining Pu-erh teas of different ages observed changes in bacterial and fungal communities, as well as the presence of potentially pathogenic bacteria in samples subjected to long-term storage. These microbial changes are particularly significant because Pu-erh tea relies on microorganisms during its characteristic aging process, while certain microorganisms may pose food safety concerns during long-term storage.<ref name=":12" /> For this reason, storage duration must be considered in balancing product stability and food safety with the desired effects of aging. Consequently, aging time alone is not considered a definitive indicator of tea quality.

== Packaging of Pu-erh Tea (Traditional versus Modern) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>

Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.

== Conservation Challenges in Pu-erh Tea Production ==
Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>

Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Question: '''Which option explains the effect of long-term storage on Pu-erh tea?'''

'''A.''' Pu-erh tea quality (e.g., number of aroma-enhancing compounds) and food safety always increase as storage time increases.

'''B.''' Long-term storage completely stops microbial activity in Pu-erh tea.

'''C'''. Long-term storage can promote desirable changes in Pu-erh tea’s quality, but these benefits may diminish with very prolonged storage, which can also raise microbial-related food safety concerns.

'''D.''' Temperature and humidity have no effect on Pu-erh tea quality in long-term storage.

Correct answer: C

Explanation: During storage, microbial-driven chemical changes contribute to the aging of Pu-erh tea, which can produce desirable changes in its quality, such as increases in aroma-enhancing compounds. However, longer storage does not necessarily result in an increase of these desirable changes and may introduce food safety concerns associated with microbial activity. This question should be included on the FNH 200 final exam because it tests students’ understanding of FNH concepts, including food storage, microbial activity, and food safety, highlighting the paradox that conditions promoting desirable changes in a food product can also contribute to undesirable changes over time.

== References ==
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T20:17:39Z

AlissaGama: Edited Intro

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|288x288px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. a''ssamica''], a tea plant variety primarily cultivated in [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province], China<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation, during which microbial activity after initial processing gradually alters the tea's flavour, aroma, and chemical composition as it ages.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before becoming an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. It was historically traded along the Southwest Silk Road, or [http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/2004vol2num1/tea.htm Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, naturally aging the tea and creating a more mellow flavour over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T01:49:27Z

AlissaGama: /* List of your potential resources: */

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|291x291px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/2004vol2num1/tea.htm Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T01:43:05Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|291x291px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/2004vol2num1/tea.htm Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T01:40:07Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|291x291px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=029_sigley.inc&issue=029 Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T01:13:48Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|291x291px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [https://edspace.american.edu/silkroadjournal/wp-content/uploads/sites/984/2017/09/The-%E2%80%9CAncient-Tea-and-Horse-Caravan-Road%E2%80%9D-the-%E2%80%9CSilk-Road%E2%80%9D-of-Southwest-China.pdf Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T01:09:35Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|291x291px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [https://edspace.american.edu/silkroadjournal/wp-content/uploads/sites/984/2017/09/The-%E2%80%9CAncient-Tea-and-Horse-Caravan-Road%E2%80%9D-the-%E2%80%9CSilk-Road%E2%80%9D-of-Southwest-China.pdf Tea Horse Road,] which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T01:07:26Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|300x300px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [https://edspace.american.edu/silkroadjournal/wp-content/uploads/sites/984/2017/09/The-%E2%80%9CAncient-Tea-and-Horse-Caravan-Road%E2%80%9D-the-%E2%80%9CSilk-Road%E2%80%9D-of-Southwest-China.pdf Tea Horse Road,] which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-07T00:54:55Z

AlissaGama: Introduction

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia)

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|300x300px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]
Pu-erh (pu’er) tea is a traditional Chinese tea produced from the leaves and buds of the plant, [https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60454412-2 ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''Assamica'']<ref name=":9">Ahmed, Selena; Stepp, John Richard (2013). "Pu-erh Tea: Botany, Ethnobotany, Production, and Chemistry." In Preedy, Victor R. (ed.). ''Tea in Health and Disease Prevention''. Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-384937-3. </ref>. It is primarily sourced from [https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan Yunnan Province] in China<ref name=":9" />. Unlike many other teas, Pu-erh tea undergoes post-fermentation and can continue to transform over time, resulting in changes to its flavours, aromas, and chemical characteristics through aging<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">Ahmed, Selena, ''et al.'' (2010). "Pu-erh tea tasting in Yunnan, China: Correlation of drinkers' perceptions to phytochemistry." ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''132''' (1): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.016.</ref>.

Originating from Yunnan’s [https://www.fao.org/giahs/around-the-world/detail/china-puer-tea-system/en ancient tea forests], Pu-erh tea was traditionally harvested for medicinal uses before developing into an important agricultural and commercial product through expanding trade networks<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />. Pu-erh tea was historically traded on the Southwest Silk Road, or [https://edspace.american.edu/silkroadjournal/wp-content/uploads/sites/984/2017/09/The-Tea-Horse-Road.pdf Tea Horse Road], which extended from southern Yunnan to the Tibetan Plateau<ref name=":9" />. During long-distance transport, exposure to changing temperature and humidity allowed oxidation and fermentation to occur, resulting in natural aging that altered the tea’s sensory characteristics over time<ref name=":9" />. Loose tea leaves were traditionally compressed into forms such as bricks and cakes to facilitate transportation, storage, and distribution across different regions<ref name=":10" />.

Beyond its role as a traded commodity, Pu-erh tea has also been incorporated into social and cultural practices in Yunnan, where tea is prepared and consumed during gatherings, celebrations, and traditional ceremonies<ref name=":10" />. Today, Pu-erh tea remains associated with cultural events such as annual harvest celebrations and nature worship ceremonies<ref name=":10" />.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-08-05T22:02:43Z

AlissaGama:

= Pu-erh Tea (Endangered Food)<ref name=":2">Saladino, D. (2022). Eating to Extinction: The World's Rarest Foods and Why We Need to Save Them. United States: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> =
Rubric guidelines:

❏ Different views should be covered with appropriate balance. Both positive and negative elements should be included, in proportion to their coverage in reliable sources. Good articles also use neutral language and emphasize facts. Articles should not read like persuasive essays, but instead like encyclopedia articles. Ideas should be clear, concise, and presented in a logical sequence.

❏ A note on length: Your total contribution should be about 800-1200 words in length. I will not judge the quality based on the word count. Again, please follow the rubric.

❏ Adding links: I like to take advantage of the Wiki, online nature of this projects and ask you to add direct links to resources (as you often see on Wikipedia) Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

* Links are reliable, current, and directly related to the information presented. They lead to the specific source, work correctly, and are placed clearly beside the relevant ideas.

== Introduction (100-150 words) ==
[[File:Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.png|thumb|300x300px|'''Compressed Pu-erh tea cake and brewed Pu-erh tea.''' Image by OGBerserk, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC0 1.0 Public Domain).<ref>OGBerserk. ''Pu-Erh Tea Round Brick''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 17 Oct. 2025, https://perma.cc/B2GM-75Z2</ref>]]

=== What is Pu-erh Tea? Why is it unique? ===
* Can improve through aging unlike many teas
* Cultural Significance + Origins: role in trade and cultural practices

The unique aging process of Pu-erh tea, together with its production methods, storage conditions, and packaging practices, plays a critical role in determining its quality, safety, and long-term preservation.

== '''(1)''' Initial Production of Pu-erh Tea (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Pu-Erh tea production in Yunnan, China.jpg|thumb|'''Pu-erh tea production in Yunnan, China.''' Image by Matthieu Lelievre, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.0).<ref>Lelievre, Matthieu. “Making Pu'er Tea, Yunnan.” ''Wikimedia Commons'', 22 Feb. 2002, https://perma.cc/9WR3-QGLM</ref>|249x249px]]
# How tea leaves are harvested + processed (traditional versus modern)
# Consideration to safety, regulation (differences in different countries)

== Pu-erh Tea Aging Process: Microbial-Driven Chemical Changes ==
[[File:Camellia sinensis var. assamica, the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.jpg|thumb|'''''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica'', the tea plant variety used to produce Pu-erh tea.'''<ref name=":0">Wang, Sunan, et al. "Chemical Constituents and Biological Properties of Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Research International'', vol. 154, 2022, pp. 110899.</ref> Image by Krzysztof Golik, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Golik, Krzysztof. "''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''." ''Wikimedia Commons'', 11 Nov. 2017, https://perma.cc/8XRZ-J5DG</ref>|249x249px]]Two primary types of Pu-erh tea are produced: '''raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh''', which undergoes slow natural aging over many years or decades,<ref name=":3">Pedan, Vasilisa, et al. "Bioactive Compound Fingerprint Analysis of Aged Raw Pu’er Tea and Young Ripened Pu’er Tea." ''Molecules'', vol. 23, no. 8, 2018, pp. 1931.</ref> and '''ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh''', which experiences accelerated [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_in_food_processing&oldid=1350921128 fermentation] through [https://perma.cc/3E82-8ME9 wet piling (wo dui)]. Wet piling (or pile-fermentation), a microbial-driven process conducted under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions, reflects the principles discussed in [[Course:FNH200/Lessons/Lesson 09/Page 09.3|Lesson 9]], where microorganisms drive biochemical transformations within fermented foods. These transformations contribute to the characteristic chemical profile of ripe Pu-erh, which is distinct from that of raw Pu-erh. Although microorganisms also influence the aging of raw Pu-erh, these changes occur gradually over extended storage periods rather than during an intensive fermentation stage.<ref name=":4">Pei, Dengyi, et al. "Dynamic Changes in Pu-Erh Tea during Pile Fermentation: Comparing Novel Plie Fermentation to Traditional Method." ''Applied Food Research'', vol. 5, no. 2, 2025, pp. 101332.</ref> Typically, ripe Pu-erh undergoes pile-fermentation for more than 35 days under controlled conditions, including high temperatures (35–55°C) and high relative humidity (approximately 85%) before storage.<ref name=":6">Ma, Cunqiang, et al. "Investigation and Dynamic Changes of Phenolic Compounds during a New-Type Fermentation for Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Processing." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 180, 2023, pp. 114683.</ref>

Compared with aged raw Pu-erh, ripe Pu-erh contains lower catechin levels and higher concentrations of gallic acid and caffeine after microbial fermentation.<ref>Zhang, Liang, et al. "Comparison of the Chemical Constituents of Aged Pu-Erh Tea, Ripened Pu-Erh Tea, and Other Teas using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSn." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 59, no. 16, 2011, pp. 8754-8760.</ref> Catechins and gallic acid are phenolic compounds that contribute to tea taste characteristics, including bitterness and astringency.<ref>Scharbert, Susanne, and Thomas Hofmann. "Molecular Definition of Black Tea Taste by Means of Quantitative Studies, Taste Reconstitution, and Omission Experiments." ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'', vol. 53, no. 13, 2005, pp. 5377-5384.</ref><ref>Chen, Yu-Hong, et al. "Effects of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin-3-O-Rutinoside on the Bitterness and Astringency of Green Tea Infusion." ''NPJ Science of Food'', vol. 6, no. 1, 2022, pp. 8-8.</ref> Beyond taste-related compounds, differences in processing also influence the aroma profiles of raw and ripe Pu-erh. Raw Pu-erh is commonly described as having floral, malty, green, or woody aromas, whereas ripe Pu-erh is associated with earthy, stale, or creamy aromas.<ref name=":0" />

Of 465 metabolites identified in ripe Pu-erh, some compounds increased while others decreased depending on the influence of microbial activity and moist-heat conditions during pile-fermentation. Microbial activity affects the flavour and aroma of ripe Pu-erh by producing enzymes that accelerate the degradation and transformation of flavonoids, flavonols, and lipids. In particular, microorganisms have an exclusive influence on lipid metabolism pathways, contributing to the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with the aroma of ripe Pu-erh.<ref>Li, Tiehan, et al. "Exploring the Mysterious Effect of Piling Fermentation on Pu-Erh Tea Quality Formation: Microbial Action and Moist-Heat Action." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 185, 2023, pp. 115132.</ref> As both tea types continue to age in storage, ongoing biochemical transformations can further modify their sensory characteristics. For instance, raw Pu-erh can develop more predominant woody and herbal notes with time. Raw Pu-erh is generally believed to develop a more desirable aroma and greater market value with age due to increases in VOCs. However, VOC abundance does not increase indefinitely, as prolonged aging may lead to the degradation or reduction of certain compounds.<ref name=":1">Ma, Bingsong, et al. "Revealing the Formation of Aged Aroma in Raw Pu-Erh Tea during the Storage through Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Coupled to Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Docking." ''Current Research in Food Science'', vol. 10, 2025, pp. 101038.</ref>

Additionally, aging has a role in the visual development of both raw and ripe Pu-erh. One of the major biochemical changes during the production of Pu-erh is the oxidation and polymerization of catechins into larger pigments, including [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139140 theabrownins].<ref>Wang, Teng, et al. "Changes in Sensory Characteristics, Chemical Composition and Microbial Succession during Fermentation of Ancient Plants Pu-Erh Tea." ''Food Chemistry: X'', vol. 20, 2023, pp. 101003.</ref> The formation of theabrownins, which accumulate in mass during pile-fermentation, contributes to the brownish-red colour of ripe Pu-erh.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Chen, Xiujuan, et al. "Formation, Physicochemical Properties, and Biological Activities of Theabrownins." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 448, 2024, pp. 139140.</ref> The colour's red and yellow hues continues to develop in intensity during aging.<ref>Bo, Nianguo, et al. "Metabolomic and Sensory Insights into the Aging Mechanism of Ripened Pu-Erh Tea Over Nine Years." ''Molecules'', vol. 31, no. 11, 2026, pp. 1937.</ref> In raw Pu-erh, a deepening of the tea colour is also observed, albiet more gradually, with colour changes from greenish tones toward orange and brown as aging progresses.<ref>Xu, Jiayi, et al. "Characteristic Changes and Potential Markers of Flavour in Raw Pu-Erh Tea with Different Ageing Cycles Analysed by HPLC, HS-SPME-GC-MS, and OAV." ''Foods'', vol. 14, no. 5, 2025, pp. 829.</ref><gallery mode="packed" caption="Raw versus Ripe Pu-erh">
File:Raw (sheng) Pu-erh fang cha (square tea brick).jpg|'''Raw (''sheng'') Pu-erh ''fang cha'' (square tea brick).''' Image by Jason Fasi, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 2.5).<ref>Fasi, Jason. ''Fang Cha''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 27 Sept. 2006, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/4GDE-L5EX</nowiki></ref>
File:Ripe (shou) Pu-erh tea tuo cha (compressed tea ball), 15 years aged.jpg|'''Ripe (''shou'') Pu-erh ''tuo cha'' (compressed tea ball).''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Ball Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/3EGM-LYYK</nowiki></ref>
</gallery>
== '''(3)''' Factors Affecting Pu-erh Tea Quality During Storage (150-200 words) ==

== Environmental Factors Influencing the Aging Process: ==
Raw Pu’er tea that undergoes the aging process is known to possess a particular aroma that freshly produced raw Pu’er tea does not have. This change in aroma is attributed to how the tea is stored. When raw Pu’er tea is stored at lower temperatures and in drier conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit an increase in levels of carotenoid derivatives, and glycoside and phenolic volatiles, resulting in an aroma that is sweet, fresh and floral<ref name=":7" />. When stored at higher temperatures and in humid conditions, the tea is shown to exhibit increased levels of methoxybenzene compounds, resulting in a more stale and woody aroma<ref name=":7" />. In comparison, ripe Pu’er tea has a higher concentration of methoxyphenolic compounds due to post-fermentation in a hot, humid environment, resulting in the unique herbal and musty aroma<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lv, et al.,|first=Shidong, et al.,|date=November 2015|title=Application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemometrics methods for assessing volatile profiles of Pu-erh tea with different processing methods and ageing years|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/ra/article/5/107/87806/496984/Application-of-gas-chromatography-mass|journal=Royal Society of Chemistry|volume=5|pages=87806–87817}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pang, et al.|first=Xueli, et al.|date=November 2019|title=Comparison of Potent Odorants in Raw and Ripened Pu-Erh Tea
Infusions Based on Odor Activity Value Calculation and Multivariate
Analysis: Understanding the Role of Pile Fermentation|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/47/13139/14205673/jf9b05321.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=13139–13149}}</ref>. A major contributor to the difference in aroma profile between ripe and raw Pu’er tea is that methoxyphenolic compounds increase through oxidation during normal storage in raw tea compared to during the post-fermentation process in ripe teas<ref name=":7" />.

One particular benefit of teas is that they are rich in polyphenols, which are known to have many health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khan|first=Naghma|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Hasan|date=December 2018|title=Tea Polyphenols in Promotion of Human Health|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6356332/|journal=Nutrients}}</ref>. It was found that there are higher levels of tea polyphenols in the ripe Pu’er tea compared to the raw Pu’er tea<ref name=":7" />. In ripe tea, the fermentation process causes the oxidation and polymerization of polyphenols, whereas the milder aging process in raw tea results in fewer reactions<ref name=":7" />. For both types of teas, polyphenol concentration increased throughout an aging period of 60 months, then started to decrease afterward, while pathogenic bacteria were detected after 120 months of storage, suggesting longer storage times do not necessarily mean an increase in quality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tian, et al.,|first=Jianqing, et al.,|date=August 2013|title=Bacterial and Fungal Communities in Pu'er Tea Samples of Different Ages|url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1750-3841.12218?saml_referrer=|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=78|pages=M1249-M1256}}</ref>.

The temperature and humidity at which the teas are stored also have an impact on their compositions. It was found that higher temperatures and humidity cause greater changes to the metabolites compared to colder and drier environments<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Xu, et al.,|first=Shanshan, et al.,|date=October 2019|title=Metabolomics Based on UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS and Global Natural
Product Social Molecular Networking Reveals Effects of Time Scale
and Environment of Storage on the Metabolites and Taste Quality of
Raw Pu-erh Tea|url=https://pubs.acs.org/jafcau/article-pdf/67/43/12084/15307421/jf9b05314.pdf|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=67|pages=12084–12093}}</ref>. Therefore, in colder and drier environments, the flavour profiles of the teas remained more stable compared to teas stored in hotter and more humid environments<ref name=":8" />.

#Storage conditions and their effects on tea quality & food safety<gallery>
</gallery>

== '''(4)''' Packaging and Conservation Challenges (150-200 words) ==
[[File:Inner packaging for Raw (sheng) Pu-erh Tea Cake.jpg|thumb|'''Inner packaging for Pu-erh tea cake.''' Image by Ash Crow, ''Wikimedia Commons'' (CC BY-SA 4.0).<ref>Crow, Ash. ''Pu-erh Tea Cake''. ''Wikimedia Commons'', 24 July 2021, <nowiki>https://perma.cc/LH2G-6J4A</nowiki></ref>|173x173px]]

* Traditional (paper + bamboo) vs. Modern Packaging (protective barrier films + moisture-resistant materials) for Aged Pu-erh
** Traditional aged Pu-erh tea is commonly packaged using handmade paper and bamboo materials such as bamboo leaves and bamboo baskets which provide physical protection while also allowing some exchange of air and moisture during storage. These methods are associated with long term aging process of raw (sheng) Pu-erh tea, during which microbial activity and chemical transformations contribute to changes in aroma, colour, flavour and bioactive compounds over time.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.</ref><ref name=":7">Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.</ref>
** Modern commercial packaging systems increasingly use protective barrier materials, including laminated films and moisture resistant packaging to minimize exposure to oxygen, odours and contaminants during transportation and storage.<ref>Robertson, Gordon L. (2016). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). CRC Press.</ref> These materials improve product stability and shelf life.
* Reasons Pu-erh production systems face challenges (commercialization, loss of traditional knowledge, changes to biodiversity), importance of preserving traditional production (biodiversity, cultural heritage)
** Traditional Pu-erh production systems face several conservation challenges including increasing commercialization, changes in agricultural practices and loss of traditional ecological knowledge. The expansion of large scale production may reduce reliance on traditional cultivation and processing methods, while environmental pressures and changing land use can threaten the biodiversity of ancient tea forests and traditional tea growing landscapes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki></ref>
** Preserving traditional Pu-erh production systems is important for maintaining genetic diversity among ancient tea trees, supporting sustainable agricultural ecosystems and protecting cultural heritage and processing knowledge developed by tea producing communities over generations. <ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the '''question''', '''correct answers''', '''distractors''', as well as '''a quick explanation''' why your fellow students should know about this/why the question should be on the final exam.

== Reflection ==

* Describes what you experienced and learned as a team at the beginning, development and completion stages of the project; some prompting, reflective questions include, but not limited to:

❏ As a team, have you accomplished what you wanted to do at the beginning?

❏ How has the team hindered, supported, and/or stimulated your learning about foods?

❏ How did the team function together? What worked well? What didn’t?

❏ What would you have done differently as a team?

❏ What were some ways that each of you may have done differently individually?

❏ Other reflections?

'''❏ To be submitted on Canvas'''

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Projects/2026/Pu-Erh Tea

2026-07-23T22:29:07Z

AlissaGama: Added a possible outline/ structure for project

= Pu-Erh Tea (Endangered Food) =

== Introduction ==
Include traditional '''introduction''', '''body of research''', and '''references'''

== Subtopic (ex. below) ==
Safety, regulation (differences in different countries), packaging considerations (e.g. green packaging), a particular chemical reaction, trade, Raw vs. Ripe tea processing, origins, availability, cause of decline, brewing, traditional uses/history, nutritional value/health benefits, chemical composition and aroma components, changes during aging, manufacturing process

* Recommends focusing on a couple areas, rather than a general overview of everything

=== (1) Intro + History and Cultural Significance ===

* What is Pu-Erh Tea? + Origins
* Role in trade and cultural practices (traditional uses/history)

=== (2) Production and Aging Process ===

* How tea leaves are harvested + Processed
* Differences between Raw vs. Ripe tea processing
* Aging Process

=== (3) Factors Affecting Pu-Erh Tea Quality and Potential Health Benefits ===

* Changes during aging
* Considerations for storage/packaging
* Health Benefits

=== (4) Conservation and Future Challenges ===

* Cause of decline/Reason why it is endangered
* Importance of preserving traditional production matters for biodiversity and cultural heritage

== Pu-Erh Fact ==
Include a '''fact''' that you like your fellow students to know. Please present the fact in a format of Canvas quiz (multiple choice, multiple answers, fill in the blank, matching, etc), including the question, correct answers, distractors, as well as a quick explanation why your fellow students should know about this.

== Reflection ==

* Your team reflection, one submission per team, should be submitted on Canvas.

== References ==

==== '''List of your potential resources:''' ====

* Health Canada - <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) - <nowiki>https://inspection.canada.ca</nowiki>
* Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Pu'er Traditional Tea Agrosystem, China. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. <nowiki>https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahs-around-the-world/china-puer-traditional-tea-agrosystem/en</nowiki>

*Liu, Jun-Yu, et al. "Effects of Bioactive Components of Pu-Erh Tea on Gut Microbiomes and Health: A Review." ''Food Chemistry'', vol. 353, 2021, pp. 129439
*Lv, Hai-peng, et al. "Processing and Chemical Constituents of Pu-Erh Tea: A Review."''Food Research International'', vol. 53, no. 2, 2013, pp. 608-618.
*Huang, Qianfei, et al. "Studies on the Bioactivity of Aqueous Extract of Pu-Erh Tea and its Fractions: In Vitro Antioxidant Activity and α-Glycosidase Inhibitory Property, and their Effect on Postprandial Hyperglycemia in Diabetic Mice." ''Food and Chemical Toxicology'', vol. 53, 2013, pp. 75-83.
*Zhou, Li, et al. "An Up-To-Date Review on “The Ultimate Destination of TeaEnthusiasts”: Pu’ Er Raw Tea" ''Food Reviews International,'' vol. 42, 2026, pp. 1041-1067.
*Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity - <nowiki>https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/yi-wu-gua-feng-zhai-puer-tea/</nowiki>
<references />

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-21T21:21:44Z

AlissaGama:

=== <big><u>'''Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps'''</u></big> ===

== Product Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front).jpg|left|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front).jpg|left|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List ]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The baked version also has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps are formed from a potato dough, as dehydrated potatoes are a more consistent base for producing crisps with uniform texture and flavour<ref name=":2">Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, while corn starch acts as a structural binder in dough<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. The type of oil also differs between the two products, and while both oils contribute fat and flavour to the final product, the reduced fat content of the baked crisps is primarily due to the baking process which uses less oil compared to frying<ref>Tuta Şimşek, S., & Palazoğlu, T. K. (2017). "Effect of Baking and Frying Methods on Quality Characteristics of Potato Chips." ''Gıda: The Journal of Food'', 42(1), 43–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.15237/gida.GD16050</nowiki></ref>. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency<ref name=":2" />. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|The common names of the products are "potato chips" (Lay’s Classic) and "potato crisps" (Lay’s Oven-Baked Original) and are clearly indicated in the bottom left corner on the front for both products.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food product, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the left-hand side in the upper-middle section of the bag.
Oven-Baked: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the right-hand side in the middle section of the bag.

No special storage instructions are provided, as the product is shelf-stable and can be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 is clearly labeled on the product, with customer service contact information provided.
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada.
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight is 235 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
Oven-Baked: The net weight is 177 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|The ingredient lists can be seen in Images 3 & 6 and are listed in descending order by weight, as required by Canadian food labelling regulations.
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present in the product.

Oven-Baked: Soy is identified as a priority allergen and is clearly declared in the ingredient list shown in Image 6.
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|None are identified in the ingredient lists, as neither product contains any sweeteners.
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Food additives are listed in the ingredient list of Lay’s Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Image 6). Lay’s Classic Potato Chips do not contain any food additives; therefore, none are listed in the ingredient list (Image 3).
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-21T21:19:29Z

AlissaGama:

'''<big>Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps</big>'''

== Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front).jpg|left|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front).jpg|left|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List ]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The baked version also has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps are formed from a potato dough, as dehydrated potatoes are a more consistent base for producing crisps with uniform texture and flavour<ref name=":2">Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, while corn starch acts as a structural binder in dough<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. The type of oil also differs between the two products, and while both oils contribute fat and flavour to the final product, the reduced fat content of the baked crisps is primarily due to the baking process which uses less oil compared to frying<ref>Tuta Şimşek, S., & Palazoğlu, T. K. (2017). "Effect of Baking and Frying Methods on Quality Characteristics of Potato Chips." ''Gıda: The Journal of Food'', 42(1), 43–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.15237/gida.GD16050</nowiki></ref>. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency<ref name=":2" />. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|The common names of the products are "potato chips" (Lay’s Classic) and "potato crisps" (Lay’s Oven-Baked Original) and are clearly indicated in the bottom left corner on the front for both products.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food product, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the left-hand side in the upper-middle section of the bag.
Oven-Baked: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the right-hand side in the middle section of the bag.

No special storage instructions are provided, as the product is shelf-stable and can be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 is clearly labeled on the product, with customer service contact information provided.
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada.
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight is 235 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
Oven-Baked: The net weight is 177 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|The ingredient lists can be seen in Images 3 & 6 and are listed in descending order by weight, as required by Canadian food labelling regulations.
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present in the product.

Oven-Baked: Soy is identified as a priority allergen and is clearly declared in the ingredient list shown in Image 6.
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|None are identified in the ingredient lists, as neither product contains any sweeteners.
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Food additives are listed in the ingredient list of Lay’s Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Image 6). Lay’s Classic Potato Chips do not contain any food additives; therefore, none are listed in the ingredient list (Image 3).
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-21T21:18:35Z

AlissaGama: updated label images

'''<big>Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps</big>'''

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front).jpg|left|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front).jpg|left|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List ]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The baked version also has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps are formed from a potato dough, as dehydrated potatoes are a more consistent base for producing crisps with uniform texture and flavour<ref name=":2">Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, while corn starch acts as a structural binder in dough<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. The type of oil also differs between the two products, and while both oils contribute fat and flavour to the final product, the reduced fat content of the baked crisps is primarily due to the baking process which uses less oil compared to frying<ref>Tuta Şimşek, S., & Palazoğlu, T. K. (2017). "Effect of Baking and Frying Methods on Quality Characteristics of Potato Chips." ''Gıda: The Journal of Food'', 42(1), 43–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.15237/gida.GD16050</nowiki></ref>. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency<ref name=":2" />. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|The common names of the products are "potato chips" (Lay’s Classic) and "potato crisps" (Lay’s Oven-Baked Original) and are clearly indicated in the bottom left corner on the front for both products.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food product, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the left-hand side in the upper-middle section of the bag.
Oven-Baked: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the right-hand side in the middle section of the bag.

No special storage instructions are provided, as the product is shelf-stable and can be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 is clearly labeled on the product, with customer service contact information provided.
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada.
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight is 235 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
Oven-Baked: The net weight is 177 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|The ingredient lists can be seen in Images 3 & 6 and are listed in descending order by weight, as required by Canadian food labelling regulations.
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present in the product.

Oven-Baked: Soy is identified as a priority allergen and is clearly declared in the ingredient list shown in Image 6.
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|None are identified in the ingredient lists, as neither product contains any sweeteners.
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Food additives are listed in the ingredient list of Lay’s Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Image 6). Lay’s Classic Potato Chips do not contain any food additives; therefore, none are listed in the ingredient list (Image 3).
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front).jpg

2026-07-21T21:11:41Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)}}
|date=2026-07-21 14:02:45
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front).jpg

2026-07-21T21:11:41Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front)}}
|date=2026-07-21 13:58:47
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-21T01:05:57Z

AlissaGama:

'''<big>Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps</big>'''

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg|none|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front) ]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The baked version also has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps are formed from a potato dough, as dehydrated potatoes are a more consistent base for producing crisps with uniform texture and flavour<ref name=":2">Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, while corn starch acts as a structural binder in dough<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. The type of oil also differs between the two products, and while both oils contribute fat and flavour to the final product, the reduced fat content of the baked crisps is primarily due to the baking process which uses less oil compared to frying<ref>Tuta Şimşek, S., & Palazoğlu, T. K. (2017). "Effect of Baking and Frying Methods on Quality Characteristics of Potato Chips." ''Gıda: The Journal of Food'', 42(1), 43–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.15237/gida.GD16050</nowiki></ref>. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency<ref name=":2" />. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|The common names of the products are "potato chips" (Lay’s Classic) and "potato crisps" (Lay’s Oven-Baked Original) and are clearly indicated in the bottom left corner on the front for both products.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food product, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the left-hand side in the upper-middle section of the bag.
Oven-Baked: A best-before date is provided on the front of the package, located on the right-hand side in the middle section of the bag.

No special storage instructions are provided, as the product is shelf-stable and can be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 is clearly labeled on the product, with customer service contact information provided.
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada.
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight is 235 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
Oven-Baked: The net weight is 177 g and is declared on the front of the package in the bottom-left corner.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|The ingredient lists can be seen in Images 3 & 6 and are listed in descending order by weight, as required by Canadian food labelling regulations.
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present in the product.

Oven-Baked: Soy is identified as a priority allergen and is clearly declared in the ingredient list shown in Image 6.
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|None are identified in the ingredient lists, as neither product contains any sweeteners.
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Food additives are listed in the ingredient list of Lay’s Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Image 6). Lay’s Classic Potato Chips do not contain any food additives; therefore, none are listed in the ingredient list (Image 3).
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-20T01:38:43Z

AlissaGama:

'''<big>Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps</big>'''

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg|none|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front) ]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The baked version has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps are formed from a potato dough, as dehydrated potatoes are a more consistent base for producing crisps with uniform texture and flavour<ref name=":2">Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, while corn starch acts as a structural binder in dough<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency<ref name=":2" />. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|It is commonly known as Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food products, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: There is a best before date on front of the package on the left-hand side (upper-middle of bag)
Baked: There is a best before date on the front of the package on the right-hand side (middle of bag).
No special storage instructions are provided because the product is shelf-stable and should simply be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 with customer service contact information provided
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight 235g and is declared on the front side at the bottom-left corner of the package.
Oven-baked: The net weight 177g and is declared on the front side at the bottom-left corner of the package.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|List of ingredients can be seen in Image 3 & 6
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present

Oven-Baked: Soy is clearly listed in the Ingredient List in Image 6
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Clearly identified in the list of ingredients, and can bee seen in Image 3 & 6
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Clearly identified in the list of ingredients, and can bee seen in Image 3 & 6
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-20T00:15:37Z

AlissaGama: Added citation

'''<big>Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps</big>'''

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg|none|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front) ]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps may be produced from a restructured potato mixture, where dehydrated potatoes provide a more standardized ingredient base for producing chips with uniform texture and flavour<ref name=":2">Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, and corn starch contributes binding and structural properties<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. The baked version has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency<ref name=":2" />. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|It is commonly known as Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food products, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: There is a best before date on front of the package on the left-hand side (upper-middle of bag)
Baked: There is a best before date on the front of the package on the right-hand side (middle of bag).
No special storage instructions are provided because the product is shelf-stable and should simply be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 with customer service contact information provided
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight 235g and is declared on the front side at the bottom-left corner of the package.
Oven-baked: The net weight 177g and is declared on the front side at the bottom-left corner of the package.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|List of ingredients can be seen in Image 3 & 6
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present

Oven-Baked: Soy is clearly listed in the Ingredient List in Image 6
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Clearly identified in the list of ingredients, and can bee seen in Image 3 & 6
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Clearly identified in the list of ingredients, and can bee seen in Image 3 & 6
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-20T00:09:53Z

AlissaGama: added 2 sentences for the comparison and their respective references, changed oven-baked chips to crisps, added soy as allergen for oven-baked

'''<big>Lays Classic Potato Chips vs. Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps</big>'''

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Pictures ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Crisps
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg|none|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front) ]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Front)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps Nutrition Facts and Ingredients]]
|}
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

=== Ingredients: ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|
* Specially selected potatoes
* Vegetable Oil
* Salt
|
* Dehydrated potatoes
* Refined olive oil
* Corn Starch, Sugars (sugar, dextrose)
* Sea salt,
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Substitutes & Additives used:''' ===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

=== '''Roles of Substitutes & Additives:''' ===
Additives (as classified by Health Canada<ref>Health Canada. “Lists of Permitted Food Additives.” ''Government of Canada'', Government of Canada, <nowiki>https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/lists-permitted.html</nowiki>. Accessed 17 July 2026.</ref>):

'''Soy Lecithin''' is a type of additive known as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that allows for the uniform blending of one liquid with another. The structure of emulsifiers consists of a hydrophobic (oil phase) and hydrophilic (aqueous phase) region, which permits oil and water to form small droplets that disperse evenly in the chips, rather than repelling each other and separating throughout the formula. This gives the chips a fine consistency and even texture, ensuring product quality during processing<ref>Britannica Editors. "emulsifier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Apr. 2021, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/emulsifier</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>. The emulsifier Soy Lethicin in the Lays Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps is derived from soy. Soy lecithin is made from soybean oil and contains approximately thirty-five percent neutral oil and a combination of phospholipids (lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol) that contribute to its emulsifying properties<ref>Britannica Editors. "lecithin". Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Jun. 2026, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/lecithin</nowiki>. Accessed 16 July 2026.</ref>.

'''Mono- and diglycerides''' are types of additives that, like soy lecithin, act as an emulsifying agents in the chips. They give the chips a congruent texture and inhibit oil from water dissolution <ref>Moonen, Hans, and Henny Bas. "Mono- and Diglycerides." ''Emulsifiers in Food Technology'', edited by Viggo Norn, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015, pp. 73–79.</ref>. These emulsifiers have multiple properties, such as coating the potato flour in the mixer prior to the addition of water to prevent excess moisture absorption, which can create an unsatisfactory "short" dough. They also allow for the even dispersion of fat and water droplets in the dough. Each of these properties deters the adhesive qualities of starch in the flour, therefore stopping the chip dough from sticking permanently to the cooking sheets and upholding quality standards of chip structure<ref>The Procter & Gamble Company. “Fabricated Potato Chip.” ''U.S. Patent No. 7,482,033'', 27 Jan. 2009, pp. 11-12 <nowiki>https://patents.google.com/patent/US7482033</nowiki>.</ref>.

'''Sodium acid pyrophosphate''' is a type of additive that functions as an industry-standard treatment for reducing enzymatic browning in potatoes, which occurs after cutting potatoes, as well as after-cooking darkening, which occurs when an iron and chlorogenic acid complex oxidates in the potato. Upon oxidation, ferridichlorogenic acid is formed, causing a blue-grey discolouration in the potato. Dipping potatoes in a sodium acid pyrophosphate solution helps maintain the yellow colour of the potato, which is the more appetizing colour expected by consumers, as it indicates freshness. It does this by stopping iron's ability to bind with chloregenic acid, thereby stopping the after-cooking darkening of a potato without significantly affecting the chips flavor<ref>Calder, Beth L., et al. "The Effectiveness of Antibrowning Dip Treatments to Reduce After-Cooking Darkening in Potatoes." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 10, 2012, pp. S342-S347.</ref>. It delays after-cutting enzymatic browning by inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity, which would otherwise cause unacceptable discolouration of the potatoes<ref>Mosneaguta, Ruslan, et al. "The Effect of Antibrowning Agents on Inhibition of Potato Browning, Volatile Organic Compound Profile, and Microbial Inhibition." ''Journal of Food Science'', vol. 77, no. 11, 2012, pp. C1234-C1240.</ref>.

'''Citric acid''' is a type of additive performing the role of a pH adjusting agent. It has many functions such as regulating acidity, emulfisication, flavor and aroma enhancement, antioxidant properties, buffering and antibacterial activity due to its ability when used with citrates to buffer and chelate metal ions<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Książek|first=Ewelina Książek|date=December 2023|title=Citric Acid: Properties, Microbial Production, and Applications in Industries|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10779990/|journal=National Library of Medicine}}</ref>. Therefore, citric acid can help with preservation to increase the stability of the different ingredients added to the baked potato chip product to achieve the texture and flavour that is similar to the regular chips. Due to its ability to bind to metal ions it can also slow the oxidation of oils to prevent the product from becoming rancid and malodorous quickly and helps maintain the chip's fresh taste and aroma<ref name=":1" />.

'''Annatto''' is a type of additive that functions as a natural food colouring in the chips, giving them a yellow-orange colour that is visually appealing and may positively influence consumers' perception of the chips flavor and quality, thereby increasing their willingness to eat the chips in greater quantities<ref>Spence, Charles. "On the Psychological Impact of Food Colour." ''Flavour (London)'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015, pp. 2-16</ref>. Annatto is derived from seeds of the tropical plant ''Bixa orellana,'' which contain yellow-orange compounds known as carotenoids, specifically bixin and norbixin, which are identified as safe and effective in dyeing foods including potatoes<ref>Scotter, M. "The Chemistry and Analysis of Annatto Food Colouring: A Review." ''Food Additives & Contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment'', vol. 26, no. 8, 2009, pp. 1123-1145.</ref>. Annatto is a replacement for synthetic colour additives and improves colour consistency between chip batches due to its ability to provide standardized concentrations of colour-producing pigments<ref>Satyanarayana, Akula, et al. "Influence of Source and Quality on the Color Characteristics of Annatto Dyes and Formulations." ''Food Science & Technology'', vol. 43, no. 9, 2010, pp. 1456-1460.</ref>.

=== '''Compare/Contrast the Ingredients:''' ===
Both products include potatoes, salt and oil, but the forms and types are different. While Lays Classic Potato Chips includes specially chosen potatoes and vegetable oil, the baked crisps use dehydrated potatoes and refined olive oil. The classic chips are made from fresh potato slices that are fried in vegetable oil, which naturally provides a crisp texture, golden colour, and flavour<ref>PepsiCo. (2025). From potato to chip: The next chapter of Lay’s. PepsiCo Newsroom. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.pepsico.com/newsroom/stories/2025/from-potato-to-chip-the-next-chapter-of-lays</nowiki> (Accessed July 19, 2026).</ref>. The use of dehydrated potatoes and corn starch suggests that the baked crisps may be produced from a restructured potato mixture, where dehydrated potatoes provide a more standardized ingredient base for producing chips with uniform texture and flavour<ref>Pedreschi, F., Mariotti, M. S., & Cortés, P. (2016). Fried and dehydrated potato products. In J. Singh & L. Kaur (Eds.), ''Advances in Potato Chemistry and Technology'' (2nd ed., pp. 459–474). Academic Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800002-1.00015-7</nowiki></ref><ref>Aviko Rixona. (n.d.). ''Benefits of potato flakes and granules for crisps''. Aviko Rixona. Retrieved July 19, 2026, from <nowiki>https://www.rixona.com/news/benefits-potato-flakes-and-granules-crisps</nowiki></ref>, and corn starch contributes binding and structural properties<ref>Zhang, Jin; Ni, Yang; Li, Jinwei; Fan, Liuping (2024). "The effects of adding various starches on the structures of restructured potato‑based dough and the oil uptake of potato chips". ''Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture''. 104 (12): 7194–7203. doi:10.1002/jsfa.13541. </ref>. The baked version has corn starch and added sugars; neither of these ingredients are present in the classic chips. Additionally, the baked crisps have several additives like emulsifiers, acidic regulators, and colouring agents, however the classic chips uses no additives. Classic chips are formulated with a shorter, less complex ingredients list versus baked chips, which uses additional ingredients and food additives to help improve the product’s texture, colour, flavour, and consistency. Neither product uses any fat or sugar substitutes. Therefore, the baked crisps have a reduced fat content that results from the product formulation and cooking method (baking instead of frying), rather than the use of a fat substitute like Olestra.

== Labels (1 points)==
'''Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels'''
{| class="wikitable"
|
!Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps
|-
|'''Common Name'''
|It is commonly known as Lays Classic Potato Chips & Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Crisps.
|-
|'''Bilingualism'''
|The label is bilingual, and all mandatory information is provided in both English and French.
|-
|'''Country of Origin'''
|This information is not mandatory for this type of food products, so it is not included on the labels.
|-
|'''Date Markings & Storage Instructions'''
|Classic: There is a best before date on front of the package on the left-hand side (upper-middle of bag)
Baked: There is a best before date on the front of the package on the right-hand side (middle of bag).
No special storage instructions are provided because the product is shelf-stable and should simply be stored in a cool, dry place until opened.
|-
|'''Name & Principle Place of Business'''
|Manufacturer: Frito Lay Canada. Consumer Relations: P.O. Box 40, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5S9 with customer service contact information provided
|-
|'''Legibility & Location'''
|Mandatory information is easy to locate and printed clearly and the product is easily available in Canada
|-
|'''Net Quantity'''
|Classic: The net weight 235g and is declared on the front side at the bottom-left corner of the package.
Oven-baked: The net weight 177g and is declared on the front side at the bottom-left corner of the package.
|-
|'''Nutrition Facts'''
|A complete Canadian Nutrition Facts table is provided. Serving size: 47 chips (50 g) for Classic and 30 crisps (50 g) for Oven-Baked. Includes Calories, Fat, Saturated Fat, Trans Fat, Carbohydrate, Fibre, Sugars, Protein, Cholesterol, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Iron with % Daily Value
|-
|'''Irradiation'''
|The product is not identified as irradiated so there is no irradiation symbol or statement.
|-
|'''List of Ingredients and Allergens'''
|List of ingredients can be seen in Image 3 & 6
Classic: No priority allergens are declared because none are present

Oven-Baked: Soy is clearly listed in the Ingredient List in Image 6
|-
|'''Sweeteners'''
|Clearly identified in the list of ingredients, and can bee seen in Image 3 & 6
|-
|'''Food Additives'''
|Clearly identified in the list of ingredients, and can bee seen in Image 3 & 6
|-
|'''Claim and Statements'''
|Classic: includes marketing and nutrient-related statements such as "Made with Real Potatoes," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," "Gluten-Free," and promotional FIFA World Cup statements
Oven-Baked: includes several nutrient content and health-related claims including "Oven Baked, Not Fried," "50% Less Fat," "No Artificial Colours or Flavours," "No Trans Fat," and "Gluten-Free." The "50% Less Fat" claim compares the product with leading potato chips
|}
'''Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.'''

The information that is stated complies with the regulatory requirements as we have learned in lesson 4. Both packages have a list of ingredients, date of expiry and much more detailed information about the product.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref name=":0">En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/> {{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-16T17:21:39Z

AlissaGama: Added label for oven-baked chips

Very briefly introduce your products here<ref>Sample Reference</ref>.

This is a template for your assignment. Feel free to modify the headings and remove all the tips and instructions as you add details of your assignment here.

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Post pictures (Mandatory) ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Chips
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg|none|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front) ]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Image 5: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg|left|thumb|Image 6: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients]]
|}
Instructions on how to add photos and images to UBC Wiki can be found here: [[Help:Adding Media/Images and Pictures|https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures]]
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

# Type out the lists of ingredients

{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips
|-
|
|
|}

2. Identify fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used, if there is any
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

3. Explain the roles of fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used in terms of the functional properties they contribute to the product

4. Compare and contrast the lists of the two products and explain differences

== Labels (1 points)==
# Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels
# Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists.jpg

2026-07-16T17:19:02Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredient Lists}}
|date=2026-07-16
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

Course:FNH200/Assignments/2026/Lay's Chips Classic vs. Baked (low fat)

2026-07-16T17:16:24Z

AlissaGama: - added images, tables for additives

Very briefly introduce your products here<ref>Sample Reference</ref>.

This is a template for your assignment. Feel free to modify the headings and remove all the tips and instructions as you add details of your assignment here.

== Briefly introduce your food products (Optional) ==
Select a food available in Canada and one of its 'low fat', 'zero sugar', etc. alternative. Your options are unlimited: ice cream, cookies, beverage, and of course the wide and wild range of flavours, too. The two products that you are comparing should be similar, with one of them an alternative version of the other.

== Post pictures (Mandatory) ==
{| class="sortable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Potato Chips
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg|none|thumb|Image 1: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Front) ]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg|thumb|Image 4: Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg|none|thumb|Image 2: Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)]]
|[[File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg|thumb|Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back)|left]]
|-
|[[File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg|thumb|Image 3: Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List|left]]
|
|}
Instructions on how to add photos and images to UBC Wiki can be found here: [[Help:Adding Media/Images and Pictures|https://wiki.ubc.ca/Help:Adding_Media/Images_and_Pictures]]
== Ingredient lists (4 points)==

# Type out the lists of ingredients

{| class="wikitable"
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips
|-
|
|
|}

2. Identify fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used, if there is any
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Lays Classic Potato Chips
!Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips
|-
|'''Fat Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Sugar Substitutes'''
|
None

|None
|-
|'''Other Additives'''
|None
|
* Soy lecithin
* Mono- and diglycerides
* Sodium acid pyrophosphate
* Citric Acid
* Annatto
|}

3. Explain the roles of fat substitutes, sugar substitutes, and/or additives used in terms of the functional properties they contribute to the product

4. Compare and contrast the lists of the two products and explain differences

== Labels (1 points)==
# Provide detailed description of the information found on the labels
# Indicate whether the information complies with the regulatory requirements as outlined in Lesson 04.

== Personal Choice (5 points)==
Please submit your individual component of this assignment on Canvas to protect your privacy and your personal opinion

==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

{{Projectbox FNH200}}
[[Category:Food_Science]]

File:Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List.jpg

2026-07-16T16:26:41Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Classic Potato Chips Nutrition Facts and Ingredients List}}
|date=2026-07-16
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back).jpg

2026-07-16T16:26:41Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Back)}}
|date=2026-07-16
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

File:Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front).jpg

2026-07-16T16:26:41Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Oven-Baked Original Potato Chips (Front)}}
|date=2026-07-16
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

File:Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back).jpg

2026-07-16T16:02:26Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Classic Potato Chips (Back)}}
|date=2026-07-16
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

File:Lays Classic Potato Chips.jpg

2026-07-16T15:46:42Z

AlissaGama: Uploaded own work with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=Lays Classic Potato Chip Bag}}
|date=2026-07-16
|source={{own}}
|author=[[User:AlissaGama|AlissaGama]]
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}