UBC Wiki - User contributions [en]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-04-20T23:31:58Z

2jzk37l3:

== Introduction [Malcolm Loewen, 88437561] ==
For thousands of years, Humans have gradually degraded the natural landscape of Europe and then even more in the past few hundreds of years. Europe used to be covered by vast forests, grasslands and wetlands. These ecosystems were roamed by a diversity of animal species like Aurochs (wild ancestor of domesticated cattle), European bison, elk as well as the predators that hunted them like wolfs and wildcats like lynx. Nowadays in Europe, the natural ecosystems have been greatly reduced. The forests have been cut down. The wetlands have been drained. Now most of the land is being used for agriculture and development like urban areas and industry and even the vast forests that do remain, particularly in Scandinavia, only a very small portion is natural forest and even less is old growth forests while the vast majority is forestry tree plantation lots that have very low levels of biodiversity compared to natural forests.

Nowadays, there is a growing interest in Europe for the conservation of animal species such as Norwegian wolves and sea eagles and the rewilding of natural ecosystems by the public and governments who realize the importance of maintaining biodiversity and natural habitat especially due to the concerns of climate change. As conservation can decrease the effects of drought, floods and increased temperatures and extreme heatwaves. Even though there is more attention going into conservation there are still challenges that are limiting the overall effectiveness of conservation like economic and cultural incentives that work to keep the current state of ecosystems as well there are challenges with the politics of properly implementing conservations policies.

== Examples of European Rewilding [Rachel Cheng, 51434421] ==
For millennia, farmers in Europe have de-wilded land for agricultural purposes to support rising global populations. Despite the continued growth of global populations today, rewilding efforts have gained traction, aiming to support and expand wildlife populations, repair degraded nature, and promote wider socio-economic benefits in the form of ecological services<ref name=":4">Duckett, D., Bjørkhaug, H., Mur, L. A., & Palmioli, L. (2022). New ‘old’ risks on the small farm: Iconic species rewilding in Europe. Land Use Policy, 118, 106115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106115</ref>.

The European Rewilding Network (ERN), created by the Rewilding Europe organization, is a network connecting and leading various rewilding efforts across Europe<ref>Rewilding Europe. (n.d.). https://rewildingeurope.com/about-rewilding-europe/</ref>. Zoderer et al (2025) analyzed 89 rewilding projects encompassed in the ERN in October 2023, initiated between 1914 and 2022. While the projects all used different strategies within a category of six goals, all rewilding strategies ultimately focused on reshaping human-nature interactions and aimed at achieving socio-economic objectives<ref name=":5">Zoderer, B. M., Busse von Colbe, J., & Loos, J. (2025). Rewilding in europe: A systematic characterization and classification of 89 rewilding projects. Conservation Letters, 18(6), 14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.13157</ref>.

It is important to consider the socioeconomic aspects of rewilding to cultivate a positive relationship between humans and the environment, allowing nature space to revive itself while ensuring the least disturbance to human livelihoods. This serves as a significant challenge for rewilding projects, as it is difficult to find a balance between controlling nature while letting nature thrive itself. An example of this challenge was the reintroduction of wolves in Norway following the 1960s, where the wolf was practically exterminated on the Scandinavian peninsula due to active hunting. The project sought to rejuvenate and protect this endangered species. Careful monitoring of individuals within the Norwegian wolf population and increased emphasis on national and international rules have led wolf populations to grow since 2008, with designated zones prioritized towards carnivores<ref name=":4" />. The rewilding of Norwegian wolves can be seen largely as a conservation success, with the increased protection and repopulation over a once threatened species. However, the increase in the wolf populations did not come without disruption to sheep farmers around the area, with multiple farmers reporting up to 100% losses of livestock<ref name=":4" />. Despite undisputed disturbance to production, farmers were not necessarily against the conservation of wolves. The adoption of new technologies such as electric fencing or a shifting of practices allow farmers to mitigate conflict and build resilience towards new risks <ref name=":4" />, creating conditions for humans and wildlife to thrive in tandem.

Additionally, rewilding can rejuvenate species that were made extinct in certain areas through reintroduction of the lost species and enhanced protection. One such example is of the Sea Eagles, also known as White-tailed Eagles, which were brought back from extinction in the UK after the last eagle was shot in 1918. Birds were brought to Scotland from Norway in 1975, thanks to a reintroduction project led by the RSPB (the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) and Scottish Natural Heritage<ref>White-Tailed Eagle Facts | Haliaeetus Albicilla. (n.d.). RSPB https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/white-tailed-eagle
</ref>, with an objective to extend the species’ range to ensure its survival<ref name=":4" />. The current UK conservation status for the eagle is amber, meaning that it is a species that has unfavourable conservation status in Europe<ref>Amber. (n.d.). Kent Wildlife Trust. https://www.kentwildlifetrust.org.uk/conservation-status/amber?page=1</ref>. UK and Scottish law have been expanded for greater protection of wild birds<ref name=":4" />.

Rewilding does not have to be exclusive to fauna. The rewilding of landscapes in Europe involves assistance in regeneration of habitats such as forests that were lost due to human activity and climate threats<ref name=":6">Navarro, L. M., & Pereira, H. M. (2012). Rewilding abandoned landscapes in europe. Ecosystems, 15(6), 900-912. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-012-9558-7</ref>. Landscape rewilding aims to restore natural ecosystem processes by reducing human control of landscapes and using passive management techniques, although more direct intervention may be required at early restoration stages or landscapes that are very degraded<ref name=":6" />. Some direct assistance includes planting native flora species and growth management.

Overall, rewilding focuses on the restoration of natural ecosystem processes, letting nature regenerate itself and maintaining a healthy relationship between human activities and the environment. However, people often require anthropocentric incentives to engage in rewilding efforts, like perceived socioeconomic benefits and ecosystem services<ref name=":5" />.

== Potential Benefits [Jackson Wood, 87992293] ==
Rewilding is a conservation philosophy that seeks to return ecosystems to their original natural state through the reintroduction of important species and keeping human intervention to a minimum allowing natural processes to resume creating self-regulating independent ecosystems (Rawski, 2023). The concept of rewilding is very progressive and challenges humans to be innovative and think outside the box when it comes to obstacles in conservation (Perino, Andrea, 2019). Rather than focusing on small-scale habitat protection alone, rewilding aims to restore entire ecological systems and the relationships between species that once maintained balance in those environments. By prioritizing natural ecological processes, rewilding allows ecosystems to recover in a way that is far more sustainable long term.

Rewilding has a vast array of potential benefits that can affect the environment in many different ways. For example, maybe the most important benefit of rewilding is an increase in biodiversity, through the reintroduction of key species like apex predators (Rawski,2023). “Reintroducing predators such as wolves or big cats can control herbivore populations, prevent overgrazing and allow plant communities to recover” (Rawski,2023). This allows for degraded habitats to be revitalized and create suitable conditions for flora and fauna to flourish (Rawski,2023). This causes the ecosystem to become far more resilient and healthy in turn plant communities recover and provide food, shelter, and breeding grounds for a variety of organisms including insects, birds and mammals, over time this would lead to more complex and stable ecosystems, as well as doubling as a significant carbon sink, sequestering dioxide from the atmosphere and contributing to climate change mitigation. (Rawski,2023)

Properly rewilded landscapes provide essential ecosystem services including clean water, pollination and disease regulation, these services are both beneficial to humans and animals alike (Rawski,2023). Rewilding efforts have also been correlated to a boost in tourism creating economic opportunities for local communities to profit off of this long-term conservation strategy. This happens due to people being drawn to rewilded because people like to see charismatic species return and enjoy the beauty of a restored landscape (Rawski,2023).

Another important benefit of rewilding is the restoration of natural ecological processes that have been disrupted by human activity. Many ecosystems have lost their balance due to habitat degradation due to pollution and the removal of key species. When these species are reintroduced natural interactions such as predation, competition and nutrition cycling begin to function more efficiently again. These interactions help regulate populations and maintain the ecosystems health without the need for constant human management. As a result, ecosystems become more self-sustaining and resilient to environmental change. This resilience is particularly important as ecosystems continue to face increasing pressure from climate change, land development and human expansion. Although it is important to create independent ecosystems that are self-sustaining, successful rewilding requires ongoing monitoring and research to assess its impact on ecosystems and human communities as well as adapt the processes of rewilding (Rawski, 2023). A reason for humans needing to be hands-on in early stages as well as for research purposes is climate change as it poses a threat towards this conservation strategy as it can disrupt natural processes that rewilding is supposed to restore. (Rawski, 2023). An example of rewilding being an effective strategy in action is the reintroduction of gray wolves in Yellowstone in the nineties and it has had a cascading effect on the entirety of the ecosystem. The wolves aided in controlling the elk population, allowing vegetation to rebound and in turn attracting a greater variety of birds and mammals (Rawski, 2023). “This project has become the model for sustainable agriculture and conservation” (Rawski, 2023).

Overall, rewilding represents a powerful and innovative approach to conservation. Through restoring natural processes and allowing ecosystems to recover, rewilding can increase biodiversity, improve ecosystem stability, and help combat climate change through carbon sequestration. In addition, the ecological and economic benefits of rewilding demonstrate that protecting and restoring nature can also support human communities. As environmental challenges continue to grow, rewilding provides a hopeful out of the box strategy for rebuilding healthy ecosystems and ensuring that both wildlife and humans can benefit from thriving natural ecosystems.

== Potential Challenges and Limitations ==
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|221x221px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=2016|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence.<ref name=":0">Jepson, Paul (2016). "A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental reserves". ''Ecography''. '''39''': 121 – via JSTOR.</ref> In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables.<ref name=":0" /> This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche.<ref>Gorghiu, Gabriel; Bîzoi, Mihai; Gorghiu, Laura Monica; Buruleanu, Claudia Lavina; Suduc, Ana-Maria (16 February 2024). "Rewilding as a Multifaceted Concept and Emerging Approach: The Romanian Experience". ''Sustainability''. '''16''': 10–11 – via MDPI.</ref>

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland<ref name=":1" />. Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage.<ref name=":1" /> This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears.<ref name=":2">Ganchev, Nikola; Kachamakova, Maria; Georgiev, Georgi; De Jong, Joost; Dutsov, Aleksandar; Todorov, Vladimir (20 October 2025). "Socio-demographic and environmental factors shape the distribution of bear-caused damages in a depopulating mountain region". ''European Journal of Wildlife Research''. '''71''': 129 – via Springer.</ref> Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria.<ref>Ganchev, Nikola; Kachamakova, Maria; Georgiev, Georgi; De Jong, Joost; Dutsov, Aleksandar; Todorov, Vladimir (20 October 2025). "Socio-demographic and environmental factors shape the distribution of bear-caused damages in a depopulating mountain region". ''European Journal of Wildlife Research''. '''71''': 129–130 – via Springer.</ref> The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process.<ref>Gorghiu, Gabriel; Bîzoi, Mihai; Gorghiu, Laura Monica; Buruleanu, Claudia Lavina; Suduc, Ana-Maria (16 February 2024). "Rewilding as a Multifaceted Concept and Emerging Approach: The Romanian Experience". ''Sustainability''. '''16''': 7–8 – via MDPI.</ref> Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions.<ref name=":2" />

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in.<ref name=":3">Dunn-Capper, Rowan; Quaas, Martin; Sandom, Christopher J; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Pereira, Henrique M (May 2023). "Applying conventional funding mechanisms to rewilding: the opportunities and challenges for funding rewilding in Europe". ''Restoration Ecology''. '''31''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management.<ref name=":3" /> Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed.<ref name=":0" /> Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected.<ref name=":0" />

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation.<ref name=":1" /> Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint.<ref name=":1" /> Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government.<ref name=":0" /> This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild.<ref name=":0" />

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured.<ref name=":0" /> Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=2016|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120-121|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid.<ref name=":0" /> As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo.<ref name=":0" /> Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence.<ref name=":0" />
== Conclusion [Malcolm Loewen, 88437561] ==
Overall conservation and rewilding in Europe have challenges like differing economic incentives like farming, increasing development and desires to keep the ecosystem the same due to heritage yet there are more examples of its successes like the reintroduction of many species that were going extinct such as Norwegian wolves, sea eagles in the UK, and European bison as well as the increase of more wild spaces. Scientists have also bred cows to be like the already extinct auroch. There is also more support growing in the public about conservation and rewilding. All the challenges can be dealt with better policy frameworks, adaptive management and more engagement with local communities. Europe will not be the same as it was thousands of years ago but there is a possibility of Europe becoming much more wild, climate resilient and ecologically resilient.

[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References ==
<references responsive="0" />9. Rawski, A. (2023). The surprising benefits of rewilding in ecological restoration. ''Ukrainian Journal of Ecology, 13''(7), 1-3. <nowiki>https://www.proquest.com/docview/2905754037?RAO=true&pq-origsite=summon&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals</nowiki>

10. Perino, Andrea, et al. “Rewilding Complex Ecosystems.” ''Science'', vol. 364, no. 6438, 2019, p. 351. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/26649285</nowiki> Accessed 8 Mar. 2026.
[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T08:44:06Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|221x221px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=2016|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence.<ref name=":0">Jepson, Paul (2016). "A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental reserves". ''Ecography''. '''39''': 121 – via JSTOR.</ref> In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables.<ref name=":0" /> This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche.<ref>Gorghiu, Gabriel; Bîzoi, Mihai; Gorghiu, Laura Monica; Buruleanu, Claudia Lavina; Suduc, Ana-Maria (16 February 2024). "Rewilding as a Multifaceted Concept and Emerging Approach: The Romanian Experience". ''Sustainability''. '''16''': 10–11 – via MDPI.</ref>

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland<ref name=":1" />. Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage.<ref name=":1" /> This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears.<ref name=":2">Ganchev, Nikola; Kachamakova, Maria; Georgiev, Georgi; De Jong, Joost; Dutsov, Aleksandar; Todorov, Vladimir (20 October 2025). "Socio-demographic and environmental factors shape the distribution of bear-caused damages in a depopulating mountain region". ''European Journal of Wildlife Research''. '''71''': 129 – via Springer.</ref> Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria.<ref>Ganchev, Nikola; Kachamakova, Maria; Georgiev, Georgi; De Jong, Joost; Dutsov, Aleksandar; Todorov, Vladimir (20 October 2025). "Socio-demographic and environmental factors shape the distribution of bear-caused damages in a depopulating mountain region". ''European Journal of Wildlife Research''. '''71''': 129–130 – via Springer.</ref> The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process.<ref>Gorghiu, Gabriel; Bîzoi, Mihai; Gorghiu, Laura Monica; Buruleanu, Claudia Lavina; Suduc, Ana-Maria (16 February 2024). "Rewilding as a Multifaceted Concept and Emerging Approach: The Romanian Experience". ''Sustainability''. '''16''': 7–8 – via MDPI.</ref> Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions.<ref name=":2" />

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in.<ref name=":3">Dunn-Capper, Rowan; Quaas, Martin; Sandom, Christopher J; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Pereira, Henrique M (May 2023). "Applying conventional funding mechanisms to rewilding: the opportunities and challenges for funding rewilding in Europe". ''Restoration Ecology''. '''31''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management.<ref name=":3" /> Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed.<ref name=":0" /> Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected.<ref name=":0" />

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation.<ref name=":1" /> Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint.<ref name=":1" /> Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government.<ref name=":0" /> This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild.<ref name=":0" />

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured.<ref name=":0" /> Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=2016|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120-121|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid.<ref name=":0" /> As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo.<ref name=":0" /> Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence.<ref name=":0" />

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T08:39:31Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|221x221px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=11 June 2015|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence.<ref name=":0">Jepson, Paul (11 June 2015). "A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental reserves". ''Ecography''. '''39''': 121 – via JSTOR.</ref> In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables.<ref name=":0" /> This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche.<ref>Gorghiu, Gabriel; Bîzoi, Mihai; Gorghiu, Laura Monica; Buruleanu, Claudia Lavina; Suduc, Ana-Maria (16 February 2024). "Rewilding as a Multifaceted Concept and Emerging Approach: The Romanian Experience". ''Sustainability''. '''16''': 10–11 – via MDPI.</ref>

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland<ref name=":1" />. Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage.<ref name=":1" /> This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears.<ref name=":2">Ganchev, Nikola; Kachamakova, Maria; Georgiev, Georgi; De Jong, Joost; Dutsov, Aleksandar; Todorov, Vladimir (20 October 2025). "Socio-demographic and environmental factors shape the distribution of bear-caused damages in a depopulating mountain region". ''European Journal of Wildlife Research''. '''71''': 129 – via Springer.</ref> Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria.<ref>Ganchev, Nikola; Kachamakova, Maria; Georgiev, Georgi; De Jong, Joost; Dutsov, Aleksandar; Todorov, Vladimir (20 October 2025). "Socio-demographic and environmental factors shape the distribution of bear-caused damages in a depopulating mountain region". ''European Journal of Wildlife Research''. '''71''': 129–130 – via Springer.</ref> The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process.<ref>Gorghiu, Gabriel; Bîzoi, Mihai; Gorghiu, Laura Monica; Buruleanu, Claudia Lavina; Suduc, Ana-Maria (16 February 2024). "Rewilding as a Multifaceted Concept and Emerging Approach: The Romanian Experience". ''Sustainability''. '''16''': 7–8 – via MDPI.</ref> Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions.<ref name=":2" />

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in.<ref name=":3">Dunn-Capper, Rowan; Quaas, Martin; Sandom, Christopher J; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Pereira, Henrique M (May 2023). "Applying conventional funding mechanisms to rewilding: the opportunities and challenges for funding rewilding in Europe". ''Restoration Ecology''. '''31''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management.<ref name=":3" /> Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed.<ref name=":0" /> Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected.<ref name=":0" />

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T07:28:37Z

2jzk37l3: /* Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] */

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|221x221px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=11 June 2015|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence.<ref name=":0">Jepson, Paul (11 June 2015). "A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental reserves". ''Ecography''. '''39''': 121 – via JSTOR.</ref> In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables.<ref name=":0" /> This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T07:21:05Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|221x221px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=11 June 2015|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T07:20:25Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|221x221px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=11 June 2015|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T07:20:02Z

2jzk37l3: /* Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] */

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|708x708px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=11 June 2015|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T07:19:48Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==
A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).
[[File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg|thumb|708x708px|This photograph of a landscape in the Scottish Highlands illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jepson|first=Paul|date=11 June 2015|title=A rewilding agenda for Europe: creating a network of experimental
reserves|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ecography.39.2.117|journal=Ecography|volume=39|pages=120|via=JSTOR}}</ref>]]

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

File:Scottish Highlands 8593.jpg

2026-03-05T07:16:14Z

2jzk37l3: Uploaded a work by Patrick Franzis from https://openverse.org/en-ca/image/12783048-059b-4363-ad8c-c08618894186?q=scottish+highlands&p=21 with UploadWizard

=={{int:filedesc}}==
{{Information
|description={{en|1=This photograph illustrates the problem with heritage landscapes. Jepson argues that the barren hills in the background are seen as a heritage landscape which people are attached to and associate with Scotland rather than the more ecologically sustainable and accurate landscape of the Caledonian forest seen pictured below (Jepson, 120).}}
|date=2017-05-22
|source=https://openverse.org/en-ca/image/12783048-059b-4363-ad8c-c08618894186?q=scottish+highlands&p=21
|author=Patrick Franzis
|permission=
|other versions=
}}

=={{int:license-header}}==
{{cc-by-nc-2.0}}

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T07:12:41Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” it is ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be, potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than traditional solutions that target and are measurable by set parameters and variables (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius), are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare and what they see as heritage Scottish highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). The ire of locals towards wildlife is only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Moreover, many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding; for example, animal carcasses, while important for environmental processes, are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species in rewilded spaces which would otherwise be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

Many of these issues are largely a result of institutional barriers because of how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this: dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured compositionally, the majority of functionalist European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-05T06:56:17Z

2jzk37l3: /* References */

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” its ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than aiming for a traditional solution of set parameters (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius) are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). Problems like this are only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding as well, for example, animal carcasses while important for environmental processes are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint, but it is worth mentioning that in most ecosystems around the world consisting of truly undomesticated animals, many of said animals do suffer in a similar manner as part of natural life (i.e: the lion eats the antelope, some animals inevitably starve, etc) (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species which would be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

This is largely a result of institutional barriers considering how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this, dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured in this manner, the majority of European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/Projects

2026-03-05T06:51:23Z

2jzk37l3: /* Project Table */

{{Start tab|
| tab-1 = Guidelines
| link-1 = Course:CONS200
| tab-3 = 2026
| link-3 = Course:CONS200/Projects
| tab-4 = Past Projects
| link-4 = Course:CONS200/Samples
| tab-5 = Help and Resources
| link-5 = Course:CONS200/Help and Resources
}}

==Create Your Wiki Page==
===1. Login to the UBC Wiki===
Click the CWL button on the top of the page and login from there.

===2. Find your Project page===
Find your project page from the table below. If you don't see your project, create the wiki page using the box below:

<inputbox>
useve=yes
placeholder=project title here
preload=Course:CONS200/Sample Assignment Page
prefix=Course:CONS200/2026WT2/
type=create

</inputbox>

===3. Begin Writing! ===
Click the "Edit" button to start editing your wiki page! Your new wiki page will be created with some suggested headings and sections.
==Project Table==

After you have created your project page, please add your information to the project below. You can edit the table by double clicking on the table.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Group
!Project Title
|-
|Test
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Rie's test project 2|Rie's project]]
|-
|Group 1
|
|-
|Group 2
|Human Black Bear (Ursus Americanus) conflict in British Columbia: Status and potential solutions
|-
|Group 3
|
|-
|Group 4
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Grassland Ecosystem Conservation and Indigenous Stewardship in the BC Interior|Grassland Ecosystem Conservation and Indigenous Stewardship in the BC Interior]]
|-
|Group 5
|
|-
|Group 6
|
|-
|Group 7
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Organized crime and illegal mining in Latin America|Organized crime and illegal mining in Latin America]]
|-
|Group 8
|
|-
|Group 9
|
|-
|Group 10
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies|Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies]]
|-
|Group 11
|
|-
|Group 12
|
|-
|Group 13
|
|-
|Group 14
|
|-
|Group 15
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Orcas (Orcinus orca) and climate change in the Arctic: Status and impact|Orcas (Orcinus orca) and climate change in the Arctic: Status and impact]]
|-
|Group 16
|[[Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Narco-deforestation and degradation in Central America: Status and potential solutions|Narco-deforestation and degradation in Central America]]
|}

==Project Template==
This project template is only a guide for your wiki page. You can modify it depending on your topic. Click on the link to your topic to begin editing:
*
[[Course:CONS200/Sample Assignment Page|Project Template]]

==Project Listings(Auto Generated)==

<dpl>
titlematch=CONS200/2026WT2/%
namespace=Course
shownamespace=false
replaceintitle=$CONS200/2026WT2/$,
allowcachedresults=false
format=,\n* [[%PAGE%|%TITLE%]],,
</dpl>

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-04T07:44:01Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” its ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than aiming for a traditional solution of set parameters (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius) are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). Problems like this are only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding as well, for example, animal carcasses while important for environmental processes are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint, but it is worth mentioning that in most ecosystems around the world consisting of truly undomesticated animals, many of said animals do suffer in a similar manner as part of natural life (i.e: the lion eats the antelope, some animals inevitably starve, etc) (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species which would be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

This is largely a result of institutional barriers considering how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this, dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured in this manner, the majority of European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
'''Cole's Note:'''

For a previous UBC course, we also used UBCWiki. Here is an example of a couple citations we used. Some of these are my citations, some are from my former groupmates. The course was ANTH213, anthropology of Gender and Sexuality. Will keep this up for reference now until we have a few citations of our own.

'''Journal Article:'''

'''Book:''' Heath, Erin (2019). Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42. ISBN 9781498521710.

'''Book Chapter:''' Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. ISBN 9780511621765.

'''Website:''' Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/</nowiki>

'''Film:''' Tillman, George Jr. (2018). The Hate U Give [Film]. 20th Century Fox.

'''YouTube Video:''' YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY.<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-04T07:35:55Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==

A major potential challenge with rewilding efforts is that the process is largely informed by theory rather than evidence (Jepson, 121). In what Jepson describes as a “hands-off approach” its ultimately difficult to model what the impacts of rewilding will be potentially leading to problems such as invasive species or rises in zoonotic diseases or a plethora of other unintended side-effects rather than aiming for a traditional solution of set parameters (Jepson, 121). This is especially relevant when many of the original species that roamed European wilds, for example, aurochs (Bos primigenius) are now extinct, and the effectively feral livestock replacing them might not fulfill the exact same niche (Gorghiu et al, 10-11).

Beyond this however, many of the challenges with rewilding are human related. For example, the potential of rewilding efforts to fundamentally alter the character of a landscape many of which have become globally iconic such as the Scottish highlands by recreating the Caledonian Forest biome makes some wary who have become attached to a rugged bare highland (Jepson, 120). Others are concerned with increased human wildlife conflict or crop damage (Jepson, 120). This particular threat has been seen in the Rhodopes Mountains of Bulgaria where depopulation has attracted increasing numbers of European brown bears (Ursus arctos arctos) causing increased conflict particularly with farmers as there was less village activity to frighten off the bears (Ganchev et al, 129). Interestingly, this still occurred when bear populations are actively declining in Bulgaria (Ganchev et al, 129-130). Problems like this are only amplified if local people are not adequately consulted and do not adequately understand all stages of the rewilding process (Gorghiu et al, 7-8). Ganchev et al in his Bulgarian case study observed declining trust in wildlife and conservation institutions (Ganchev et al, 129).

On the financial side, many lands in Europe are potentially unsuitable for rewilding if they are critical for food production or other industries which animals might interfere in (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). This is particularly relevant in Europe where so much land was initially deforested for the purpose of farmland as can be seen driving and taking high speed rail across many European countries. Returning to the unpredictability of rewilding outcomes mentioned above and tying it into human issues, many will likely be hesitant to allow rewilding if the financial impact of said policies is unclear and may lose them money, particularly if current conservation policies such as CAP that reward farmers for managing their land in an ecologically conscious way are revoked in favor of hands off management (Dunn-Caper et al, 2). Many European laws are currently not set up to deal with rewilding as well, for example, animal carcasses while important for environmental processes are currently designated as biohazards that need to be removed (Jepson, 121). Should this continue, scavenger species such as vultures in rewilded ecosystems will be negatively affected (Jepson, 121).

Another concern brought up by some animal rights activists is that particularly because many rewilding efforts are effectively relocating domestic livestock such as horses and cattle and setting it free, that allowing said domesticated animals to suddenly be subject to winter starvation is an animal rights violation (Jepson, 120). Ultimately, in this case, the line of when the animal transitions from domesticated to wild can be hard to pinpoint, but it is worth mentioning that in most ecosystems around the world consisting of truly undomesticated animals, many of said animals do suffer in a similar manner as part of natural life (i.e: the lion eats the antelope, some animals inevitably starve, etc) (Jepson, 120). Currently, many rewilded areas are subject to such biohazard laws as a result of many rewilded areas not being official government managed conservation spaces but rather, akin to zoos in the eyes of the government (Jepson, 121). This also sometimes leads to the separation of predator and prey species which would be together in the wild (Jepson, 121).

This is largely a result of institutional barriers considering how European Union law is currently structured (Jepson, 121). Jepson identifies that Europe currently thinks compositionalist, meaning that conservation measures are designed to maintain balance, to preserve what is already there (even should that habitat not resemble an area's natural state as the above mentioned current state of the Scottish Highlands) and directly managed (Jepson, 120-121). Rewilding is functionalist and effectively the opposite of this, dynamic, passively managed and fluid (Jepson, 121). As governments are currently structured in this manner, the majority of European rewilding experiments, for example, the Oostvaardersplassen reserve in The Netherlands are privately managed by organisations or landowners in direct defiance to the status quo (Jepson, 121). Any new policy drafted in a European legislature is therefore somewhat shackled by the preexisting precedence (Jepson, 121).

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
'''Cole's Note:'''

For a previous UBC course, we also used UBCWiki. Here is an example of a couple citations we used. Some of these are my citations, some are from my former groupmates. The course was ANTH213, anthropology of Gender and Sexuality. Will keep this up for reference now until we have a few citations of our own.

'''Journal Article:'''

'''Book:''' Heath, Erin (2019). Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42. ISBN 9781498521710.

'''Book Chapter:''' Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. ISBN 9780511621765.

'''Website:''' Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/</nowiki>

'''Film:''' Tillman, George Jr. (2018). The Hate U Give [Film]. 20th Century Fox.

'''YouTube Video:''' YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY.<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
|names=
|share=no
}}

[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-04T05:35:55Z

2jzk37l3: /* Potential Drawbacks and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] */

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Challenges and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
'''Cole's Note:'''

For a previous UBC course, we also used UBCWiki. Here is an example of a couple citations we used. Some of these are my citations, some are from my former groupmates. The course was ANTH213, anthropology of Gender and Sexuality. Will keep this up for reference now until we have a few citations of our own.

'''Journal Article:'''

'''Book:''' Heath, Erin (2019). Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42. ISBN 9781498521710.

'''Book Chapter:''' Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. ISBN 9780511621765.

'''Website:''' Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/</nowiki>

'''Film:''' Tillman, George Jr. (2018). The Hate U Give [Film]. 20th Century Fox.

'''YouTube Video:''' YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY.<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-04T05:27:09Z

2jzk37l3: /* Potential Drawbacks and Limitations */

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Drawbacks and Limitations [Robert Cole Gauthier] ==

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
'''Cole's Note:'''

For a previous UBC course, we also used UBCWiki. Here is an example of a couple citations we used. Some of these are my citations, some are from my former groupmates. The course was ANTH213, anthropology of Gender and Sexuality. Will keep this up for reference now until we have a few citations of our own.

'''Journal Article:'''

'''Book:''' Heath, Erin (2019). Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42. ISBN 9781498521710.

'''Book Chapter:''' Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. ISBN 9780511621765.

'''Website:''' Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/</nowiki>

'''Film:''' Tillman, George Jr. (2018). The Hate U Give [Film]. 20th Century Fox.

'''YouTube Video:''' YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY.<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-04T05:25:18Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==

==Examples of European Rewilding==

==Potential Benefits==

==Potential Drawbacks and Limitations ==

==Conclusion==
[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
'''Cole's Note:'''

For a previous UBC course, we also used UBCWiki. Here is an example of a couple citations we used. Some of these are my citations, some are from my former groupmates. The course was ANTH213, anthropology of Gender and Sexuality. Will keep this up for reference now until we have a few citations of our own.

'''Journal Article:'''

'''Book:''' Heath, Erin (2019). Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42. ISBN 9781498521710.

'''Book Chapter:''' Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. ISBN 9780511621765.

'''Website:''' Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/</nowiki>

'''Film:''' Tillman, George Jr. (2018). The Hate U Give [Film]. 20th Century Fox.

'''YouTube Video:''' YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY.<references/>

{{Projectbox CONS200
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[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:CONS200/2026WT2/ Rewilding Europe: Reviewing Continent-Wide Strategies

2026-03-04T05:17:42Z

2jzk37l3: Format/Creation

==Introduction==
A description of the solutions or efforts that are currently underway to tackle the issue or problem.

Add your introduction here<ref>Sample Reference</ref>, covering general background information about the topic (e.g. location, duration).

Include the scope/scale of the problem, intensity/frequency/severity of negative impacts, variables influencing those impacts and any other relevant information needed for understanding the issue.

==Examples of European Rewilding==
A description of the solutions or efforts that are currently underway to tackle the issue or problem.

==Potential Benefits==
A description of the solutions or efforts that are currently underway to tackle the issue or problem.

==Potential Drawbacks and Limitations ==
Describe your analysis and evaluation of additional solutions and recommendations from a technical, social, cultural, economic, financial, political and/or legal points of view (not all of these categories will be relevant to all situations);

==Conclusion==
You should conclude your Wiki paper by summarizing the topic, or some aspect of the topic.[[File:Crepuscular Rays in GGP.jpg|thumbnail|right|Images from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons] can be embedded easily.]]
==References==
Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.
For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

'''Note:''' Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles Wikipedia: Writing better articles].<ref>En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].</ref>

<references/>

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[[Category:Conservation]]

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)

2024-04-11T22:55:46Z

2jzk37l3: RobertColeGauthier moved page Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole) to Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

#REDIRECT [[Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2]]

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T22:55:45Z

2jzk37l3: RobertColeGauthier moved page Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole) to Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation }}
[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Yellow Peril - Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior and dangerous to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Representation of Neurodiversity==
[[File:Autism acceptance infinity neurodiversity symbol.svg|thumb|A symbol chosen by the neurodivergent community to represent themselves. ]]
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Representations such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism, or the insertion of marginalized character for the appearance of representation without developing said token character into a full individual beyond their source of marginalization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref name=":24">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Respectful representations such as that in ''Mary and Max'' validate neurodivergent individuals and better educate the neurotypical majority.<ref name=":24" />

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful majority as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender and leading to a lack of neurodiverse representation that is not straight white cisgender males.<ref name=":3" />
==Representation of Mental Illness==
[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Stigma around mental illness due to representation can lead to a distorted self-image]]
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in work by anthropologist Dai Kojima, who interviewed queer Asian migrants about their experience in Vancouver. One example was the narrative of a man with 'manic depression' which leads to him leaving school and relying on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. He does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause him to suffer more with his mental illness. The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Representation of Sex Work ==
[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|there are different perspectives from within the sex industry ]]
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.
[[File:Trans flag.png|thumb|Transgender flag as a symbol of showing the existence of trans people in the LGBTQ+ society. ]]

==Trans Representation==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people, and the use of transsexual could be assulting for trans people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
Trans representation is most remarkable in film and media. The beginning of representation here refers to when trans people began to be recognized as “trans”. In other words, before the word "trans" or other discriminatory terminology were used, trans people were not recognized as "trans" but as someone who does not fit in the gender binary and is weird.

In the Netflix documentary Disclosure it was mentioned that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming appeared<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people faces stereotype of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism of Black Women in Representation ==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

======'''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality'''======
[[File:Anna Bilińska-Bohdanowiczowa - Black girl - MP 5531 - National Museum in Warsaw.jpg|thumb|''A Negress'' by Polish artist Anna Bilinska showcasing the exoticism and supposed promiscuity of Black women]]
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

======'''A Single Story'''======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations that do not embody the experiences and images of many black women.

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
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[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Yellow Peril - Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior and dangerous to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Representation of Neurodiversity==
[[File:Autism acceptance infinity neurodiversity symbol.svg|thumb|A symbol chosen by the neurodivergent community to represent themselves. ]]
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Representations such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism, or the insertion of marginalized character for the appearance of representation without developing said token character into a full individual beyond their source of marginalization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref name=":24">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Respectful representations such as that in ''Mary and Max'' validate neurodivergent individuals and better educate the neurotypical majority.<ref name=":24" />

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful majority as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender and leading to a lack of neurodiverse representation that is not straight white cisgender males.<ref name=":3" />
==Representation of Mental Illness==
[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Stigma around mental illness due to representation can lead to a distorted self-image]]
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in work by anthropologist Dai Kojima, who interviewed queer Asian migrants about their experience in Vancouver. One example was the narrative of a man with 'manic depression' which leads to him leaving school and relying on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. He does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause him to suffer more with his mental illness. The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Representation of Sex Work ==
[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|there are different perspectives from within the sex industry ]]
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.
[[File:Trans flag.png|thumb|Transgender flag as a symbol of showing the existence of trans people in the LGBTQ+ society. ]]

==Trans Representation==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people, and the use of transsexual could be assulting for trans people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
Trans representation is most remarkable in film and media. The beginning of representation here refers to when trans people began to be recognized as “trans”. In other words, before the word "trans" or other discriminatory terminology were used, trans people were not recognized as "trans" but as someone who does not fit in the gender binary and is weird.

In the Netflix documentary Disclosure it was mentioned that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming appeared<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people faces stereotype of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism of Black Women in Representation ==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

======'''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality'''======
[[File:Anna Bilińska-Bohdanowiczowa - Black girl - MP 5531 - National Museum in Warsaw.jpg|thumb|''A Negress'' by Polish artist Anna Bilinska showcasing the exoticism and supposed promiscuity of Black women]]
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

======'''A Single Story'''======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations that do not embody the experiences and images of many black women.

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
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Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T18:43:16Z

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[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Yellow Peril - Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior and dangerous to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Neurodiversity==
[[File:Autism acceptance infinity neurodiversity symbol.svg|thumb|A symbol chosen by the neurodivergent community to represent themselves. ]]
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Representations such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

'''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation'''

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism, or the insertion of marginalized character for the appearance of representation without developing said token character into a full individual beyond their source of marginalization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref name=":24">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Respectful representations such as that in ''Mary and Max'' validate neurodivergent individuals and better educate the neurotypical majority.<ref name=":24" />

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful majority as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender and leading to a lack of neurodiverse representation that is not straight white cisgender males.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Stigma around mental illness due to representation can lead to a distorted self-image]]
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|there are different perspectives from within the sex industry ]]
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.
[[File:Trans flag.png|thumb|Transgender flag as a symbol of showing the existence of trans people in the LGBTQ+ society. ]]

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people, and the use of transsexual could be assulting for trans people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
Trans representation is most remarkable in film and media. The beginning of representation here refers to when trans people began to be recognized as “trans”. In other words, before the word "trans" or other discriminatory terminology were used, trans people were not recognized as "trans" but as someone who does not fit in the gender binary and is weird.

In the Netflix documentary Disclosure it was mentioned that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming appeared<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people faces stereotype of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations that do not embody the experiences and images of many black women.

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T18:37:02Z

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[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Yellow Peril - Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior and dangerous to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Neurodiversity==
[[File:Autism acceptance infinity neurodiversity symbol.svg|thumb|A symbol chosen by the neurodivergent community to represent themselves. ]]
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Representations such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

'''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation'''

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref name=":24">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Respectful representations such as that in ''Mary and Max'' validate neurodivergent individuals and better educate the neurotypical majority.<ref name=":24" />

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Stigma around mental illness due to representation can lead to a distorted self-image]]
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|there are different perspectives from within the sex industry ]]
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.
[[File:Trans flag.png|thumb|Transgender flag as a symbol of showing the existence of trans people in the LGBTQ+ society. ]]

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people, and the use of transsexual could be assulting for trans people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
Trans representation is most remarkable in film and media. The beginning of representation here refers to when trans people began to be recognized as “trans”. In other words, before the word "trans" or other discriminatory terminology were used, trans people were not recognized as "trans" but as someone who does not fit in the gender binary and is weird.

In the Netflix documentary Disclosure it was mentioned that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming appeared<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people faces stereotype of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations that do not embody the experiences and images of many black women.

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T18:33:45Z

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[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Yellow Peril - Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior and dangerous to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Neurodiversity==
[[File:Autism acceptance infinity neurodiversity symbol.svg|thumb|A symbol chosen by the neurodivergent community to represent themselves. ]]
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Representations such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

'''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation'''
The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Respectful representations such as that in ''Mary and Max'' validate neurodivergent individuals and better educate the neurotypical majority.

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>
Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Stigma around mental illness due to representation can lead to a distorted self-image]]
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|there are different perspectives from within the sex industry ]]
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.
[[File:Trans flag.png|thumb|Transgender flag as a symbol of showing the existence of trans people in the LGBTQ+ society. ]]

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people, and the use of transsexual could be assulting for trans people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
Trans representation is most remarkable in film and media. The beginning of representation here refers to when trans people began to be recognized as “trans”. In other words, before the word "trans" or other discriminatory terminology were used, trans people were not recognized as "trans" but as someone who does not fit in the gender binary and is weird.

In the Netflix documentary Disclosure it was mentioned that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming appeared<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people faces stereotype of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations that do not embody the experiences and images of many black women.

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T01:29:43Z

2jzk37l3: /* Neurodiversity */

[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Yellow Peril - Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior and dangerous to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Neurodiversity==
[[File:Autism acceptance infinity neurodiversity symbol.svg|thumb|A symbol chosen by the neurodivergent community to represent themselves. ]]
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Stigma around mental illness due to representation can lead to a distorted self-image]]
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
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Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T01:24:42Z

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[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Racist depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
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Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T01:24:10Z

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[[File:YellowTerror.jpg|thumb|Racist harmful depiction of Asian peoples]]

==Introduction==
Representation is "the act of presenting somebody/something in a particular way; something that shows or describes something"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Representation|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/representation|url-status=live|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary}}</ref>. Representation has the ability to influence the way people perceive and think about other people and cultures, especially depending on how they are represented and how often they are represented in such a manner. When certain groups are presented consistently in negative ways for an extended period of time, this can lead to othering, which is when individuals and groups are treated differently and seen as inferior to the dominant social group<ref name=":23" />. The representation of marginalized communities occurs when their narratives are taken out of context to serve the political and psychological needs of the authoritative group. Strategies in culture, media and public discourse are tools of representation used in the process of othering. Examples of representation as othering can be seen in disempowered groups such as those who are neurodiverse, mentally ill, sex workers, are transgender and are subjected to colourism. It is important to acknowledge that representation as othering does not exclusively apply to these groups, but affects many different marginalized groups. Groups that don't subscribe to hegemonic masculine ideals of gender are often targets of misrepresentation and subjected to the consequences of othering.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:38:33Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept and method of self-representation that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical representations of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalizing representations of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progress into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:32:21Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This deficient representation is a form of medicalization, “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" /> Many who are medicalized including neurodivergents feel harmed by this form of representation seeing their cognition as a valid way to experience the world.<ref name=":23" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed Black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned Black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned Black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned Black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with Black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes Black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin Black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history Black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with Black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref name=":23" />, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned Black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many Black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of Black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned Black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for Black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry Black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned Black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:27:15Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical (meaning non-neurodivergent) majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" /> This is a form of medicalization or “...the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”.<ref name=":9" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> (cite) are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:20:59Z

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==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.<ref name=":22" />

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> (cite) are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
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Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

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==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”.

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> (cite) are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:16:43Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”<ref>{{Cite journal|date=|title=|url=|journal=|volume=|issue=|page=|via=}}</ref>.

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> (cite) are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:16:17Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======
Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

====== '''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous''' ======
Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

====== '''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation''' ======

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

====== '''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis''' ======

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”<ref>{{Cite journal|date=|title=|url=|journal=|volume=|issue=|page=|via=}}</ref>.

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> (cite) are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
__NOINDEX__

Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation2

2024-04-11T00:15:22Z

2jzk37l3:

==Introduction==
Introduce the topic of your project here. Your Introduction (200-300 words) should be co-authored to provide basic information about your chosen concept concept and summarize the individual contributions in an integrated manner.

==Neurodiversity==
Neurodiversity as argued by S. L Amrutha and Luke Gerald Christie is a concept that frames cognitive differences present in diagnoses such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia and others as "...naturally occurring cognitive variations with distinctive strengths that have contributed to the evolution of technology and culture rather than mere checklists of deficits and dysfunctions."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amrutha|first=S. L.|last2=Christie|first2=Luke Gerald|date=28 November 2023|title=Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/soc4.13181|journal=Sociology Compass|volume=18|pages=1|via=Wiley}}</ref> This model rose in response to the neurotypical majority's medicalization [or deficiency] model of the neurodivergent community that led to stigmatization of these diagnoses.<ref name=":2">Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 2 – via Wiley.</ref> Under the neurotypical model, physicians equate what is normative with what is natural and good, which academics such as Suzanne J Kessler oppose arguing that "...the culture/nature distinction is itself a construction..." meaning that the framework of understanding the world that society has normalized is not the only valid and healthy way to experience the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Suzanne J|date=Autumn 1990|title=The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174605|journal=Signs|volume=16|pages=24-25|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

====== Medicalization, Criminalization and Stratified Reproduction in Neurodiversity ======

Neurotypical depictions of neurodivergence often lead to neurodivergents being perceived as unrelatable to the neurotypical majority and not entirely cognizant.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Mental Disorders in Popular Film : How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity|last=Heath|first=Erin|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2019|isbn=9781498521710|location=Lanham Maryland|pages=42}}</ref> For example, in the film ''Rain Man'', Erin Heath argues that the autistic character, Raymond, is portrayed as deficient and unable to make moral choices, being reliant on his brother and possessing illogical quirks that appear strange and disruptive to the neurotypical audience such as how Raymond demands his bed must always be next to the window.<ref name=":5" /> Heath argues that what the audience does not see is the explanation as to how this might sooth the Raymond as many autistics have logical reasons for the rituals which they perform.<ref name=":5">Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 42, 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> While neurodiverse individuals do have unique struggles, the treatment of these issues is argued by Heath to be more suggesting that Raymond is deficient then legitimately attempting to understand the complexities of neurodiverse life.<ref name=":0" />

In some cases, medicalization of the neurodiverse becomes more extreme and progresses into criminalization or even the suggestion of eliminating said neurodivergence.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> For example, despite neurodivergents being "...more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators...", ADHD is often demonized and tied with criminality especially for men.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Media Representations of ADHD|last=Horton-Salway|first=Mary|last2=Davies|first2=Alison|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-76026-1|location=London UK|pages=89}}</ref> This imagined risk leads to the neurotypical majority fearing ADHD and can be used as justification to pressure mothers into the "...monitor[ing] and control[ing] [of their pregnant]... bodies [by the medical establishment]..." to prevent actions which are theorized to lead to a child with ADHD.<ref>Horton-Salway, Mary; Davies, Alison (2018). ''Media Representations of ADHD''. London UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 86, 88. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-76026-1|<bdi>978-3-319-76026-1</bdi>]].</ref> In Rayna Rapp's similarly themed ethnography looking at Down's Syndrome and reproduction, Rapp argues that society holds a similar perspective towards this neurodivergence that while not associated with criminality, is depicted as something to be possibly eliminated via early detection with prenatal screenings.<ref name=":7" /> This again serves as justification for the monitoring and control of pregnant bodies to detect what the medical establishment sees as "...wrong babies...".<ref>Rapp, Rayna (23 December, 2009). "Extra chromosomes and blue tulips: medico-familial interpretations". In Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (eds.). ''Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of Inquiry''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 185-186. <nowiki>ISBN 9780511621765</nowiki>.</ref> Both of these examples could be considered forms of stratified reproduction where some births are valued more highly than others with neurodivergent births being actively discouraged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andaya|first=Elise|last2=Cromer|first2=Risa|last3=Paxson|first3=Heather|last4=Sufrin|first4=Carolyn|date=03 October 2022|title=After Roe: Introduction|url=https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005033908/https://culanth.org/fieldsights/after-roe-introduction|archive-date=05 October 2023|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Society For Cultural Anthropology}}</ref>

'''Making Neurodiversity Frivolous'''

Another form of neurodivergent misrepresentation is to reduce neurodiversity into a personality trait. Angela J. Kim argues that this is seen on websites such as Buzzfeed that will write articles with titles such as "...'These Pictures will Trigger the Hell out of Your OCD'... [thereby giving] the impression that the disability is up for grabs while undermining its severity and pushing a metanarrative of frivolity."<ref name=":1">Kim, Angela J (26 May, 2021). "The metanarrative of OCD

Deconstructing positive stereotypes in media and popular nomenclature". In David Bolt (eds.). ''Metanarratives of Disability Culture, Assumed Authority, and the Normative Social Order''. Routledge. pp. 62. <nowiki>ISBN 9781003057437</nowiki>.</ref> Kim further argues that OCD can be depicted as a good disability as it carries the narrative that it "...forces one to be organized, clean, and productive...".<ref name=":1" /> Depictions such as these are argued by Kim to be easily comprehendible to the neurotypical majority, but harmful and undermining of the serious difficulties that those with OCD face.<ref name=":1" />

'''Moving Beyond Tokenism and Gender Stereotypes to More Positive Neurodiverse Representation'''

The last common form of misrepresentation in the neurodivergent community is tokenism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Gareth M|date=28 December 2020|title=“The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What’s Going On”: Media (Mis)representations of Down’s Syndrome|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-4446.12807|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|volume=72|pages=699|via=Wiley}}</ref> An example of this is found during interviews undertaken by Gareth M. Thomas, where many parents of children with Down's Syndrome were dissatisfied with the portrayal of characters with this neurodivergence in the British soap opera ''Coronation Street'', finding that the character's personalities were limited to their disability and that they did not appear as "...multidimensional, active citizens with their own experiences and life stories...".<ref name=":4">Thomas, Gareth M (28 December 2020). ""The Media Love the Artificial Versions of What's Going On": Media (Mis)representations of Down's Syndrome". ''The British Journal of Sociology''. '''72''': 699-700 – via Wiley.</ref> Interviewees stated that they wished depictions of Down's Syndrome were more "...mundane..." in that they could lead to a "...normalizing rather than sensationalizing [effect]...".<ref name=":4" /> A good example of this preferred form of representation is seen in Kai-Ti Tao and Denise Wood's research into Activision-Blizzard's video game ''Overwatch'' where the autistic character Symmetra's neurodivergence is "... not [presented as] something that either lends her a special advantage or... [as a] limitation she has to compensate for.".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 44. ISBN 9780367357153.</ref> Autistic gamers observing Symmetra were happy that the character's presence prompted "...conversation about difference, diversity, and inclusion..." and were particularly pleased by Activision-Blizzard's choice to make Symmetra a woman and person of color, understanding that these groups are less seen in the mainstream autistic community as a result of being "...underrepresented in research studies...".<ref>Kao, Kai-Ti and Denise Woods (29 December, 2022). "Outliers as Heroes: Disability, Representation, and Inclusion in Blizzard's Overwatch". In Katie Ellis, Tama Leaver and Mike Kent (eds.). ''Gaming Disability: Disability Perspectives on Contemporary Video Games''. Routledge. pp. 49. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9780367357153|ISBN 9780367357153]].</ref>

Despite the difficulties society has had in the past representing uniquely neurodivergent struggles in a respectful manner that is not pathologizing or sensationalizing, there are various examples of positive representation that go beyond being inclusive. Among others, Heath argues that ''Mary and Max'' excels in depicting its autistic protagonist Max where the film ''Rain Man'' fails, by giving Max agency and voice that is denied to Raymond and makes Max cognizant and capable of moral choices thereby making him a much stronger character.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> For example, Max's quirk of being triggered by the visual stimuli of cigarette butts and litter is not immediately understandable to a neurotypical viewer, but rather than be depicted as illogical or sick, the audience is given an explanation using Max's own voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Furthermore, despite being a non-verbal protagonist, Max is humanized and depicted as strongly cognizant by having his rich inner world showcased to the viewer via his read aloud written letters that are sent to Mary thus allowing the audience to hear his voice.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 50-51. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref> Unlike Raymond who is depicted as incapable of personal growth, Max grows throughout the movie and learns from his conflict with Mary after she commits an act all too familiar to autistic individuals, treating Max as if his condition is something to be cured rather than a mode of cognition that he identifies with feeling pride and belonging in an autistic community.<ref>Heath, Erin (2019). ''Mental Disorders in Popular Film: How Hollywood Uses, Shames, and Obscures Mental Diversity''. Lanham Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 52-53. [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[/wiki.ubc.ca/Course:ANTH213/2024/topic/Representation (Evelyn, Charity, Hiroki, Jill, Cole)/wiki.ubc.ca/Special:BookSources/9781498521710|<bdi>9781498521710</bdi>]].</ref>

'''Gender and its Role in Neurodiverse (Mis)diagnosis'''

As argued by Amrutha and Christie, authentic neurodivergent representation threatens the powerful as neurodivergents often "...act, think, write, and speak in a way that subverts and questions social norms...".<ref>Amrutha, S. L.; Christie, Luke Gerald (28 November 2023). "Neuroqueering Sexuality: Learning From The Life-Writings of Queer Neurodivergent Women". ''Sociology Compass''. '''18''': 1 – via Wiley.</ref> For example, the tendency of neurodivergents to question gender as a social construct threatens colonial ideas of patriarchy and society's conceptions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":2" /> Using Barbara Harlow's ideas from the introduction of ''The Colonial Harem'', it becomes visible how the neurodivergent experience is ripped away from its "...indigenous context only to [be reinscribed]... within a framework that answers to the political and psychological needs of [the neurotypical majority]...".<ref>Harlow, Barbara (1986). "Introduction". In Alloula, Malek. ''The Colonial Harem''. (Translated by Mryna Godzich and Wlad Godzich), University of Minnesota Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780816682188.</ref>

Regardless of how neurodivergent individuals are represented or misrepresented, another common theme is that cisgender men are widely overrepresented in neurodivergent communities despite there not being evidence that the majority of neurodiverse minds are male. According to the Australian Psychological Society, women and nonbinary neurodivergents receive less diagnoses and therefore receive less relevant support to their needs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Riches|first=Caroline|last2=North|first2=Angela|date=14 March 2024|title=Why Are So Many Neurodivergent Women Misdiagnosed?|url=https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330225652/https://psychology.org.au/about-us/news-and-media/media-releases/2024/why-neurodivergent-women-are-misdiagnosed|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=30 March 2024|website=Australian Psychological Society}}</ref> The Australian Psychological Society further argues that the main cause for this is that groups that develop diagnoses guidelines developed them using a sample consisting of mostly cisgender men, therefore missing how neurodivergence can manifest differently across gender.<ref name=":3" />
==Mental Illness==
The representation of mental illness in society, media, and social and legal institutions has a profound effect on those suffering from mental illness. Mental illnesses are clinically significant disturbances in thinking, behavior, and regulations of emotion<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 June 2022|title=Mental Disorders|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders|url-status=live|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>, while othering is “a process whereby individuals and groups are treated and marked as different and inferior from the dominant social group”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Griffin|first=Gabriele|date=2017|title=Othering - Oxford Reference Dictionary|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191834837.001.0001/acref-9780191834837-e-283#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20process%20whereby,from%20the%20dominant%20social%20group|url-status=live|website=Oxford Reference}}</ref>. The dominant social group in this case are people who do not live with mental illness and mental health issues. Three ways in which this plays out are in medical, criminal and gendered discourses and spaces. Positive representations of mental illness can have a positive impact, helping to de-stigmatize mental illness and humanizing its subjects.

====== Gender and Othering ======
Gendered representations of mental illness have the effect of othering or marginalizing those who do not conform to it. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon about the differences between men and women. The powerful legacy of sexist patriarchy has represented mental illness as more common and dangerous in the weaker, irrational, more emotional sex<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Tasca|first=Cecilia|last2=Rapetti|first2=Mariangela|last3=Carta|first3=Mauro Giovanni|last4=Fadda|first4=Bianca|date=19 October 2012|title=Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3480686/|journal=Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH|volume=8|pages=110-119|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>Representations of mental illness as particularly feminine serve to Other and marginalize women, and indeed these discourses served to institutionalize, control and disempower women. All throughout history, women who didn’t follow societal expectations were labelled with the disorder of ‘hysteria’<ref name=":8" />. This has the ongoing impact that mental illness is represented as a feminine issue. This leads to men to be less likely to seek mental health support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jaewoo|last2=Trudel|first2=Remi|date=8 January 2024|title=Man up! The mental health-feminine stereotype and its effect on the adoption of mental health apps|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1405|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|via=UBC Library}}</ref> and women to be further othered. Representation of women with mental illness in the media pushes this narrative that mental illness is often coded as feminine. Women suffering from mental illness are portrayed as insane<ref>Kretschmar, Kelly, Framing Femininity as Insanity: Representations of Mental Illness in Women in Post-Classical Hollywood. May 2007, 94 pp., references, 69 titles. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3654/m2/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf </ref> or as sad<ref>{{Cite book|title=21st Century Media and Female Mental Health|title-link=Https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16756-0|last=Thelandersson|first=Frederika|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-16755-3|pages=33-34|chapter=1}}</ref>. Research has also shown being gender nonconforming and not heterosexual, therefore not fitting into the expectation of heteronormativity have a significant negative impact on psychological well-being<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rieger|first=Gerulf|last2=Savin-Williams|first2=Ritch C.|date=25 February 2011|title=Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behaviour|volume=41|pages=611-621|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. An example of this is seen in the narrative of Maty, from the paper “Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas” by Dai Kojima, who suffers from ‘manic depression’ which has led him to leave school and rely on social support<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kojima|first=Dai|date=2014|title=Migrant Intimacies- Mobilities-in-Difference and Basue Tactics in Queer Asian Diasporas|url=https://muse-jhu-edu.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/article/544741|journal=Anthropologica|volume=56|pages=33-44|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. Maty does not identify as gay, but participates in knitting, which he feels makes him gay and makes him feel shame. Not conforming to society’s gender roles cause Maty to suffer more with his mental illness. '''(MAKE THIS MORE BROAD)''' The inherited sexism of a patriarchal society, means that the representations of gender and mental illness harm and other people.

====== Criminalization ======
Mental illness is also often represented as criminal, especially in the media. Rather than representing mental illness as holistically emerging from personal, societal, economic, political, and genetic factors, many representations produce mental illness as a disease or malignant deviancy and this further stigmatizes and marginalizes people in a community. Criminalization is the process in which a “phenomena historically controlled by medical authorities comes to be governed by the criminal law” <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Hoppe|first=Trevor|date=January 2014|title=From sickness to badness: The criminalization of HIV in Michigan|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953613005947?via%3Dihub|journal=Social Science and Medicine|volume=101|pages=139-147|via=Science Direct}}</ref>. This can be done in many ways such as during criminal trials, using sensationalized headlines which represent individuals as dangerous, jailing them for a longer than a typical offender, and framing mental illness as a moral, rather than medical problem. Mentally ill people are often criminalized and misrepresented. Often this misrepresentation stems from the media as scholar Norman Ghiasi notes: “The public perception of psychiatric patients as dangerous individuals is often rooted in the portrayal of criminals in the media as “crazy” individuals."<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/|title=Psychiatric Illness and Criminality|last=Ghiasi|first=Norman|last2=Azhar|first2=Yusra|last3=Singh|first3=Jasbir|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2023}}</ref> and “violent and criminal” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Madness: Public Images of Mental Illness|last=Wahl|first=Otto F.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1995|isbn=0813522129|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|pages=56-57|chapter=Chapter 4: Murder and Mayhem}}</ref>. This representation of mentally ill individuals is actively harmful to the community, because instead of being treated for mental illness, many mentally ill individuals are locked up, and incarceration becomes the government’s way of managing them. Studies have shown these representations of them as “violent and criminal” have long term effects and produce more stigma about them leading to real world consequences as ““People with mental illness are more likely to be a victim of violent crime than the perpetrator. This bias extends all the way to the criminal justice system, where persons with mental illness get treated as criminals, arrested, charged, and jailed for a longer time in jail compared to the general population”<ref name=":10" />. These representations of mentally ill people as violent and a public threat can also lead to their deaths, especially at the hands of police, where “1 in 4” fatal encounters with the police involve someone experiencing serious mental health issues<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fuller|first=Doris A.|date=2015|title=Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters|url=https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/reports_publications/overlooked-in-the-undercounted-the-role-of-mental-illness-in-fatal-law-enforcement-encounters/|url-status=live}}</ref>. The way the media portrays mental illness also has personal consequences, leading to people less likely to adhere to their medication schedules and to seek help when experiencing a crisis<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Stuart|first=Heather|date=29 August 2012|title=Media Portrayal of Mental Illness and its Treatments|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002|journal=CNS Drugs|volume=20|pages=99-106|via=Springer Link}}</ref>. By criminalizing people with mental health issues, they are placed in harm's way at both an individual and structural level.

====== Medicalization ======
There is also an issue of people with mental illness being medicalized, “the process through which social phenomena come to be regulated by medical authorities”<ref name=":9" />. When characteristics of people that are part of the human condition are represented as ‘unnatural’ and pathologized, this can lead to change in the way they are treated and further stigmatize an already othered group. Homosexuality is an example of a natural human behaviour that was further stigmatized after it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the diagnostic manual of mental illnesses primarily used in North America<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drescher|first=Jack|date=4 December 2015|title=Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695779/|journal=Behav Sci (Basel)|volume=5(4)|pages=565-575|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Mental illness is also viewed differently than physical illnesses, represented as being ‘all in one’s head’ which leads to mental illnesses not being taken as seriously as physical illness<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=John J.|date=7 April 2023|title=Yes, Its All in Your Head|url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/yes-its-all-in-your-head|journal=Psychiatric Times|volume=40(4)|pages=|via=Psychiatric Times}}</ref>. Many people suffering from mental illness “commonly report feeling devalued, dismissed, and dehumanized by many of the health professionals with whom they come into contact”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knaak|first=Stephanie|last2=Mantler|first2=Ed|last3=Szeto|first3=Andrew|date=16 February 2017|title=Mental illness-related stigma in healthcare|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5347358/|journal=Healthc Manage Forum|volume=30(2)|pages=111-116|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. This dehumanization and devaluation, especially from people that are supposed to help them further others mentally ill individuals. While mental illness is both a psychological and physical issue, over-medicalization of mental illness can lead to over-treatment, with many individuals prescribed medication they do not need, something that massive pharmaceutical companies want as it drives up their profits<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=PLOS Medicine Editors|date=28 May 2013|title=The Paradox of Mental Health: Over-Treatment and Under-Recognition|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3665855/#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%20is,the%20other%20hand%20exists%20profound|journal=PLoS Med|volume=10(5)|via=PubMed Central}}</ref>. Over-treatment harms occur when “normal life experiences (such as menopause, shyness, grief, etc.) are deemed illnesses or when diseases are “created” from mild problems and symptoms”<ref name=":12" />. Over-treatment has many downsides, such as unnecessary treatment, increased stigma, and extra costs of tests and treatment. Mental illness needs to be recognized and treated, not over-medicalized and treated as a social problem which is a part of medicalization.

====== Positive Representations ======
Although mental illness is represented poorly in many aspects of society, there is power that comes from positive portrayals - as research has shown. The use of media “may also be an important ally in challenging public prejudices, initiating public debate, and projecting positive, human interest stories about people who live with mental illness”<ref name=":11" />.When othered groups of people are able to represent themselves and protest on their own terms, this allows them to reclaim some of their power and to take back the stigma associated with their otherness. This type of fighting back against a system that misrepresents them is an act of resistance<ref name=":13">Hubbard, J. (Director). (2012). ''United in Anger : A History of ACT UP'' [Film]. Ford Foundation</ref>. This resistance can then lead to reduction of social stigma and even policy changes<ref name=":13" />. When people who are othered are able to represent themselves in their own way, they feel more empowered. By sharing stories, othered people hope that they can make a connection with others and this will lead to them getting the resources they need<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dana|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=78-101}}</ref>. This type of knowledge creation, which includes community members, is incredibly important in letting people represent themselves on their own terms, especially in groups that have been harmed by past research practices by systems meant to exploit them<ref name=":15">Laing, M. ''Conversations with Young Two-Spirit, Trans and Queer Indigenous People in Toronto'' [zine]. Toronto, Canada</ref>. By coming together and sharing the reality of their lives in their own authentic voices, othered people are taking their power back<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":15" /> <ref name=":14" />.

==Sex Work ==
Sex workers have long been placed in a controversial othered group fraught with assumptions of what working in the sex industry industry entails. By definition, sex work can be understood as the a commercial sexual service provided in exchange for material compensation typically as money<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|last=McCracken|first=Jill|date=2007|title=Listening to the language of sexworkers: An analysis of street sexworker representations and their effects on sexworkers and society|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304894923?%20Theses&sourcetype=Dissertations%20|url-status=live|access-date=March 2024|website=Proquest}}</ref>. How the public has come to understand sex work is though representation in the media, statistics/news on crime and violence, and public discourse. Defined by layers of stigma and stereotypes, the individual perspective of sex workers are not often considered thus their representation is at the hands of policymakers, academics, doctors, and those with greater social capital. Sex workers are a group to be talked about rather than talked with; they are objectified not just in terms of body and sex but also moral objects that need to be regulated, saved, and protected. Like many othered groups, sex workers are “publicly visible but unseen” and are seldom heard on their own terms <ref>{{Cite book|title=In Plain Sight: Reflections on Life in Downtown Eastside Vancouver|last=Robertson|first=Leslie|last2=Culhane|first2=Dara|publisher=Talonbooks|year=2005|isbn=0-88922-513-3|location=Vancouver|pages=7-19}}</ref>. This section will examine how representation is used as a tool in the marginalization of sex workers and the sites of knowledge production involved in the creation of their narrative.

====== '''Representation as othering''' ======
In terms of this section, those who are considered as “non- sex workers” are individuals or groups who have neither worked in the sex industry nor interacted with those who have/do in a way that has truly taken their story into account. This consists of many policy makers, social organizations, the medical field, academics, and the general public who have determined the needs of sex workers to serve political and social agendas.

The othering of sex workers begins with public discourse; whatever term is used– prostitute, sex worker, victim of sex trafficking– comes with a certain connotation. To focus on the word as an identification of an act serves as a way to identify and categorize certain individuals in a specific way that can play a role in reproducing stigma. <ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Coupas Desyalles|first=Moushoula|date=December 5, 2013|title=Representations of sex workers’ needs and aspirations: A case for arts-based research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363460713497214?utm_medium=discovery-provider&utm_source=summon&journalCode=sexa|journal=Sexualities|volume=16|pages=772-787|via=sage}}</ref> Whatever term is used and the choice of words surrounding sex work can be understood as a reflection of the speakers view point. Often referred to as prostitutes, Carol Leigh coined the term “sex work” to create a more tolerant atmosphere within the “women’s movement for working in the sex industry” and the broader public<ref name=":18" />. This term shifts emphasis from a moral understanding to a more economic description of the engagement of exchanging sex for material compensation <ref name=":19" />. However others, like radical feminist Sheila Jefferys, prefer the term “prostituted woman” or “survivor” to symbolize the lack of choice women have in their role in sex industry.<ref name=":18" />

Historical representations have contributed to the stereotyping and stigmatization of sex workers. These early views have influenced societal attitudes of sex work which has shaped political and social responses towards sex workers and their needs. In the early 1800s “prostitution” was seen as a moral, social, sanitary, and threat to the public and symbolized disorder and immoral pleasure.” <ref name=":19" />The church deemed sex workers “Fallen women” who needed to be saved by religion. This led to the development of the social reform narrative that places blame on the individual and suggests that some form of rehabilitation is in order. Social work reformers tended to employ an individualized treatment approach labelling women involved in the sex industry as “Wayward girls”, a cultural symbol of female deviance, who needed to repair themselves<ref name=":19" />.This ties in with more medical narratives that ties sex work with social problems like sexually transmitted diseases. Criminalization of sickness is used a method of social control of disease that employ layers of stigma, fear, and labels to place blame on "the other"<ref name=":9" />. Similarly to criminalization of AIDS/HIV that targeted gay men, sex workers are of used as a scapegoat for spread of infections which allows for the moral agenda of reform to imposed upon them. <ref name=":19" />

These representations of the needs of sex workers often have underlying aims: of protecting women’s sexuality, control illegal immigration, and mitigate criminal activities. When regulating sex work, policy makers often equate it to human trafficking or sexual slavery<ref name=":19" />. This narrative is a product from the early twentieth century when sex work was perceived as “white slavery” <ref name=":19" />. With increases in immigration, women were seen as naive victims being trafficked against their will at the hand of newcomers and thus they needed to be protected <ref name=":19" />. This can be seen as being related to early twentieth century efforts to make Canada a white settler nation in the racial anxiety that dedicated their decisions on immigration policies <ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Dua|first=Enakshi|date=July 24 2007|title=Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|journal=Gender, Place, & Culture|pages=445-466}}</ref>. In an effort to maintain “white purity”, restrictions were placed on white womens’ sexuality as they could not be “trusted to regulate themselves” from engaging in sexual activity with immigrant men<ref name=":20" />. Furthermore, the inclusion of immigrant women was seen as a solution to mixed race reproduction and as a way to protect white women against the immigrant man. The anti-trafficking approach towards sex work is a continuation of this governance of the female body and sexuality.

====== '''Inclusion in Representation''' ======
These public discussion on the ethics of sex work significantly lacked input and first hand accounts of the “everyday practice” and “ labour and workplace relation” of sex workers themselves .<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/viewer/493caa4b-67bb-44dc-b109-49fc56cddee1|title=Lineages and Advancements in Material Culture Studies|last=Jeevendrampillai|first=David|last2=Burton|first2=Julia|last3=Sanglante|first3=Eva|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-1-003-08586-7|editor-last=Carroll|editor-first=Timothy|chapter=Objects of desire: Sexwork and its objects|editor-last2=Wolford|editor-first2=Antonio|editor-last3=walton|editor-first3=shireen}}</ref> However sex workers have found ways to have their voice heard.

In the 1970s, sex workers began coming together in social movements and organizations in effort to speak for themselves and to claim their rights <ref name=":19" />. This gave rise to several narratives from within the community of sex work. Some organizations believed that sex work should be recognized and respected as form of work and denying one to choose to work in the sex industry is a violation of women’s civil rights <ref name=":19" /> COYOTE (Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was the first American sex workers rights organization and fought for the rights of sex workers and for sex work to be recognized as an “occupational choice” not a form of trafficking <ref name=":19" />. While other organizations like WHISPER (Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt) work in the sex work-as -violence framework and provide a space for women to share their stories working in the sex industry and receive support the harm they have experienced <ref name=":19" />.While there are different perspectives of sex work, the foundational goal is to provide spaces for sex workers to share their stories and to take political action; rights based organizations continue to emerge fighting to improve the working conditions and safety for sex workers all while trying to eliminate discrimination. <ref name=":19" />

Given the lack of voice and control sex works have over their representation and the repercussions that follow, “Objects of desire collective” was established with the aim of sharing their narratives of sex workers. Concerned with the form, content, and lack of understanding in public discourses surrounding sex work, the group of artists anthropologists, and sex workers compiled a collection of objects that had been given to or used by sex workers<ref name=":21" />. By creating these object biographies, they were able to represent the narratives and labour relations of sex work. Thus the curation and presentation of these objects develops openness, promotes questions and examines sites of knowledge production in the discourse surrounding sex work. <ref name=":21" />The collective is focus on the discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work. By challenging the objectification of sex workers as a group that needs to be managed, this exhibition channeled a discussion of labour rights and conditions that ensures the understanding of sex work as work.

A valuable tool in creating representation is through creative expression. Sex workers can not only tell their story but are able to shift the narrative of being “passive victims and social deviants” to “empowered artists, activists, and scholars” <ref name=":19" />. Through modes of art, they are able to express their unique experiences and identities emphasizing the variety of voices of pain, power, and hard work . This form of expression can provide sex workers with the opportunity to shape their representation by reaching broader audiences like academics, social organizations, and the general public.

Arts based research provides a space for sex workers to be involved in the creation of their own representation <ref name=":19" /> This creative expression and representation of research data can provide a more in depth understanding of the needs and aspirations of sex workers. One project that exhibits this is the photovoice methods implemented in study by Capous Desyllas in which eleven female sex workers of diverse backgrounds working in a variety of aspects of sex work were provided cameras to document their lives to better. The photographs provided “symbolic, emotional, and aesthetic responses” to Desyllas' questions about their needs and aspirations in addition to demonstrating how participants’ “multiple identities and social locations “shaped their unique experiences. Much like conducting interviews in In plain sight, the aims of this study were to give space for women who are not often “heard on their own terms”. However these more traditional methods of qualitative research have limitations in the ways participants are able to shape the stories themselves <ref name=":19" />. Arts based research has the power to give a voice to those who are often silenced by connecting research with lived experience and “making meaning through multiple senses and media”.

==Trans==

====== Definition of trans ======
Trans is an umbrella term used to describe both transgender and transsexual people as well as other gender identities including gender-fluid, agender, etc,<ref>Steinmetz, K. (2018, April 3). The OED added the word “trans*.” here’s what it means. Time. [[/time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/|https://time.com/5211799/what-does-trans-asterisk-star-mean-dictionary/]]</ref>. Often, transgender people are someone who does not identify the same as their assigned gender at birth. Meaning if someone who was assigned female at birth has a masculine self identification, they could identify themselves as transgender. On the other hand, transsexual are used for people who had medical treatment to be closer to their gender identity, often through hormones or surgeries. However, this division of pre-surgery and post-surgery are not a universal experience to all transgender/transsexual people<ref>Abrams, M. (2023, May 22). Is there a difference between being transgender and transsexual? Healthline. [[/www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined|https://www.healthline.com/health/transgender/difference-between-transgender-and-transsexual#transsexual-defined]]</ref>. Therefore, the umbrella term “Trans” is used not to be offensive or stigmatize anyone. Something to be careful here is that transgender/ transsexual is a gender identity, and it is a different thing from their sexuality.

====== Representation of trans people ======
When we look at trans representation, the media is the most remarkable one. Representation here refers to when trans people begun to be recognized as “trans” or “cross-dressing”, in other words, when they are visible in the mainstream society.

Susan Stryker points out in the Netflix documentary Disclosure that Judith of Bethulia, the 1914 film by D.W. Griffith can be one of the earliest films where a gender non-conforming character took place in<ref>Haynes, S. (2020, June 19). Disclosure director on Trans Representation Onscreen. Time. [[/time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/|https://time.com/5855071/disclosure-netflix-transgender-representation/]]</ref>. Because the gender norm is shaped by pink or blue, polarized male or female tropes everywhere and it is worn, visualized and chosen before even you are born, trans representation was erased and forced to put into either one gender binary<ref>Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Pink and blue forever. sex/gender. Routledge, pp. 123-125. [[/doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14|https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971-14]]</ref>.

However, even trans representation started to be seen in mainstream media, it was often seen as a Transjoke<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (6:34) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans actors were on stage often cross-dressed or mimicking the female body as a form of comedy. Trans representation has been used not for trans people to find themselves in it but for cisgender people to make fun of. In other words, trans people were introduced in the mainstream media as “others” that do not fit into the cisgender society, including them in the media representation but excluding them from the cisheteronormative society at the same time.

Although trans representation has increased, the more they are exposed, the more they are violated<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (1:37) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Visibility of trans people did not necessarily lead to empowering the community but instead, it puts them in more danger. This is widespread quickly since as the GLAAD research shows, 80% of Americans do not actually know any trans person personally<ref>Transgender media. GLAAD. (2024, January 26). <nowiki>https://glaad.org/transgender/</nowiki> </ref>. However this representation of trans people as a “joke” also affected trans people themselves. Most trans people themselves also do not grow up in an environment where trans people are around, so the only reference both cisgender and trans people have is what they see on medial<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (21:23) [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. It was quite clear that trans people were alienated and seen as extreme “others” of the society.

====== Trans masculinity representation ======
Trans masculinity is a term used for those assigned female at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is masculine but not necessarily male<ref name=":16">Gillespie, C. (2023, October 17). ''Transmasculine: What does having this identity mean?''. Health. <nowiki>https://www.health.com/mind-body/transmasculine</nowiki> </ref>. Although trans male and female ratio are almost the same just like cisgendered people, there are more trans women and women in general because they are seen as commodifiable assets<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (33:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Trans masculine representation was not well shown in the media at this time and even today. One example of trans masculine representation is the Original Plumbing magazines where lifestyles of trans men were shared but often in a hyper-sexualized way<ref>Original Plumbing. Internet Archive . (n.d.). <nowiki>https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Original+Plumbing%22</nowiki></ref>.

Although trans men identify themselves as men, it still does not fully fit the societal acceptance of masculinity which leads to the idea of trans masculinity as a form of othering from cisgender male society.

In addition, trans black men face more of this “othering” from their racial identity. Unlike white trans men being shown as elegant and polite in films, black trans men were portrayed as hyper-masculine, violent, and aggressive characters also seen as a predator to white womanhood. Often, these black trans characters were performed by white actors doing blackface. This same “protecting our women” rhetoric is used throughout history<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. (13:14). [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>.

In 1887, the Canadian federal government implemented the Act to Restrict Chinese Immigration. They saw the increase of Asian immigrants in Canada as a threat to Whiteness. At first they banned Asian women from entering the country to prevent them having “uncontrollable reproduction”. However, soon later they lifted the ban and accepted Asian women entering the country as a method for Asian men to stick with Asian women, and protecting white women from the threat of violence by Asian men. Although their race is different, the rhetoric of protecting white women from people of color can be seen here. Race works as othering trans black men from whiteness<ref>Dua, E. (2007). Exclusion through Inclusion: Female Asian migration in the making of Canada as a white settler nation. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(4), 445–466. [[/doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751|https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701439751]]</ref>.

====== Trans femininity representation ======
Trans femininity is a term used for those assigned male at birth and whose gender identity or expression (or both) is feminine but not necessarily female<ref name=":16" />. Once a trans person identifies as a woman, they face societal expectations of beauty and assumption of work.

Recently, trans celebrities like Laverne Cox and Caitlyn Jenner have been famous, popular, and become an icon of what it is to be trans<ref>Staff, T. (2014, May 29). ''25 transgender people who influenced American culture''. Time. <nowiki>https://time.com/130734/transgender-celebrities-actors-athletes-in-america/</nowiki> </ref>. In other words, the aesthetic of trans femininity is shaped by these well-known trans people, where a curved body feature with big breasts, blond long hair, and beautiful dress and makeup are what it is to be a trans woman. These beauty standards create an idea of “passing” where people start to see if trans individuals look trans enough or not. People who do not fit in these trans feminine looks are seen as excluded and not seen “real enough” to be a trans woman<ref>Faye, S. (2015, October 20). ''To be real: On Trans Aesthetics and Authenticity''. Verso. <nowiki>https://www.versobooks.com/en-ca/blogs/news/2293-to-be-real-on-trans-aesthetics-and-authenticity</nowiki> </ref>. Here, cisgender audiences are holding the power to decide who is trans women and who are not, and othering occurs.

In addition, trans feminine people face assumptions of their work as sex workers. Since trans woman faces occupational discrimination, many of trans women are forced to be in sex work industry. After media brought up the topic of trans femininity leading to sex work, trans women faced oppression from feminists. They argue that trans women are appropriating the female body and sex worker’s hyper-feminize their body as reinforcing patriarchy, harmful for womanhood, and degrading women<ref>Feder, S. & Scholder, A. (Producers). (2020, June 19). Disclosure [Documentary]. [[/www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247|https://www.netflix.com/ca-ja/title/81284247]]</ref>. Although they identify themselves as trans women, feminists exclude trans women from their womanhood seeing them as “other” aliens that threaten their rights and body.

====== Lack of representation within the LGBTQ+ community ======
Representations of trans people were not clearly visible or misinformed and disinformed throughout history, but trans people are not well represented in the LGBTQ+ community too. Trans people are othered from cisgender people and even within the queer community where they are supposed to belong to.

For instance, STAR (Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries) which was started by trans activists Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, the beginning of what we call "Pride" even today, were excluded by the gay rights movements. The National Women’s History Museum explains that the first pride parades started in 1970, but Rivera and other trans people were discriminated against, discouraged to participate, and not allowed to speak<ref>Rothberg, E. (2022). Sylvia Rivera. National Women’s History Museum. [[/www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera|https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera]]</ref><ref>YouTube. (2019, August 8). Sylvia Rivera, “Y’all better quiet down” original authorized video, 1973 Gay Pride Rally NYC. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mprUOGBWCvY</nowiki> </ref>.

In addition, even when studies and research are done on queer communities, trans people are not represented at all. Kojima<ref>Kojima, D. (2014). Migrant intimacies: Mobilities-in-difference and basue tactics in queer asian adiasporas : Queer anthropology. Anthropologica (Ottawa), 56(1), pp. 33-44.</ref> conducted research on queer Asians in Vancouver as immigrants but all of the research subjects were cisgender gay men and no trans person. “Queer” seems to be an inclusive term and it is, but when it comes to how it is represented in academic fields, trans people are invisible.

Trans people are underrepresented in the LGBTQ+ community and often seen as “others” of the “majority gay and lesbian population”.

==Colourism==
Colourism is a byproduct and sub-group of racism that utilizes social hierarchy as a result of colonialism to ascribe importance to a person depending on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone. The structure of colourism acts as “an extension of cultural stratification and is based on a system that consists of a dominant light-skinned Western and dominated dark-skinned non-Western populous”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|edition=1st|location=New York|page=20}}</ref>. In order to uphold a sense of power over newly freed black American people in the 19th century a new level of significance and authority was given to those with a lighter skin tone and the physical characteristics that were frequently associated with Eurocentric beauty standards. The Attractiveness and desirability of features such as straighter hair, narrower noses, and slender body types were given greater value and considered to be superior to darker skin tones, broader noses, and thicker body types, efficiently and effectively creating another way in which black people, black women especially, were purposefully discriminated against<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosario|first=R. Josiah|last2=Minor|first2=Imani|last3=Rogers|first3=Leoandra Onnie|date=14 July 2021|title=“Oh, You’re Pretty for a Dark-Skinned Girl”: Black Adolescent Girls’ Identities and Resistance to Colorism|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028218|journal=Journal of Adolescent Research|volume=36|issue=5|page=502|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. This in turn placed a great level of importance on those who possessed a proximity to whiteness, particularly because “according to the vestiges of colourism, [dark-skinned] people of colour were obviously not fit for civilization because they lacked the innate capacities of culture inherent in the capacities of colonial operatives”<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=19|edition=1st}}</ref>.

Due to this belief and their proximity to whiteness biracial and light-skinned black Americans were considered to have certain advantages and attributes over their dark-skinned counterparts. Characteristics like intelligence, attractiveness, and overall appeal were ascribed to their skin tone which then provided them with more occupational advantages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302889|title=Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Colorism: Beyond Black and White|last=Hall|first=Ronald, E.|publisher=Routledge|year=2022|isbn=9781000622256|location=New York|page=75|edition=1st}}</ref>. These advantages had great effects on how black women in particular were treated and contributed to the production of what is now a long history of biracial and light-skinned black women being given jobs and opportunities that could have and should have been given to dark-skinned black women, particularly in the film industry.

====== '''Femininity, Gender, and Sexuality''' ======
Western ideals of femininity along with the production of exclusionary Eurocentric beauty standards played very large roles in the ostracization of dark-skin women from portraying their own stories and histories. Completely rooted in European standards and notions of gender roles, “emphasized femininity is ‘the pattern of femininity which is given most cultural and ideological support… patterns such as sociability… compliance… and sexual receptivity to men”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Currier|first=Danielle M.|date=16 July 2013|title=Strategic Ambiguity: Protecting Emphasized Femininity and Hegemonic Masculinity in the Hookup Culture|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213493960|journal=Gender & Society|volume=27|issue=5|page=706|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>. All of these are traits that are to this day never linked with black women who are at large considered to be loud, over-opinionated, and hyper-masculine. Emphasized femininity is very often considered to be a reaction to hegemonic masculinity which “is the form of masculinity that is most highly valued in society and is rooted in the social dominance of men over women and non-hegemonic men (particularly homosexual [and black] men)”<ref>{{Cite journal|date=|title=|url=|journal=|volume=|issue=|page=|via=}}</ref>.

In the film industry and especially in Hollywood, femininity is a vital product on account of the fact that it sells well and because of this fact the people who will be chosen to take part are those who can subscribe to the expected portrayals of how gender is supposed to look. These Eurocentric concepts of how gender is supposed to be performed are based on the perceptions of what is it to be human, a category that is almost exclusively ascribed to the hegemonic male, the “Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, bourgeois male”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wade|first=Ashleigh Greene|date=1 August 2017|title=“New Genres of Being Human”: World Making
through Viral Blackness|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1330108|journal=The Black Scholar|volume=47|issue=3: Black Code|page=34|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a category that distinctly excludes black women in every facet of its meaning. Rooted in whiteness, accepted displays of femininity fall in line with proximity to whiteness, which is mixed and light-skin black women, as they are considered to possess at least some traits of a ‘civilized person’ by default due to the tone of their skin.

Going hand in hand with lacking the title of ‘human,’ for much of North American history black women were not considered to be women at all. What is considered to be markers of gender, psychological and behavioural traits that are designated as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine,’<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> often do not coincide with stereotypical behaviours that are often associated with black women, therefore putting their position as women into question. When such fields of thought about gender as psychological and behavioural are applied by experts in multiple fields, including medicine, psychology, the social sciences, and the humanities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=5|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>, a list of certain criteria is formed. In film, when looking for people to fill roles representing feminine characters the people that suit the supposed criteria of performing the gender of a woman are the natural choice. “Gender is used to point to social factors (social roles, position, behaviour)”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karkazis|first=Katrina|last2=Jordan-Young|first2=Rebecca|last3=Davis|first3=Georgiann|last4=Camporesi|first4=Silvia|date=13 June 2012|title=Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=12|issue=7|page=6|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref> and this adherence to a biased standard works to automatically eliminate dark-skinned black women, those who do not fit the made-up criteria of a feminine woman, from even being in the running for consideration, firmly placing them in a disadvantaged position in the industry.

There are many black women that have features that do not suit the Eurocentric ideal of feminine beauty, and there are also a lot of black women who do. Regardless of this fact, all dark-skinned black women are placed in the same category of an ‘other’ type of woman rooted in racism as these beauty standards and gender ideals are designed to purposefully leave them out. This leaves very limited spaces for black women in film, having the majority of available roles showcase unfounded and sometimes harmful stereotypical characters such as the ‘loud best friend’ or the ‘angry black woman.’ Many other depictions focus on the promiscuity of the character and there are many films throughout Hollywood history that limit characters of women of colour to their desirability and ability to attract men<ref name=":17">Kamal-Eldin, Tania (Director). (1999). ''Hollywood Harems'' [Film]. Women Make Movies.</ref>. This shows that for such characters to have strength or power, they must be attractive enough to hold power over a man’s desire, but to do so they must fit the criteria of the beauty standards.

====== '''A Single Story''' ======
Films telling stories that are based on real-life dark-skinned historical figures like The Harder They Fall<ref>Samuel, Jeymes (Director). (2021). ''The Harder They Fall'' [Film]. Overbrook Entertainment.</ref> or films that are based on books featuring a dark-skinned main character like The Hate U Give<ref>Tillman, George Jr. (2018). ''The Hate U Give'' [Film]. 20th Century Fox.</ref> (cite) are just a couple of examples of roles in films that should exclusively be given to dark-skinned black women but are often not. Hollywood has a long history of using white models to portray roles that are meant for people of colour as white women with a hint of exoticism were what was appealing to audiences. In hiring biracial and light-skinned actresses in place of dark-skinned actresses, like Zazie Beets (The Harder They Fall) or Amandla Stenberg (The Hate U Give), films are able to skirt the line of ‘representation’ while still being able to uphold it’s Eurocentric beauty standards.

Film is an effective tool that can used to influence the general population into believing and subscribing to a certain way of thinking and viewing other peoples and cultures and “by lumping various cultures together, American cinema fabricate[s] a collective portrayal… undifferentiated by cultural plurality”<ref name=":17" />. In using one type of person to portray an entire people, a “single story”<ref>Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2009, July). ''The Danger of a Single Story'' [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story </ref> (cite) is formed, a linear narrative that does not properly represent the experiences of the people being depicted. This completely overtakes true stories and experiences of the people being portrayed and this new image becomes the narrative that is repeated and believed to be true by the audience. In using mostly lightskin actors to portray dark-skinned characters, the risk of telling a single story presents itself as the histories and stories become altered and taken over by inaccurate representations

==Reference==
List of the references here.
<references />
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