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Glacier Retreat and Salmon Habitat in Canada’s Changing Climate

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Overview of Glacier Retreat and Habitat Creation

Bear Glacier in British Columbia

Glacier loss is a global problem, but Canada is one of the regions that is most directly impacted, along with regions of the Russian-Arctic, Alaska, Greenland and the Arctic.[1] The Canadian Arctic and coastal mountains of Western Canada are experiencing rapid glacier loss, but Western Canada specifically (in addition to regions of the Western US and Europe) are projected to have complete or partial deglaciation as early as 2050.[1] Although the full or partial melting of glaciers has detrimental implications, history has shown that glacial retreat can benefit species such as salmon through the creation of new salmon breeding grounds and territory.[2] However, hospitable salmon habitat depends on the region and specific phases of deglaciation.[3] While the rapid melting of glaciers does provide the somewhat short-term benefit of increased salmon habitat, the long-term threat of glacier depletion and resource exploitation could ultimately be catastrophic to salmon populations.[3][4] Salmon are not only a vital species for ecosystems, but are culturally and economically significant for many communities worldwide. As the climate continues to change in Canada and around the world, strategies need to be put in place for long-term ecological, social and economic stability.[4] In Canada specifically, there are promising potential solutions to managing these threats through collaboration with Indigenous Peoples and by adopting more dynamic and adaptable policies.[5]

Current State of Salmon Populations

Salmon populations are closely tied to the condition of their freshwater and marine habitats, which must provide cool, well-oxygenated water, stable stream flows, and suitable gravel for spawning. Climate change and environmental disturbances are becoming an increasing threat to the stability of hospitable salmon habitat. For example, glacial retreat alters the physical and ecological characteristics of streams, influencing water chemistry, nutrient transport, and the availability of suitable fish habitat.[6] Earlier spring snowmelt and runoff also changes the timing and volume of stream flows that salmon depend on for migration and reproduction.[7] In addition, glaciers such as the Harding Icefield, which supplies much of the runoff to Alaska’s Kenai River, have thinned significantly over recent decades, altering the watershed hydrology.[7] These changes impact stream temperatures, water levels, and sediment movement, ultimately affecting Salmon survival and contributing to declines in some populations as climate conditions shift and habitats become less stable.

Glacier fed tributaries

Recent research also highlights how glacial retreat is reshaping the distribution of salmon populations by gradually opening new river systems that were previously covered by ice.[6] As glaciers recede, newly exposed valleys and stream channels may eventually support salmonid colonization once hydrological conditions stabilize and aquatic food webs develop.[6] Early stages of these systems are often dominated by unstable channels and limited biological productivity, but ecological succession can increase habitat suitability over time.[6] Studies modelling future watershed changes suggest that continued glacier retreat in western North America could expose thousands of kilometres of new streams that will potentially be accessible to migrating salmon populations later in the century.[3] These emerging habitats may play an important role in shaping the future geographic range of salmon populations as environmental conditions continue to shift.

Ideal Salmon Habitat

In order for salmon to survive and reproduce, they require specific environmental conditions. Ideal salmon habitat is typically clear, cool, and well-oxygenated rivers with low to moderate gradients and substrates made up of gravel, cobble, and boulders.[8] Spawning occurs specifically in gravel beds with moderate current and depth.[9] Temperature is one of the most important factors because it strongly influences the growth and survival of salmon offspring; optimal growing conditions occur when water temperatures exceed around 7.0 °C, with lethal limits around 27.8 °C.[10][11][8] Salmon occupy a range of environments throughout their life cycle, including freshwater rivers, lakes, and estuaries, although habitat preferences can vary between populations.[12] In addition to physical conditions, water chemistry is also critical, as salmon can tolerate freshwater pH levels above 5.4, while more acidic conditions (≤ 5.0) can disrupt key developmental processes such as smolting and adaptation to seawater.[11] Together, these factors highlight the importance of stable, cool, and chemically balanced aquatic environments for supporting healthy salmon populations.

Value and Cultural Importance of Salmon

Cultural Importance of Salmon

Salmon are culturally significant for Indigenous Peoples as they are used not only for food but also for social, ceremonial, and commercial purposes. For some Indigenous groups, their physical well-being is closely dependent on the abundance of salmon. Salmon provide feelings of pride, satisfaction, and security to many tribal members.[13] Salmon also play a major role in the social life of these communities, as they are central to events such as community dinners, funerals, and fundraisers, all of which help bring people together and strengthen connections.[13] Many tribal communities view salmon as a critical part of their culture, and they are heavily used in traditional cooking, where food preparation reflects the passing down and preservation of traditional knowledge.[13] In addition to their cultural significance, salmon are also globally important, as they are the primary species used in the salmon farming industry and represent a major part of the seafood sector, with over 1.4 million tons of Atlantic salmon raised each year.[14]

Ecological Importance of Salmon

Bear eating salmon during spawning

Salmon are an integral part of many ecosystems and support both aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity, as well as nutrient cycling. Salmon are an important species for rivers, forests, estuaries, and lakes, and are also indicators of ecosystem health.[14]  Salmon support these ecosystems by altering nutrient cycles, species interactions, and even physical conditions in streams during spawning.[15] When salmon spawn, they disturb the stream bed, which can reduce biofilm and the biomass of larval invertebrates. Salmon alter the nutrient cycles by transferring nutrients from the ocean into fresh water and terrestrial ecosystems when they return to spawn.[15] When salmon die, the terrestrial plants then take up the nutrients left behind. For example, nitrogen isotopes in plants increase in areas where salmon densities are high. Salmon are also a very important food source that many animals, such as bears and birds, rely on for nutrients.[15]

Overview of the Current and Historical State of Glaciers

Worldwide, there are more than 275,000 glaciers; these glaciers, in addition to ice sheets, store approximately 70% of the world’s freshwater.[16] Over the last six years, rapid glacier retreat has become an ever growing concern for the human, plant and animal populations that depend on glacial meltwater, especially during the hot, dry months of Canadian summers.[16]

In Canada, the mountains of the west coast are projected to lose more than 80% of their glacier volume by 2100, with the most dramatic glacier losses occurring in Arctic regions, where ice sheets are melting at an increasingly rapid rate.[1] The glaciers of the Canadian Arctic, in addition to the Russian arctic, Alaskan Archipelago, Antarctic, and Greenland ice sheets currently experience the greatest amount of loss by volume.[1] According to reports from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS), there are many regions where the part of a glacier once called the “eternal ice” will not survive the 21st century.[16]

Phases of Glacier Retreat

Glacier retreat

The four phases of glacier retreat, as presented by Pitman et al.[17] are important in understanding the implications of salmonid habitat formation as a result of glacier retreat.

Phase 1

Phase one of glacier retreat is characterized by the vast ice coverage of watersheds and the formation of new streams created by glacier meltwater.[17] In these early phases of glacier retreat, the streams that are formed are not very hospitable to salmon due to the instability of the river channels, braiding of river systems, high levels of sediment and cold water temperatures related to the abundance of glacier meltwater.[17]

Phase 2

In phase two of glacier retreat, the defining characteristics include “peak water run off” and increased valley floor exposure, which increases potential salmon habitat and influences river formation.[17] Glacier meltwater still continues to contribute to the high turbidity levels and cold water temperatures that are not optimal for salmon habitat.[17] While these conditions are not conducive to salmon rearing or embryo development, the formation of moraine lakes during this phase does mitigate the downstream effects of glacier runoff by decreasing sediment and water flow.[17] Therefore, the formation of moraine lakes during this phase provides a buffer from the glacier runoff and creates a more hospitable salmon habitat downstream.[17] Additionally, the river branches at this phase are historically well used by salmon due to the groundwater that feeds them.[17]

Phase 3

Phase three is characterized by glaciers retreating further back and up into steeper terrain that is inaccessible to salmon.[17] This phase does not result in the creation of more salmon habitat, however, it is the phase with the most optimal stream condition for salmon.[17] During this phase, there is a decrease in glacier runoff that results in less sediment (decreased turbidity), stabilized channels, stabilized river banks and warmer, more stable water temperatures.[17] Riparian forests also mature at this phase, further stabilizing the river banks and contributing woody debris to the streams that enhance salmon breeding habitat.[17]

Phase 4

Phase 4 is characterized by complete deglaciation.[17] The complete loss of a glacial headwater eliminates the effects of glacier runoff on downstream habitat but also has negative impacts on salmon habitat.[17] The biggest impact being the lack of glacier meltwater to stabilize water levels and temperature during the hot and dry months of summer.[17] The decrease in water levels poses a risk to salmon migration patterns and increases the frequency of hypoxic events in streams with high salmon populations.[17] Overall, "complete glacier loss results in challenges related to salmon habitat quality and quantity, but it will be strongly influenced by local context and adaptations".[17]

Impacts of Glacier Retreat on Salmon Populations

Positive Impacts

A recent study by Dr. Pitman et al. suggests that glacier loss in coastal British Columbia and Alaska has the potential to open up thousands of kilometres of new breeding and spawning habitat for Pacific salmon.[3] While the impact of glacier retreat and loss is complex, this aspect of climate change and glacier depletion is hopeful for the future of salmon populations if managed correctly.

It is estimated that by the year 2100, glaciers within the coastal BC and Alaska region will have retreated so much that nearly 6,146 kilometre of new streams will be accessible for Pacific salmon colonization, and approximately 1,930 kilometre of those streams will be suitable spawning habitat.[3] In some locations, just 1 kilometre of newly formed salmon habitat has the potential to produce approximately 500 – 1500 juvenile coho salmon.[3] For example, in a study analyzing the pink salmon populations in the newly formed Stonefly Creek of Glacier Bay, Alaska, it was discovered that within 10-15 years of the glacier's retreat, multiple salmonid species had already inhabited the newly formed creek.[2] This shows that newly deglaciated streams can quickly become functional salmon habitat and that salmon are highly capable of establishing populations in new locations.[2]

Negative Impacts

Depending on the region of the glacier retreat, salmon populations may benefit, but there could also be detrimental consequences due to the decrease in glacier meltwater. For example, in southern arid regions with warm rivers (more than 15°C), glacier meltwater is vital for mitigating water temperature and water levels; the decreased influx of cold water could render those rivers inhospitable.[18][17] Conversely, a decrease in glacier runoff to cold rivers (below 5°C) can lead to an increase in water temperature that may create more favourable water conditions and increase juvenile salmon populations in those rivers.[19]

Historically, salmon populations have survived several climate crises, but maybe none as drastic as anthropogenic climate change.[20] Ultimately, the impact of glacier retreat on salmon habitat is complicated, with a range of interactions to consider related to change-induced stressors such as ocean, heat waves, ocean acidification, sea level rise, and droughts.[3] Additionally, human activity such as resource extraction can destroy newly formed salmon habitat before salmonid species even have time to use it. [3] Mineral claims are already being staked on areas still covered by ice, and mines are being approved in newly deglaciated areas.[3]

Current Solutions to Protect Future Habitat

While there is no current unified policy within Canada to specifically address the protection of future salmon habitat, there are many projects and policies that focus on protecting salmon in the face of a changing climate.[4] These projects and policies include Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs), the Pacific Salmon Strategy Initiative (PSSI), restoration projects, Environmental Impact Assessments, and increasing support of Indigenous-led adaptations. All of the projects and policies presented show promising ways to tackle the protection of salmon habitat, but it will take a union of many different strategies to ensure that salmon and their habitat are protected for generations to come.

Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs)

In Canada, Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs) are lands and waters that are primarily protected and conserved by Indigenous Peoples.[21] IPCAs are defined by a First Nation’s vision for the lands and waters within their territories based on traditional governance systems and ways of knowing.[22] In IPCAs, any ongoing development or management is guided by Indigenous culture, interests, and leadership.[21] The characteristics of these protected areas vary as each Indigenous group decides the priorities and management of their specific land.[21][22] This means that the management of the land can be entirely Indigenous-lead, or could include a co-management plan between Indigenous communities and various levels of government/organizations, depending on what the First Nations in the area believe is best for the land.[21] IPCA is not an official designation, and therefore there is no policy or legislation used to establish or enforce these areas.[21] However, governments in Canada officially recognize the rights of Indigenous Peoples to declare IPCAs and manage their land in traditional ways.[21][22] In Canada, First Nations groups have already declared multiple IPCAs that prohibit mining in newly formed salmon habitat. It is unclear if Canadian governments will respect these IPCAs as time goes on, but they could provide a promising strategy to prevent the development of newly exposed land due to glacial retreat.[4]

The Wilp Wii Litsxw Meziadin Indigenous Protected Area (MIPA)

The Meziadin Indigenous Protected Area (MIPA) was established in 2021 by the Wilp Wii Litsxw, a group of Indigenous Peoples within the Gitanyow Nation. MIPA protects over 50,000 hectares of critical spawning habitat for sockeye, coho, and chinook salmon within the Nass River Watershed in Northern BC.[23] The Nass River and its tributaries are glacier-fed, and in 2016, the Gitanyow Nation observed that a tributary of the Nass River, Strohn Creek, saw a significant increase in salmon spawning activity further upstream as glaciers retreated.[24] The Gitanyow recognized the importance of this new spawning habitat and sought to expand already existing provincial conservation areas, but the provincial government said it could not be done due to mineral tenures that had already been granted in the Nass River watershed without Gitanyow knowledge or consent. In response to the lack of action by the provincial government, the Wilp Wii Litsxw exercised Gitanyow Ayookxw.[23] Gitanyow Ayookxw is the supreme law of the Gitanyow Nation, and is based on a foundation of thousands of years of relationship, experience, and practice on the land.[25] Exercising this supreme law allowed the Nation to establish MIPA independently, utilizing both Western science and traditional knowledge to address climate change challenges. The Meziadin Indigenous Protected Area operates under a specific management plan that prohibits certain activities in the area in the interest of the long-term health of the salmon and the ecosystem.[23]

Restoration Projects

Pacific Salmon Strategy Initiative (PSSI)

The Pacific Salmon Strategy Initiative (PSSI) was launched in 2021 to protect, conserve, and restore wild Pacific salmon in British Columbia and Yukon. On April 7, 2026, the Government of Canada announced an additional $412.9 million to continue actions to protect and restore wild Pacific salmon under the PSSI for another 5 years.[26] The government of Canada's “3 pronged approach” addresses the impacts of climate change on Pacific Salmon populations through collaborative emergency response, scientific research, and large-scale habitat restoration to ensure populations can thrive. As outlined in this initiative, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) works with First Nations and various stewardship groups to manage climate-related emergencies that may affect salmon populations. The PSSI also uses technology like the "Salmon Fit-Chip" to monitor salmon health and identify stressors in shifting marine and freshwater environments. Scientists use Fit-Chips as a health check-up on individual salmon, monitoring things like pathogen infections, disease, stressors, smolt status, and nutritional status. The government has also invested in monitoring and modelling of many freshwater systems to track conditions that affect salmon survival.[27] Since 2021, the program has worked with over 443 partners, including First Nations and Indigenous Fisheries organizations, to restore over 15.7 million square metres of salmon habitat.[26] While this strategy does not explicitly mention glacial retreat as a threat to salmon populations, their work is very important in the monitoring and repair of current and future salmon habitat.

Respectful Returns

Canada's Respectful Returns initiative is a collaboration between Parks Canada and Indigenous communities that focuses on restoring damaged waterways in 7 national parks, including Pacific Rim and Gwaii Haanas in British Columbia, as well as several parks in Atlantic Canada. In 2024, the initiative was recognized by the United Nations as a World Restoration Flagship, highlighting how reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples goes hand in hand with conservation to create resilient ecosystems and communities. Through a blend of Western Science and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, the project has restored over 228 kilometres of waterways and 65,000 hectares of land with the goal of protecting salmon and their habitat. In all but one of the project sites, salmon populations are already on the rise.[28] This nation-wide initiative provides a blueprint for the management, restoration, and long-term monitoring of salmon habitat that could be applied to the whole of Canada as new salmon habitat becomes available.

Support Of Indigenous-Led Adaptations To Changing Landscapes

In many places across Canada, there is increasing support by governments and government organizations for Indigenous-led adaptations to managing salmon populations.

The Columbia River Salmon Reintroduction Initiative (CRSRI)

The Columbia River Salmon Reintroduction Initiative (CRSRI) represents an important path forward as we navigate how to protect vulnerable salmon habitat from the long-term ecological damage caused by industrial development. The project is an Indigenous-led collaboration between the Syilx Okanagan Nation, Ktunaxa Nation, and Secwépemc Nation, working alongside the governments of Canada and British Columbia to return salmon to the upper Columbia River. For over 80 years, dams have blocked salmon from using the river for spawning and migration, which cut off both the ecosystems and the people upstream from the salmon that they relied on for survival. The CRSRI plans to sustainably reintroduce salmon to waters upstream of the current dams in hopes of re-establishing historical populations. "The Columbia River Salmon Reintroduction Initiative offers new beginnings while acknowledging the past. It prompts necessary reflection and action to support self-determination and decolonization."[29] Restoring salmon populations upstream of the dams is also important because if new habitat becomes available through glacial melt, the salmon will be able to reach that habitat. If successful in the long-term, the project could also provide a blueprint for how to restore salmon populations in areas that have been significantly altered by human use, which may be the case in some of the mineral claims that are being revealed by melting glaciers.

Environmental Impact Assessments

In Canada, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are legally required before a mine (or any major project that may have environmental impacts) is made functional.[4][30] EIAs are a tool used to predict and mitigate any effects that major projects may have on the environment, and assess whether or not the project should be allowed to proceed. This is supposed to ensure that any work being done does not cause detrimental impacts to the surrounding environment.[4][30] Environmental Impact Assessments are governed by the government of Canada’s Impact Assessment Act, and are designed to ensure sustainability and respect the rights of Indigenous Peoples by integrating scientific data and Indigenous knowledge into decision-making.[30] While mining claims staked on emerging salmon habitat do go through both provincial and federal assessments, current laws do not require that future habitat value or climate change predictions be factored into the assessment of environmental risk. Additionally, in BC, once a mining project is deemed "substantially started," the project is granted the rights to continue development in perpetuity. In the context of newly exposed salmon habitat, these nuances pose significant challenges because the true future value of the newly exposed land is often ignored. To truly be an effective habitat protection strategy, Environmental Impact Assessments will need to consider climate change forecasts and future habitat values.[4]

Looking Forward: What Needs To Be Done?

It is easier to protect potential habitat now than to restore it in the future, and by recognizing the future value of potential salmon habitat revealed by melting glaciers, we can take the actions needed today to ensure stable salmon populations in the future. Under current laws, the areas revealed by glaciers are often claimed by mining companies before the ice even finishes melting, and hundreds of kilometres of future salmon habitat have already been staked by mining companies for mineral exploration. In this rapidly changing climate, it is important to make sure there are measures in place to manage the new salmon habitat that will form and to ensure salmon populations thrive as the climate changes.[4]

Policy Reforms

Urgent policy reforms are needed to ensure the protection of future salmon habitat. One of the most important aspects is ensuring that policies put in place are dynamic and adaptable in the face of the rapidly changing climate. Climate change is causing increasingly unpredictable weather events and environmental changes, so it is vital that we create policies that can adapt and change alongside the issues they address.[4]

Updating the Mineral Tenure Act

Modernizing the Mineral Tenure Act (MTA) is an important step in ensuring the protection of newly formed habitats. Under the current “free-entry” system in Canada, companies and individuals can stake mining claims through an online portal for a small fee. This process occurs without any consultation with First Nations or environmental experts. As a result, mining companies are already claiming future salmon habitat before the ice melts, securing management rights to the land before it is even available.[4] To address this issue in Canada, the B.C. government has committed to reforming the MTA to align with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).[31] The new Mineral Tenure Act will require consultation with the Indigenous Peoples of a land before any claims are made, and include their voices in the management decisions SOURCE. After a 2023 Supreme Court ruling, the province launched the Mineral Claims Consultation Framework (MCCF) to bridge the gap while the MTA is rewritten. A finalized consultation framework was implemented in March 2025 to ensure that First Nations are consulted before mining claims are registered.[32] By updating the MTA and its processes, the province and First Nations can designate potential spawning grounds and salmon habitat as off-limits to industry before stakes are claimed, ensuring that these emerging habitats are preserved for their future ecological value.[4][31]      

Salmon Hatcheries

Salmon Hatcheries Effect on Genetic Diversity

Salmon hatcheries are a very important mechanism to increase salmon populations for the general public to consume. But in turn have had many negative ecological effects on native wild salmon populations. One main concern is how the two populations will affect each other once they breed. It may cause wild populations to see a decrease in their genetic diversity. The hatchery salmon population experiences different selection pressures than wild salmon.[33] This is mainly due to them experiencing crowding, direct feeding, and an absence of predators.[33]

Salmon Hatchery

Hatchery populations are produced from a few parent fish. They are also typically raised in controlled environments, which could lead to lower genetic diversity. This would most likely cause salmon to not be able to adapt to environmental changes, such as warming water temperatures.[34] Many studies have shown that salmon hatcheries are able to develop genetic differences from wild populations in just a few generations due to their domestication selection in hatchery environments.[35] Once these hatchery fish return to rivers and inevitably spawn with wild salmon, this would pose a severe risk to the wild salmon's ability to adapt to changing environments.[35] Hatchery fish may also have lower reproductive success in natural environments, which would in turn decrease the capacity of salmon populations.[33] Many genetic studies show measurable divergence in as little as a few generations.[35] Even after around 7 generations, researchers found distinct genomic regions through selection between hatchery and wild populations.[36] Hatchery fish become genetically adapted and dependent on captivity, and cannot thrive in the wild. Many studies have found that hatchery fish often stray into natural spawning grounds and breed with wild salmon.[36] This has led to genetic homogenization and reduced population differences between rivers. Many wild populations have lost locally adapted traits critical for survival.[36] Another concern addressed is if continued interbreeding between these two populations could cause an overall decline in fitness for wild salmon.[37] This can cause something called “fitness dilution,” where wild salmon will slowly become diluted with hatchery salmon, and their genetics overall become diluted. This has recently increased as a problem, since nearly 5 billion salmon are released by hatcheries each year in just the North Pacific Coast area.[38] This massive input can overwhelm wild gene pools even if each hatchery's effect is small.[38] Although hatcheries can increase fish numbers for the general population, the long-term effects of reducing genetic diversity, disruptions of local adaptation, and diluting wild populations have had significant impacts on wild salmon, and better solutions must be made to ensure adaptation to the changing climate.

Solutions

There are a few solutions to help protect wild salmon from genetic diversity loss, one common one being only using local brood stock from the same river system.[35] Larger breeding populations have also been found to maintain diversity that is similar to the wild populations, and it also reduces inbreeding. Another solution is to monitor genetics more continuously.[39] For instance, using genomic tools to track introgression diversity levels. This technique is recommended by fisheries and science agencies.[39] One way to address the issues of salmon hatchers is to create salmon artificial spawning channels designed to support natural reproduction for salmon.[5] These channels have been shown to increase spawning success. They also provide controlled conditions for salmon eggs and juvenile salmon.[5] They have helped to support populations while maintaining more natural processes than hatcheries alone.

Incorporating Indigenous Perspectives Into Land Management

The inclusion of Indigenous perspectives on salmon fisheries has become increasingly important for conservation efforts. Many Indigenous communities in British Columbia have had a long-standing relationship with salmon as a species. They are known as a cultural keystone species today in northwestern North America.[40] Their long-standing understanding of salmon and ecological knowledge has proven to be very helpful for land management. “We deliver funding for Indigenous partners to support sustainable fisheries, fish and fish habitat restoration and stewardship, build community capacity and assist in economic development.”[41] Many collaborative management approaches that include Indigenous leadership have helped the salmon habitat. “Lands and waters where Indigenous governments have the primary role in protecting and conserving ecosystems through Indigenous laws, governance, and knowledge systems.”[42] The IPCAS has returned land autonomy and governance to First Nations and has planned on early provisions for early engagement among the government and local indigenous groups.[40] As environmental changes such as glacier retreat alter salmon habitats, the combination of scientific research with Indigenous knowledge will be important for developing effective long-term conservation strategies.[7] Combining scientific research with Indigenous knowledge can lead to more effective policies that protect salmon populations and maintain the ecological and economic importance of Pacific salmon in Canada.[43]

Conclusion

Wild Pacific Salmon Run

The retreat of glaciers across Canada represents a complex environmental paradox: on one hand, it signals a global environmental crisis, while on the other, it is creating thousands of kilometres of potential new spawning habitat for salmon populations. The future of this potential habitat is caught in an equally complicated place. Before new habitat is even uncovered, it is claimed by mining companies that will undoubtedly render the land unusable by salmon. Salmon populations are threatened across Canada by the changing climate and habitat loss, and their very specific requirements for spawning grounds mean that it is essential to their future survival that spawning habitat is protected. While there are projects across Canada that focus on enhancing the health of salmon populations and their habitat, there is no unified policy across the nation to address the impacts that glacial retreat and mining will have on salmon. As demonstrated by the Gitanyow Nation’s establishment of the Meziadin Indigenous Protected Area, Indigenous law and traditional knowledge provide a holistic and future-oriented protection strategy. Ensuring that Indigenous land rights are at the forefront of policy is essential in developing long-term, unified conservation strategies. Ultimately, the future of salmon populations in Canada's changing climate depends on our ability to update policy at the speed of environmental change and ensure that new habitat is protected before being lost to industrial encroachment.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Radic, V., Bliss, A., Beedlow, A. C., Hock, R., Miles, E., & Cogley, J. G. (2014). Regional and global projections of twenty-first century glacier mass changes in response to climate scenarios from global climate models. Climate Dynamics, 42(1–2), 37–58.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Milner, A. M., Robertson, A. L., Brown, L. E., Sønderland, S. H., McDermott, M., & Veal, A. J. (2011). Evolution of a stream ecosystem in recently deglaciated terrain. Ecology, 92(10), 1924–1935.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Pitman, K. J., et al. (2021). Glacier retreat creating new salmon habitat in western North America. Nature Communications, 12, 7142. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26897-2
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 Moore, J. W., Pitman, K. J., Whited, D., Marsden, N. T., Sexton, E. K., Sergeant, C. J., & Connor, M. (2023). Mining stakes claim on salmon futures as glaciers retreat. Science, 382(6673), 887–889. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adj4911
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Canadian Government EBook Collection, & Canada. Department of Fisheries and Oceans. (2023). Wild salmon policy 2018-2022 implementation plan: Five-year review. Fisheries and Oceans Canada = Pêches et océansCanada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2023/mpo-dfo/Fs23-616-1-2023-eng.pdf  
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Cowie, N. M., Moore, R. D., & Hassan, M. A. (2014). Effects of glacial retreat on proglacial streams and riparian zones in the Coast and North Cascade Mountains. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 39(3), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3453
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Schoen, E. R., Wipfli, M. S., Trammell, E. J., Rinella, D. J., Floyd, A. L., Grunblatt, J., McCarthy, M. D., Meyer, B. E., Morton, J. M., Powell, J. E., Prakash, A., Reimer, M. N., Stuefer, S. L., Toniolo, H., Wells, B. M., & Witmer, F. D. W. (2017). Future of pacific salmon in the face of environmental change: Lessons from one of the world's remaining productive salmon regions. Fisheries, 42(10), 538-553. https://doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2017.1374251
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Canada, E. and C. C. (2011, October 4). Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) COSEWIC assessment and status report: Chapter 9 [Assessments;research]. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/cosewic-assessments-status-reports/atlantic-salmon/chapter-9.html
  9. ↑ Fleming, I. (1996). Fleming IA. Reproductive strategies of Atlantic salmon: Ecology and evolution. Rev Fish Biol Fish 6: 379-416. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish, 6, 379–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00164323
  10. ↑ Garside, E. T. (1973). Ultimate upper lethal temperature of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. https://doi.org/10.1139/z73-135
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Amiro, P. G. (2006). Synthèse de la situation de l’habitat d’eau douce et des besoins du saumon atlantique (Salmo salar) au Canada. https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/library-bibliotheque/329488.pdf
  12. ↑ Armstrong, J. D., Kemp, P. S., Kennedy, G. J. A., Ladle, M., & Milner, N. J. (2003). Habitat requirements of Atlantic salmon and brown trout in rivers and streams. Fisheries Research, The Scientific Basis for Management of Salmonid Stocks in the British Isles, 62(2), 143–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-7836(02)00160-1
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Amberson, S., Biedenweg, K., James, J., & Christie, P. (2016). “The Heartbeat of Our People”: Identifying and Measuring How Salmon Influences Quinault Tribal Well-Being. Society & Natural Resources, 29(12), 1389–1404. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2016.1180727
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Salmon: Biology, Ecolgical Impacts and Economic Importance. (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2026, from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Lopez-Angulo/publication/285763291_Possible_use_of_waste_products_from_the_Salmon_industry_Properties_of_Salmon_gelatin/links/57430b2d08aea45ee84a7c9c/Possible-use-of-waste-products-from-the-Salmon-industry-Properties-of-Salmon-gelatin.pdf#page=11
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Walsh, J. C., Pendray, J. E., Godwin, S. C., Artelle, K. A., Kindsvater, H. K., Field, R. D., Harding, J. N., Swain, N. R., & Reynolds, J. D. (2020). Relationships between Pacific salmon and aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems: Implications for ecosystem-based management. Ecology, 101(9), 1–16.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Glacier melt will unleash avalanche of cascading impacts. (2025, March 17). World Meteorological Organization. https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/glacier-melt-will-unleash-avalanche-of-cascading-impacts
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 Pitman, K. J., Moore, J. W., Sloat, M. R., Beaudreau, A. H., Bidlack, A. L., Brenner, R. E., Hood, E. W., Pess, G. R., Mantua, N. J., Milner, A. M., Radić, V., Reeves, G. H., Schindler, D. E., & Whited, D. C. (2020). Glacier Retreat and Pacific Salmon. BioScience, 70(3), 220–236.
  18. ↑ Martins, E. G., Hinch, S. G., Patterson, D. A., Hague, M. J., Cooke, S. J., Miller, K. M., Robichaud, D., English, K. K., & Farrell, A. P. (2012). High river temperature reduces survival of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) approaching spawning grounds and exacerbates female mortality. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 69(2), 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1139/f2011-154
  19. ↑ Fellman, J. B., Nagorski, S., Pyare, S., Vermilyea, A. W., Scott, D., & Hood, E. (2014). Stream temperature response to variable glacier coverage in coastal watersheds of Southeast Alaska. Hydrological Processes, 28(4), 2062–2073. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9742
  20. ↑ Fisheries, N. (2025, October 7). West Coast Salmon Vulnerable to Climate Change, but Some Show Resilience to Shifting Environment | NOAA Fisheries. (West Coast). NOAA. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/west-coast-salmon-vulnerable-climate-change-some-show-resilience-shifting-environment
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Canada Conservation. (2025, December 16). IPCA - Canada Conservation. https://canadaconservation.ca/home/indigenous-leadership/ipca/#:~:text=What%20are%20Indigenous%20Protected%20and%20Conserved%20Areas?,National%20Park%20Reserve%20and%20Territorial%20Protected%20Area.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Indigenous Circle of Experts. (n.d.). Indigenous protected and conserved areas. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/natural-resource-use/land-water-use/crown-land/land-use-plans-and-objectives/factsheets/factsheet_indigenous_protected_and_conservedareas.pdf
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs. (2023, September 19). Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs | Meziadin Indigenous Protected Area. https://www.gitanyowchiefs.ca/wilp-sustainability/meziadin-indigenous-protected-area/
  24. ↑ Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs. (2023, December 1). New salmon habitat created by melting glaciers could be threatened by mining claims, study finds. https://www.gitanyowchiefs.ca/news/new-salmon-habitat-created-by-melting-glaciers-could-be-threatened-by-mining-claims-study-finds/
  25. ↑ Coast Funds. (n.d.). Gitanyow Nation. https://coastfunds.ca/first-nations/gitanyow-nation/
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Fisheries and Oceans Canada. (2026, April 7). Pacific salmon strategy initiative: Results from the first phase (2021–2026). Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/fisheries-oceans/news/2026/04/pacific-salmon-strategy-initiative-results-from-the-first-phase-20212026.html
  27. ↑ Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Communications Branch. (2025, June 5). Our three-pronged approach to address impacts of climate change on Pacific salmon populations. https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/campaign-campagne/pss-ssp/stories-articles/2025-climate-change-changement-climatique-eng.html
  28. ↑ UN Decade on Restoration. (2024, February 13). Canada’s Indigenous-led salmon recovery named UN World Restoration Flagship. https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/canadas-indigenous-led-salmon-recovery-named-un-world-restoration-flagship
  29. ↑ Columbia River Salmon Reintroduction Initiative. (2024). Indigenous-led vision: Bringing the salmon home. https://columbiariversalmon.ca/
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Legislative Services Branch. (2025, June 2). Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Impact Assessment Act. https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-2.75/page-1.html
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Citizen Engagement Site Template. (2025, August 14). What is Mineral Tenure Act reform? - Mineral Tenure Act Reform. Mineral Tenure Act Reform - Government of British Columbia. https://engage.gov.bc.ca/mtareform/about-the-engagement/
  32. ↑ British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Low Carbon Innovation. (n.d.). Mineral claims consultation framework. Government of British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/mineral-exploration-mining/mineral-titles/mineral-claims-consultation-framework
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Fisheries, N. (2024, March 8). Cracking the code: Scientists use DNA to examine differences between hatchery and wild chinook salmon in Southeast Alaska. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/cracking-code-scientists-use-dna-examine-differences-between-hatchery-and-wild-chinook
  34. ↑ Withler, R., Bernatchez, L., Rougemont, Q., van Doornik, D., Crane, P., Génétique Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage (GenPhySE), Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse (ENVT), Institut National Polytechnique (Toulouse) (Toulouse INP), Université de Toulouse (UT)-Université de Toulouse (UT)-Institut National Polytechnique (Toulouse) (Toulouse INP), Université de Toulouse (UT)-Université de Toulouse (UT)-École nationale supérieure agronomique de Toulouse (ENSAT), Institut National Polytechnique (Toulouse) (Toulouse INP), Université de Toulouse (UT)-Université de Toulouse (UT)-Ecole d'Ingénieurs de Purpan (INP - PURPAN), Institut National Polytechnique (Toulouse) (Toulouse INP), Université de Toulouse (UT)-Université de Toulouse (UT)-Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement (INRAE), Normandeau, E., Garza, J. C., Moore, J., Beacham, T., ANR-11-INBS-0013,IFB (ex Renabi-IFB),Institut français de bioinformatique, . . . Naish, K. (2020). Demographic history shaped geographical patterns of deleterious mutation load in a broadly distributed pacific salmon. PLoS Genetics, 16(8), e1008348. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1008348
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Howe, N. S., Hale, M. C., Waters, C. D., Schaal, S. M., Shedd, K. R., & Larson, W. A. (2024, February 14). Genomic evidence for domestication selection in three hatchery populations of Chinook salmon, oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Evolutionary applications. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10866082/
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 May, S. A., Shedd, K. R., Gruenthal, K. M., Hard, J. J., Templin, W. D., Waters, C. D., Adkison, M. D., Ward, E. J., Habicht, C., Wilson, L. I., Wertheimer, A. C., & Westley, P. A. H. (2024). Salmon hatchery strays can demographically boost wild populations at the cost of diversity: Quantitative genetic modelling of alaska pink salmon. Royal Society Open Science, 11(7), 240455-18. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.240455
  37. ↑ Reproductive success improves after a single generation in the wild for descendants of some hatchery-origin chinook salmon. Newsroom. (2024, April 16). https://news.oregonstate.edu/news/reproductive-success-improves-after-single-generation-wild-descendants-some-hatchery-origin
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 ScienceDaily. (2024, July 12). Hatcheries can boost wild salmon numbers but reduce diversity, studies find. ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/07/240711215511.htm?utm_source
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Fisheries, N. (2025, June 20). Atlantic Salmon (protected): Science: NOAA fisheries. Science | NOAA Fisheries. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-salmon-protected/science
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Christopher J. Sergeant et al.(2022) ,Risks of mining to salmonid-bearing watersheds.Sci.  Adv.8,eabn0929.DOI:10.1126/sciadv.abn0929
  41. ↑ Government of Canada, F. and O. C. (2019, April 5). Reconciliation in British Columbia and the Yukon | Pacific Region | Fisheries and Oceans Canada. https://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/reconciliation/reconciliation-pacific-pacifique-eng.html
  42. ↑ In Canada, Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs) are lands and waters that are primarily protected and conserved by Indigenous Peoples
  43. ↑ Criddle, K. R., & Shimizu, I. (2014). The economic importance of wild Pacific salmon. Salmon: biology, ecological impacts and economic importance Nova Science Publishers, 269-306. Government of Canada, F. and O. C. (2019, April 5). Reconciliation in British Columbia and the Yukon | Pacific Region | Fisheries and Oceans Canada. https://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/reconciliation/reconciliation-pacific-pacifique-eng.html


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