Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2025/Youth Engagement in Cocoa-Based Agroforestry Systems in Ondo State, Nigeria: Opportunities, Challenges, and Pathways for Sustainable Development

Positionality Statement

As an international student from Nigeria with a background in forestry and a Master of International Forestry at UBC, my positionality directly shapes how I interpret and analyze youth participation in cocoa agroforestry systems in Ondo State. My familiarity with Nigerian cultural norms, economic realities, and labour dynamics in agricultural communities provides both insights and limitations to this analysis.

I recognize the cultural expectations placed on young people in rural farming communities, the structural pressures driving rural-urban migration, and the generational dynamics that govern land access and farm decision-making. However, this familiarity does not grant me the authority to speak on behalf of the farmers, youths, elders, or extension agents whose lived experiences directly shape this sector. Their voices, challenges, and aspirations are complex and multifaceted, often extending beyond what academic literature can capture.

This case study is grounded in academic literature, secondary data, and peer-reviewed research rather than primary fieldwork. My analysis reflects a developing interest in sustainable agroforestry, rural livelihoods, and youth engagement within forest-related value chains—areas increasingly critical to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).

My goal throughout this analysis is to understand the systemic and governance barriers to youth participation, rather than to represent or generalize the lived experiences of rural communities. Where limitations exist in the available literature, I acknowledge them. I recognize that context-specific solutions require deeper engagement with youth and farming communities themselves.

Abstract

Ondo State, Nigeria, is the nation's leading cocoa producer, contributing approximately 70% of Nigeria's annual cocoa production and 12% of global cocoa supply . Cocoa production supports over 200,000 rural households in the state and represents a critical source of foreign exchange earnings and food security. However, the sector faces a critical sustainability challenge with less than 5% of cocoa farmers in Ondo State are under 30 years old, and the average farmer age is 52 years, with plantation ages averaging 47 years .

This demographic crisis—characterized by an aging farming population and aging infrastructure—threatens the long-term viability of the cocoa sector. Despite strong evidence that cocoa agroforestry systems offer economic viability agroforestry yielding an average 750 kg/ha compared to 630 kg/ha in monoculture systems , environmental benefits, and livelihood opportunities, youth engagement remains persistently low. The causes are not a lack of economic opportunity or environmental benefit, but rather systemic governance barriers, land tenure restrictions, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to credit and modern farming technologies.

This case study employs a governance analysis framework to examine why youth engagement in cocoa agroforestry remains low despite sector viability. It synthesizes evidence from peer-reviewed studies conducted in Ondo State and neighboring cocoa-producing regions to identify the institutional, structural, and economic barriers to youth participation.

Keywords: Youth Engagement, Cocoa Agroforestry, Governance Barriers, Land Tenure, Aging Farming Population

History and Description of Cocoa Agroforestry in Ondo State

Map of Nigeria showing Ondo State.

Historical Development of Cocoa Production

Ondo State is located in Nigeria (latitude 5°4850' – 8°8150' N and longitude 4°8450' – 6°8000' E). The state's topography features both lowlands and hills. It experiences a tropical monsoon climate characterized by two main seasons: the rainy season (April–October) and the dry season (November–March). Humidity levels are elevated during the rainy season and decrease during the Harmattan phase of the dry season. The soils in this area are identified as ferruginous tropical soil (Alfisol) derived from the crystalline rock of the basement complex.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) was introduced to Ondo State in the early 20th century and rapidly became integrated into the region's agricultural economy. The crop thrived in the state's tropical rainforest ecology, with favourable temperature, humidity, and rainfall conditions—ideal for cocoa cultivation. Over more than a century, cocoa production evolved from a colonial-era commodity to a cornerstone of Nigeria's rural economy and an essential source of foreign exchange.

Ondo State became dominant cocoa-producing region in Nigeria, accounting for approximately 70% of national cocoa production. This position was consolidated through generations of farmer knowledge, established trade networks, and favorable environmental conditions. By the late 20th century, cocoa farming had become part of its social fabric, cultural identity, and economic security of rural communities across the state.

The sector's economic significance is substantial with cocoa contributing 12% to global production, generating 2% of Nigeria's national export earnings, and directly or indirectly supports over 200,000 rural households. For many families, cocoa farming represents the primary or sole source of cash income, enabling investment in education, healthcare, and housing.

Traditional Integration with Shade Trees

A Cocoa Tree

Traditional cocoa agroforestry systems in Ondo State are characterized by the integration of cocoa trees with different shade and support tree species. Rather than monoculture cocoa plantations, farmers have historically retained or planted indigenous and exotic tree species to provide shade, protect soil, enhance biodiversity, and generate secondary income sources.

Some of the common shade tree species used included Indigenous timber species like Milicia excelsa (Iroko), Khaya ivorensis (African mahogany), Celtis zenkeri, Fruit trees such as Mangifera indica (mango), Citrus sinensis (orange) and Cola nitida (kola nut). Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Ficus exasperata and other species providing erosion control and soil stabilization.

These multi-strata systems provide multiple ecosystems and livelihood benefits which includes:

Environmental Benefits

• Shade regulation, reducing temperature extremes and protecting young cocoa plants
• Soil conservation through reduced erosion and litter fall maintaining soil organic matter
• Biodiversity conservation, with cocoa agroforests serving as fauna refuges and wildlife corridors
• Carbon sequestration in soil and biomass, with sparse agroforestry systems storing organic carbon at 5.67% in surface soils (0-15 cm)—significantly higher than monoculture systems.

Economic Benefits:

• Diversified income from timber, fruit, and other tree products
• In some regions, shade-derived products (timber and fruit) contribute 20-57% of total household income.
• Reduced dependency on cocoa price volatility through income diversification
• Potential for carbon credit and ecosystem service payments

Social and Cultural Benefits:

• Retention of indigenous knowledge systems and cultural tree species
• Maintenance of traditional farming practices aligned with ecological stewardship
• Food security through diverse tree products (fruits, nuts, medicinal plants)

Aging Farms and Declining Productivity

Despite the historical success and proven benefits of cocoa agroforestry, the sector currently faces a critical challenge which is the aging of both farmer populations and cocoa plantations. Approximately 75% of cocoa farmers in Ondo State are aged 41-80 years , while the average plantation age is 47 years, with many farms 50 plus years old.

Aging cocoa plantations face compounding problems:

• Declining yields: Old cocoa trees produce lower pod quantities and quality, with technical efficiency operating 16% below the frontier.
• Increased pest and disease susceptibility: Older trees are more vulnerable to black pod disease, cocoa swollen shoot virus, and other pathogens, with pest and disease attacks representing the highest production risk.
• Soil degradation: Decades of cultivation without adequate soil amendments have depleted soil fertility
• Infrastructure decay: Shade trees have been selectively harvested, many agroforestry systems have reverted to near-monoculture, and the structural benefits of diverse shade have diminished

The result is a vicious cycle: low productivity, low profitability, and declining attractiveness to younger generations who perceive farming as economically unviable.

Description of Youth Involvement in Cocoa Production

Historical Youth Roles in Cocoa Farming

Youth participation in cocoa farming has been a part of Ondo State agriculture for generations, particularly within household-based systems where farming knowledge and responsibilities are transmitted intergenerationally. Historically, young people (defined here as individuals aged 15-40 years) contributed essential labour to cocoa production activities, though their roles have been constrained by age, gender, and household hierarchy.

Traditional youth roles in cocoa production have included manual removal of competing vegetation, harvest processing, pesticide and herbicide application, pre-planting cultivation, drying and storage. However, youth participation has historically been characterized by limited ownership, decision-making power, and income control. Young people typically worked as household labour members rather than as independent farm managers or landowners. Income from cocoa sales was controlled by household heads (typically elder males), and young people had limited control over farming decisions or investment in improved technologies.

Present Youth Participation in Cocoa Farming

The current picture of youth involvement in cocoa farming presents a sharp contrast to historical patterns. Presently, youth participation rates are critically low as less than 5% of cocoa farmers in Ondo State are under the age of 30. In comprehensive studies, only 2.86% of farmers were aged 30 or younger. Among 204 farm youth studied in Ondo State, the average age was 33.67 years indicating that "youth" participation is concentrated among older youth (early 30s) rather than the younger ones.

Those youth who participate in cocoa farming typically exhibit the following characteristics:

• Male-dominated: 76% of participating farm youth are male.
• Married: 73% of farm youth are married, suggesting that participation is associated with household formation rather than individual choice.
• Limited independence: Most participate as household members rather than independent farm owners
• Moderate commitment: 76% are only moderately involved in cocoa plantation resource management practices, with only 5.4% highly involved.
• Income supplementation: 66.2% of youth engage in other occupations alongside cocoa farming to earn income, indicating that cocoa alone does not provide sufficient livelihood security.

Push and Pull Factors

The progressive decline in youth participation cannot be attributed to a single cause but rather reflects interconnected push and pull factors operating at household, community, regional, and national levels.

Push Factors (Discouraging Cocoa Farming):

• Poor Rural Infrastructure and Amenities.
• Low Profitability and Economic Vulnerability.
• High Production and Marketing Risks.
• Restricted Land Access.
• Limited Access to Credit and Modern Technologies.
• Perceived Social Status of Farming.

Pull Factors (Attracting Youth Away from Farming):

• Urban Employment Opportunities.
• Education and Skills Development.
• Information and Networks.

Gender Dimensions of Youth Involvement

Youth participation in cocoa farming is heavily gender bias. Evidence consistently reveals that male youth are significantly more likely to participate in cocoa farming than female youth, reflecting broader gender norms and labour divisions in agricultural systems. Some studies showed that 76% of farm youth involved in cocoa are male and that male farmers comprise 88.1% of the cocoa farming population. Female youth on the other hand, when involved, are concentrated in post-harvest activities (drying, bean extraction) rather than field operations.

Gendered barriers to youth female participation include:

• Physical demands of field work conflicting with reproductive and domestic roles
• Limited inheritance rights and land access relative to males
• Cultural norms restricting female independence in agricultural decisions
• Gendered wage gaps and limited control over cocoa income

Understanding and addressing gender dimensions of youth participation requires specific strategies recognizing these structural constraints.

Institutional context of Cocoa Agroforestry

National Cocoa Governance Framework

Cocoa governance in Nigeria involves multiple institutional actors operating at federal, state, and community levels. The structure reflects Nigeria's federal governance system, post-liberalization market economics, and the influence of international cocoa trade dynamics.

Key Cocoa Governance Institutions:

1.  Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN)

• Mandated to conduct research on cocoa production, pest management, and variety development
• Develops improved cocoa seedlings and agronomic recommendations
• Limited capacity to reach smallholder farmers directly; primarily serves through extension services

2.  Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs)

• State-based extension delivery organizations
• Provide technical advisory services, input distribution, and farmer training
• Identified as closest to cocoa farming communities but often characterized by irregular contact and limited resources.

3.  Federal Ministry of Agriculture and State Ministries of Agriculture

• Policy formulation and implementation
• Coordination with development partners and international organizations
• Resource allocation for agricultural programs

4.  Cocoa Exporters Association and Marketing Organizations

• Private sector actors involved in cocoa trade
• Influence market prices and export regulations
• Often characterized by exploitative practices toward smallholder farmer.

Historical Context: Liberalization and Its Impacts (1980s onwards)

In the 1980s, Nigeria liberalized its cocoa sector, removing government price controls and government-managed marketing boards. This structural transformation dramatically altered farmer incentives and market dynamics. Farmers received relatively stable, government-set prices; the marketing board provided input distribution and output marketing services. They were exposed to international price volatility; eliminated subsidy systems; increased dominance of private middlemen in cocoa value chain. While liberalization increased export volumes, it shifted risk toward farmers and concentrated profits in trader hands, leaving farm-gate prices suppressed and farmer incomes vulnerable to global price shocks. This liberalization fundamentally altered the profitability and perceived viability of cocoa farming, particularly for younger generations evaluating agricultural careers.

Agroforestry Governance Structures

Unlike cocoa production, which has explicit institutional governance, cocoa agroforestry (the management of shade trees within cocoa systems) lacks a unified national policy framework. Governance of agroforestry operates through fragmented, overlapping jurisdictions:

Forest Reserve Management:

• Cocoa farms within forest reserves (e.g., Idanre Forest Reserve in Ondo State) fall under state forest administration regulations
• Rules may restrict shade tree harvesting, conversion to monoculture, or expansion into reserve areas
• Enforcement is often weak due to limited state forestry capacity

Farmer-Driven Management:

• For cocoa farms outside reserves, shade tree management is primarily farmer-driven and owner-determined
• Decisions reflect personal preferences, market incentives, extension advice, and cultural values
• Management varies dramatically across farms, ranging from dense agroforests (>15 shade trees per plot) to near monoculture.

Influencing Factors on Shade Tree Management

• Land tenure security: Farmers with secure tenure more likely to invest in long-term agroforestry systems
• Extension services: The Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP) contact and training influence adoption of agroforestry practices
• Market incentives: Timber and fruit prices influence decisions to retain or plant shade trees
• Cultural preferences: Traditional knowledge and cultural values shape tree species selection
• Climate concerns: Increasing recognition of climate regulation benefits of shade trees

The absence of state-level agroforestry strategy means that cocoa agroforestry benefits (carbon sequestration, biodiversity, soil conservation) are uncompensated. Farmers do not receive payments or incentives for ecosystem services provided by shade trees, unlike emerging carbon credit schemes in some countries.

A study shows how state and corporate actors often frame agroforestry mainly as a technical fix for cocoa productivity and climate goals, rather than as a tool for farmer agency and food sovereignty , suggesting that Ondo’s emerging agroforestry strategy should explicitly be centered on farmer and youth priorities, including staple food production.

Land Tenure Arrangements

Land tenure represents one of the most significant structural barriers to youth engagement in cocoa agroforestry. The land tenure system in Ondo State is characterized by customary/communal ownership, inheritance-based access, and limited youth independent land access.

Land Tenure Patterns in Ondo State

• Inheritance (65%+): Majority of cocoa farms were inherited from parents or other relatives.
• Leasing (25–30%): Significant minority lease land from customary owners, often on short-term or informal arrangements
• Purchase (5–10%): Very few cocoa farmers purchased land through formal market mechanisms.

Some of the identified youth land access barriers are inheritance Limitations, land purchase barriers, leasing arrangements, and implications for agroforestry investment.

Governance of Farmer Groups and Cooperatives

Farmer cooperatives and social groups play significant institutional roles in cocoa production, though their governance structures often limit youth participation and benefit.

90–99% of cocoa farmers belong to social organizations, with 42% being cooperative members. These cooperatives facilitate input access (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides), information sharing, collective marketing, and access to government assistance

Governance Gaps:

• Elder-Dominated Leadership
• Information and Benefit Access
• Credit Access Barriers
• Youth Organizing Outside Cooperatives

Cocoa cooperatives represent a major institutional asset for connecting farmers to inputs, information, and markets, but governance structures that exclude youth representation mean that youth do not benefit equally from cooperative platforms, and cooperative policies do not address youth-specific constraints.

Management of Cocoa Agroforestry Systems

Management Aims

Cocoa agroforestry management in Ondo State is guided by multiple, sometimes overlapping objectives that reflect ecological, economic, and social priorities.

Primary Management Aims:

• Increasing Cocoa Productivity and Quality: Cocoa yields in agroforestry systems average 750 kg/ha compared to 630 kg/ha in monoculture, a 19% productivity advantage.
• Enhancing Biodiversity Conservation: Agroforests serve as wildlife corridors and refuge areas within deforested landscapes. 45 tree species were identified in 21 hectares of cocoa agroforests, compared to lower diversity in monoculture.
• Improving Soil Carbon Storage and Ecosystem Services: Sparse agroforests with large shade trees store highest organic carbon in surface soils (5.67% TOC in 0–15 cm layer)
• Reducing Pests and Diseases: Shade regulation reduces conditions favoring certain cocoa pathogens. Improved air circulation through mixed cropping reduces fungal disease incidence.
• Expanding Farmers' Income Through Multipurpose Shade Trees
• Strengthening Household Labour Systems
• Building Climate Resilience (Emerging Objective)

Given the aging farmer population and low youth participation, youth inclusion in cocoa agroforestry has emerged as a new management objective. Incorporating youth into management decision-making and farm operations is increasingly recognized as essential to system sustainability.

Successes and Challenges

Successes: Evidence of Agroforestry Performance

Economic Viability:

• Agroforestry systems demonstrate superior productivity: 750 kg/ha vs. 630 kg/ha in monoculture (+19% yield advantage).
• Income from shade trees (timber, fruit) provides diversification, contributing 20–57% of household income in some regions.
• Reduced input costs through natural shade regulation and organic matter supply.
• Long-term profitability enhanced through soil conservation and reduced degradation.

Environmental Benefits:

• Sparse agroforests store significantly higher organic carbon (5.67% TOC) compared to dense agroforests (2.86%) and monoculture systems.
• High particulate and mineral-associated organic carbon fractions indicate both short-term soil quality and long-term carbon storage
• Carbon sequestration potential aligns with climate change mitigation objectives
• Biodiversity conservation: 45 tree species identified across surveyed farms, with 42 species across Ekiti farms, including conservation-priority species (Khaya, Iroko).

Production Practices Integration:

• Family labour remains primary source (81.4% of farmers), reducing production costs.
• Farmer Business School (FBS) participation demonstrates positive outcomes on productivity and technical efficiency when available.
• Cooperative membership (90%+) provides institutional framework for knowledge and input access.

Challenges: Structural and Operational Barriers

Demographic Crisis:

• Aging farmers: 75% of cocoa farmers aged 41–80 years; mean age 52 years
• Aging plantations: Average plantation age 47 years; many 50+ years old with declining productivity
• Low youth participation: <5% under age 30

Consequence: Sector lacks generational renewal capacity; knowledge and innovations may be lost

Youth Disengagement:

• Low youth interest due to poor rural amenities (electricity, water, healthcare, education)
• Rural-urban migration driven by low profitability and white-collar job aspirations
• Limited independent land access due to tenure systems
• Income insecurity and high cost of entry

High Production Risks:

• Pests and disease: Black pod disease alone causes 44% global cocoa production losses; pest and disease attacks rank highest production risk.
• Weather dependency: Climate variability and extreme events (droughts, floods) threaten yields
• High input costs: Fertilizers, pesticides, labour expensive relative to cocoa prices
• Old farming methods: Only 8.3% of farmers adopt new technologies; outdated practices limit productivity.

Market Risks and Exploitation:

• Middleman exploitation: Highest marketing risk; farmers receive small share of final product value.
• Price volatility: Cocoa prices fluctuate globally; farmers cannot predict income
• Inconsistent pricing systems: Lack of transparent pricing mechanisms
• Lack of market information: Farmers disadvantaged in price negotiations
• Post-liberalization impacts: Removed price controls and marketing board supports leave farmers vulnerable.

Land Tenure Restrictions:

• Limited independent land access for youth
• Inheritance systems restrict land to certain household members
• Leasing arrangements provide inadequate tenure security for long-term agroforestry investment
• Small average landholdings (1–2 hectares in some regions) insufficient for viable commercial farming

Limited Mechanization and Technology:

• Outdated farming tools and methods limit productivity and competitiveness
• Limited availability of improved cocoa seedlings and modern disease-resistant varieties
• High cost of mechanization beyond the reach of smallholder farmers
• Extension services weak and irregular, limiting technology transfer

Weak Extension Services:

•  ADP contact irregular and insufficient.
• Limited extension agents relative to farmer numbers
• Poor extension agent-farmer contact identified as major constraint.
• Extension training not tailored to specific roles (gender, age) or local contexts

Financial Barriers:

• Limited access to agricultural credit due to collateral requirements and lending discrimination
• Personal savings as primary funding source (51.4% of farmers), limiting farm expansion and investment.
•  Lack of formal credit history prevents youth access to credit
• Inadequate funds for purchasing improved seedlings, fertilizers, and mechanization

Declining Soil Fertility:

• 76.7% of cocoa farmers do not use fertilizers, leading to soil nutrient depletion.
• Historical land use has degraded soil in many regions
• Remediation requires investment and knowledge.

Assessment of Governance of Cocoa Agroforestry in Ondo State

Cocoa agroforestry governance in Ondo State is characterized by strong informal and community-level institutions but weak formal policy frameworks and strategic coordination. Governance strengths provide foundation for intervention, but critical policy and institutional gaps prevent effective youth engagement or strategic agroforestry development.

Cooperatives and social organizations are active and well-integrated into cocoa farming communities, but governance structures within these institutions exclude youth and limit policy responsiveness to youth-specific barriers. Similarly, agroforestry knowledge and practices are well-established, but absence of formal agroforestry policy means these practices are not strategic, incentivized, or linked to ecosystem service payment mechanisms.

Strengthening governance requires both institutional reform (cooperative youth inclusion, agroforestry policy development) and strategic investments (extension services, youth-targeted credit, land access schemes) that leverage existing social capital while filling critical policy gaps.

Recent work on cocoa agroforestry governance in Ghana argues that many “sustainability” schemes primarily secure cocoa supply for downstream companies while giving farmers limited voice over shade regimes, food production, and land‑use trade‑offs . This raises a warning for Ondo that new agroforestry policies should be co‑designed with farmers and youth to avoid similar top‑down biases.

Recommendations

Addressing the youth engagement crisis in cocoa agroforestry requires multifaceted governance reforms and strategic investments operating across five complementary domains. These recommendations are grounded in the evidence presented in this case study and aligned with sustainable development objectives.

Strengthening Youth Access and Incentives

• Establish Community-Managed Land Access Schemes for Youth
• Establish Youth Cocoa Hubs
• Establish Youth-Targeted Agricultural Credit Facility

Recommendations for policymakers and researchers to address food insecurity, improve equity, and foster more dynamic and resilient cocoa agroforestry systems.

Governance Reforms

• Institutionalizing Agroforestry into State Forestry Policy
• Develop Cocoa-to-Ecosystem Services Payment Scheme

Improvement of Production and Extension Services

• Expanding Farmers' Business School (FBS) Participation for Youth
• Provide Modern Agroforestry Training

Strengthening Market and Value Chain Support

• Reduce Middleman Exploitation Through Direct Farmer-to-Exporter Linkages
• Develop Local Cocoa Value-Addition Centers for Youth Entrepreneurship.

Climate and Ecosystem Services

• Incentivize Shade-Tree Planting and Maintenance
• Promote Carbon Credit Schemes for Youth-Led Agroforestry.

Conclusion

The crisis of youth disengagement from cocoa agroforestry in Ondo State is not primarily an economic or environmental problem, it is a governance problem. Cocoa agroforestry offers demonstrable economic viability (750 kg/ha yields and 20–57% supplementary income from shade trees), multiple environmental benefits, and livelihood security when managed sustainably. Yet youth participation remains persistently low. This case study has demonstrated that the barriers to youth participation are fundamentally structural and institutional, not attitudinal.

These barriers are not inevitable. They reflect policy choices, governance structures, and institutional arrangements that can be reformed through deliberate action. The recommendations presented in Section 8 are designed to address each identified barrier through governance reforms, strategic investments, and institutional strengthening.

Critically, these recommendations must be understood as systemic interventions, not isolated projects. Youth engagement in cocoa agroforestry requires simultaneous action across multiple domains (Governance, Access, Knowledge and Incentives). If implemented with adequate financing, political commitment, and stakeholder coordination, these interventions can catalyze a transition to youth-inclusive, climate-smart cocoa agroforestry in Ondo State.

The youth engagement challenge is not unique to Ondo State but reflects patterns across cocoa-producing regions globally. Ondo State can pioneer an integrated governance approach that positions youth as central agents in cocoa agroforestry's future demonstrating that effective governance, strategic investment, and institutional reform can transform agricultural sectors while achieving development and environmental objectives.