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Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2024/Mitigating Environmental Hazards in Nigeria: Global Partnerships in the Pursuit of Sustainable Development

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Summary of Case Study

Nigeria faces significant environmental hazards, including deforestation, desertification, and pollution, which threaten ecosystems, livelihoods, and economic stability. Deforestation, driven by unsustainable agricultural practices, illegal logging, and urbanization, has led to biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and climate change impacts. Desertification and oil pollution further exacerbate these challenges, leaving communities vulnerable to poverty and environmental displacement. To address these pressing issues, global partnerships have emerged as vital mechanisms, providing resources, expertise, and innovative solutions.

Global partnerships have been pivotal in tackling Nigeria's environmental challenges. These collaborations, involving international organizations, governments, and NGOs, have delivered funding, technical assistance, and policy frameworks to foster sustainable development. Key initiatives include the Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI), where Nigeria collaborates with the African Union and other stakeholders to combat desertification, restore degraded lands, and promote sustainable livelihoods. Similarly, the Ogoni Cleanup Project, led by UNEP, exemplifies the importance of international expertise and funding in remediating oil-polluted ecosystems. Additionally, the REDD+ Strategy has advanced Nigeria’s forest governance, reducing emissions and enhancing carbon removals.

These collaborations have not only addressed immediate environmental concerns but also strengthened local capacity through training, infrastructure development, and knowledge transfer. However, challenges such as weak policy enforcement and inadequate participation remain barriers to maximizing the impact of these efforts.

This case study explains how global partnerships have played a transformative role in addressing Nigeria’s environmental hazards and advancing sustainable development.

Keywords

Forestry, Environment, Degradation, Partnership, Afforestation, Deforestation

Introduction

Map of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

The Federal Republic of Nigeria (henceforth referred to as Nigeria), is located on the west coast of Africa between latitudes 3°15’ to 13°30’ N and longitudes 2°59’ to 15°00’ E. It is bordered by Benin in the West, Niger in the North, Chad and Cameroon in the East, and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the South. Nigeria is the 14th largest country in Africa with a territorial area of 923,768km2 of which 910768 km2 is land and 13,000 km2 is water[1]; and the most populated country in Africa, with an estimated population of over 182 million by late 2016[1]. Nigeria is located mainly within the lowland humid tropics, characterized by high temperatures of up to 32ºC in the coastal south and up to 41ºC in the North. The climate varies from very wet typical in coastal areas with annual rainfall greater than 3500mm, to dry in the Sahel region in the North West and North-Eastern parts, with annual rainfall below 600mm.

Over the years colonial military, as well as civilian administrations in Nigeria have not given the required attention needed to environmental issues. As a result, the afore-mentioned environmental resources and citizens' harmonious relations with nature have suffered dire consequences for decades. This remains one of the most intricate problems in Nigeria[2]. Examples of these environmental hazards which have suffered neglect include the gully erosion in the east, the seemingly devastating effect of solid mineral mining on the plateau and the encroaching desertification in the north, to mention a few[2]. The effects of this neglect can be further seen in the Niger delta geopolitical zone of Nigeria where gas flaring and oil spillage in the Niger Delta have wreaked tremendous damage on ecosystems, health and livelihood of the people[2].

One of the most pressing environmental degradation in Nigeria is deforestation. Over 60 percent of Nigerian population live in rural communities and depend largely on agriculture, cottage industries and other forms of informal and small scale natural resources exploitation activities, for rural household income. These activities are often unsustainably carried out, given the paramount motivation to increase household income and expanding it by deforestation[3]. Deforestation is the most common outcome of indiscriminate anthropogenic activities in the Tropical Rain Forest (TRF) communities in Nigeria[3]. [4]pointed out that deforestation estimates for some African countries like Nigeria and Cote d’Ivoire was as high as 5% to 6% per annually. For Africa in general, Parry (1986) [5]reported that only 6% of the land area is forested and that if clearance continued at the present rate, the forest cover would be reduced to 5% by the year 2000. For now, the forests of Nigeria contribute significantly to the national gross domestic product (GDP) and sustenance of the livelihood of the people. This may be the reason why the trend of deforestation across the country continues to be very high[6].

Environmental global partnerships have played a critical role in shaping Nigeria's efforts to address ecological challenges and environmental degradation. Given its rich biodiversity, extensive natural resources, and vulnerabilities to environmental issues such as deforestation, desertification, and oil pollution, Nigeria has consistently collaborated with international organizations and frameworks to promote sustainability[7].

Deforestation in Nigeria

Deforestation leads to habitat loss while preservation and conservation of the natural forest increase biological diversity[8]. According to FAO, deforestation is the conversion of forest to another land use or the long-term reduction of tree canopy cover below the 10%  threshold[9]. In a nutshell, we can conclude that deforestation simply means the permanent transition from forest to other land categories.

Deforestation site in Nsukka, Enugu state
Desert encroachment in Yusufari, Yobe state

The social consequences of deforestation are many, often with devastating long-term impacts. For indigenous communities, the arrival of "civilization" usually means the destruction of their traditional life-style and the breakdown of their social institutions. Individual and collective rights to the forest resource have been frequently ignored and indigenous peoples and local communities have typically been excluded from the decisions that directly impact upon their lives[9]. Watersheds that once supplied communities with their drinking water and farms with irrigation water have become subject to extreme fluctuations in water flow. In economic terms, the tropical forests destroyed each year represent a loss in forest capital valued at US$ 45billion. Probably the most serious and most short-sighted consequence of deforestation is the loss of biodiversity. Some estimates put the annual loss at 50,000 separate species but this is an educated guess at best. Although there is some debate about the rate at which the atmosphere is warming, there is general agreement that it is warming. The currently accepted models predict a 0.3 degree Celsius increase per decade in global temperatures over the next century[9].

By the late 19th Century, Nigeria had about 65 million hectares of rich tropical primary forests, with abundant flora and fauna. Now in the 21st Century, this area has been reduced to about 4 million hectares[10]. Another study conducted by Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST) showed that Nigeria lost 5 percent of its forest annually throughout the 1980s. Another report by Forestry Research Management, Evaluation and Coordination Unit (FORMECU) of the Federal Department of Forestry indicated that Nigeria still loses an annual average of 350,000 hectares of forest cover[10].

Deforestation has many negative environmental problems. The main consequences of deforestation process in Northern Nigeria is desertification or desert encroachment[11]. These are also linked to social, economic and institutional xxx.  Other consequences of deforestation include reduced crop production or yield due to erosion of fertile topsoil. Rainfall and other weather patterns have become distorted and unpredictable. There have been delays in onset of rains and premature cessation of rains[12]. Populations of wildlife or animal species have also become depleted due to the destruction of their habitats[10]. Studies have shown that some villages in the north of the country have become buried by the advancing sand dunes[13][10].

Causes of Deforestation

The most important direct causes of deforestation include logging, the conversion of forested lands for agriculture and cattle-raising, urbanization, mining and oil exploitation, acid rain and fire. In some countries, clear-cut logging practices have been the main reason for forest loss. In the early nineties, Canada and Malaysia were famous examples of countries where logging companies ruthlessly cleared mile upon mile of precious primary forests[9]. Multiple factors are responsible for deforestation and habitat loss, which could either be of human or natural origin. Natural causes of deforestation could be as a result of forest fires, droughts, exotic animals, floods, overpopulation of foreign animals and climate change. That notwithstanding, human activities are reported to be among the main causes of global deforestation with agricultural expansion, cattle breeding, timber extraction, mining, oil extraction, dam construction and infrastructure development reported as the primary causes[14].

A finding by Koyuk and Yilmaz (2008) indicated that corruption has more explanatory power than rural population growth variable, which is the most prominent determinant of deforestation. Hence, its adverse effect should be taken into consideration as seriously as the other major causal factors in combating against depletion of forests[15]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) sees corruption as one of the major threats to world’s forest resources. Policies and measures taken towards reducing corruption, therefore, will help to decrease illegal forest activities (e.g. illegal logging, smuggling of forest products etc.) and in turn depletion of forests[9].

Corruption is a serious issue in Nigeria and contributes immensely to illegal logging by companies and forest officials[16]. Activities of illegal logging lead to deforestation. According to Wajim (2020)[16], an area of forest about the size of a football field is clear-cut by illegal loggers every two seconds. Corruption is also observed at the level of government institutions, wealth and power accruing, due to harvesting of forest riches. Pathetically, all these are done on the platform of short term economic benefits[16]. Lack of integrity in the judiciary to check illegal logging further promotes deforestation[17].

Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of Deforestation

According to the Wajim (2020)[16], it is estimated that approximately 60 million indigenous people are almost wholly dependent on forests while 350 million people depend on forests for a high degree for subsistence and income, and about 1.2 billion people rely on agroforestry farming systems (Cited in Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2009, p.3). According to the World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development, (1998) export of tropical wood contributes approximately US $ 100 billion annually to ???, about 0.5% of global gross domestic product[18]. The sale and distribution of chainsaw lumber is argued to generate some un-estimated revenue in the form of market tolls, income tax, taxes from waybills and custom duties within national economies[16]. Research by the CIFOR Poverty Environment Network (PEN) found that income from forest activities makes up about one fifth of total household income for rural households living in or near forests. It is realized that often because forests are located in remote areas where investments by national governments are low, the people lack certain basic amenities and mostly characterized by poor development[16]. However, through the exploitation and trade of forest resources, the social rapport established through partnership has formed the basis for development of social amenities such as good roads, schools, electricity and good water supply in forest fringe communities[9].

In spite of its importance, the natural tropical high forest has continued to diminish rapidly in the African continent, thus dwindling sustainable forest management. Majority of the people residing in Africa use fuel wood as their main source of energy for cooking. In many areas, due to increasing population the existing wood resources are over exploited. It is claimed that there are now places in the Sahel region where fuel wood has become so expensive that it absorbs about half the monthly budget of some poor families in urban areas[16]. Nigeria could face the possibility of timber and fuel wood scarcity towards the end of the century. It has been predicted that within the next fifty years, unless adequate measures are taken, most humid tropical forestland area in Africa could be transformed into unproductive land and the deterioration of the savannah into desert will be accelerated[16]. With extensive deforestation, villagers are compelled to walk long distance to fetch fuel wood and eventually tempted to substitute dried animal dung and crop residues for fuel wood. This tends to have serious consequences for local agricultural production and productivity because the rural communities also rely on this substituted resource for improving soil fertility.

Deforestation is a global problem which threatens environmental sustainability, with more impact on Nigeria due to the high rate. Deforestation exerts adverse effects on the entire environment, the economy and the citizenry. Deforestation in Nigeria is main cause of climate change, water and soil resources loss and flooding.

The Role of Global Partnerships

Nigeria's President at the COP 28 in Dubai

A global partnership is a collaborative effort between entities such as governments, civil societies, non-governmental organizations, private sectors and others from different parts of the world to address challenges that transcend national boundaries. According to effective cooperation (2022)[19] Global partnerships can involve nations, organizations, and other stakeholders. Global partnership brings together governments, bilateral and multilateral organizations, civil society, the private sector and representatives from parliaments and trade unions among others, who are committed to strengthening the effectiveness of their partnerships for development. According to commonwealth ???, ‘bilateral’ partnership refers to ties between two states and ‘multilateral’ refer to relationships of more than two states, often within an intergovernmental organization such as the UN. Nigeria has a bilateral partnership with the United States of America and United Kingdom through the USAID and UKAID respectively.

History of Nigeria’s relation with global partnerships

Environmental global partnerships have played a critical role in shaping Nigeria's efforts to address ecological challenges. With its rich biodiversity, extensive natural resources, and vulnerabilities to environmental issues such as deforestation, desertification, and oil pollution, Nigeria has consistently collaborated with international organizations and frameworks to promote sustainability. Nigeria's involvement in global environmental efforts began with its participation in the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, the first major international meeting focused on environmental protection[20]. This event influenced the creation of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) in 1988, tasked with coordinating environmental policies and enforcing regulations. FEPA’s establishment marked a significant step toward institutionalizing environmental governance in Nigeria. Nigeria became a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994, signaling its commitment to global climate action. The country has actively participated in climate agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, focusing on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to sustainable energy systems[21]. Nigeria plays a pivotal role in the Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI), a flagship African Union project aimed at combating desertification across the Sahel region. By planting trees, restoring degraded lands, and promoting sustainable land use, the initiative addresses environmental challenges while improving the livelihoods of communities in northern Nigeria[22]. Nigeria has partnered with countries like Germany, the United States, and organizations such as the World Bank and the African Development Bank to implement environmental projects. These collaborations have supported renewable energy initiatives, reforestation programs, and climate resilience efforts[23]. For instance, projects funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) have focused on biodiversity conservation and sustainable land management, providing critical resources for addressing Nigeria’s environmental challenges[24].

Examples of Global Partnerships and their Impact in Nigeria

Nigeria is a signatory to many conventions and also a member of many Collaborative Partnership on Forest (CPF). Some of them are:

United Nation Environment Programmes (UNEP)

Nigeria became a member of UN Oct. 7, 1960

In 2006, UN Environment Programmes received a formal request from the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria to carry out a comprehensive environmental assessment of oil-impacted sites in the region of Ogoni land, and to recommend suitable remediation actions based on the findings[25]. In 2011, UNEP published a comprehensive report on the region's environmental challenges, leading to the launch of the Ogoni Cleanup Project. This initiative, supported by international donors, focuses on restoring polluted ecosystems and enhancing the livelihoods of affected communities[25].

World Bank

In 1974, the World Bank on behalf of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development entered into talks with the Federal Military Government of Nigeria for the First Forestry Project (US$31 million, Ln. 1679-UNI, March 1979)[12]. The major objective was the establishment of 22,600 ha of Gmelina arborea plantations in Ogun and Ondo States. When the loan closed in mid-1986, a year behind the original closing date, the project had achieved about 70 percent of the appraised planting targets in Ogun and Ondo States. Subsequent reports show it was be considered quite successful[12]. In 1987, Forestry II afforestation project was launched and funded by the World Bank to establish shelterbelts in eleven frontline states namely (Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Zamfara, Sokoto and Kebbi states). The project lasted for nine years[13]. and was conceivably the most successful afforestation project in Northern Nigeria.

African Union:

Map of the Great Green Wall initiative in the Sahel region

Nigeria plays a pivotal role in the Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI), a flagship African Union project aimed at combating desertification across the Sahel region. The Great Green Wall project is a recent regional attempt in Africa to focus on addressing desertification in a more coherent manner[26]. The initiative was originally conceived as a thematic project, focusing on creation of a wall of trees of some 15km wide and 7,775 km long from Dakar to Djibouti, through 11 northern African countries, and eleven frontline Nigerian states (FGN, 2012; Daily Trust, 2015). The Program included US$70 million of GEF resources on top of $1.25 billion IDA resources[26]. The GGWI programme was also supported by UN Environment Programmes, World Bank, UN Convention to Combat Desertification, International Union Conservation of Nature, Global Environment Facility, Food and Agricultural Organization, European Union, UNDP etc.[26].

Impacts of Global Partnership on Nigeria's Forestry Sector

With regards to climate change, Nigeria has developed a new REDD+ Strategy (2021), including a National Forest Investment Plan (2019-2023), to curb deforestation and reduce forest-related emissions[27]. Through the assistance of global partnerships, Nigeria is implementing its REDD+ Strategy over a 30 year period, from 2021 to 2050, to achieve short, medium, and long-term goals. The Strategy prioritizes actions, defines institutional arrangements, recommends policy (re)alignments, and identifies partnerships and financial mechanisms that will assist the country to reduce the rate of carbon emissions and enhance removals from the forest sector while creating benefits for resilience building and green economic development, so that Nigeria can meet its National REDD+ Programme objectives[27]. Further, it addresses, among others, the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, land tenure issues, forest governance issues, gender considerations and safeguards[27]. Nigeria’s achievements in the Great Green Wall (GGW) project demonstrate significant progress in combating desertification and fostering sustainable development. According to the [26], Nigeria has produced 7.6 million plants and seedlings, reforested 2,801 hectares of degraded lands, and established 373 hectares of multipurpose gardens to enhance food security and biodiversity. Additionally, 709 kilometers of windbreaks have been constructed to combat wind erosion, while training programs have equipped 1,205 individuals with sustainable land management skills. The initiative has also created 1,396 jobs, providing economic stability for rural communities.

Challenges in Mitigation

Participation in decision-making processes is one of the main elements in community development, which has become a hot topic in all areas of human socio-economic activity, management, and politics[28]. The participation hindering hazard mitigation through afforestation projects includes the community in the analysis, planning, and execution of the project's benefits, sharing those benefits, and evaluating the development activities that will impact their life. Community initiatives are believed to have a greater probability of success if the community is involved in the idea, formulation, and execution processes. Community involvement at the grassroots level is crucial to accomplish the development programmes' goals. In this instance, participation is a long-term answer to how to empower people and communities by acquiring information, experience, and skills through their involvement in development projects. In terms of the importance of participation, researchers established that Nigerian people, especially from the northeast, do not fully participate in afforestation programs; this can bring down government efforts in curtailing afforestation issues[28].

The mandate to coordinate environmental protection and natural resource conservation is vested in the Federal Ministry of Environment. The Federal Ministry of Environment sets national policies, but responsibility for the implementation of forest and land management lies with each of the country’s 36 states, each of which has its own forestry and related land management laws guided by those at federal level[29]. Participatory forest management and rights in frontier areas, much of the forest is nominally owned by the state, but the reach of government and the rule of law are weak and property rights insecure[16].

Despite Nigeria’s efforts to conserve its forests, gaps exist. The most immediate needs in conservation are effective legislation, research, adequate human capacity, funding, and impactful interventions[16]. For instance, at the state level, management capacity of the state forest departments and local organizations is mostly low, with poor funding, low staff morale, limited technical training and often high levels of government corruption. Further, federal, State and local governments in the forest sector are all impeded by inadequate capacity and training, as well as lack of equipment and other resources for forest management[29]

The main purpose of programme evaluation is to ascertain the achievements of the programme regarding the aims/objectives of of the programme establishment. Monitoring and evaluation techniques can serve as a measure to improve implementation and efficiency of programmes after interventions have begun. This technique further reveals the impacts of a specific programme, exposes lapses associated with achievement of programme objectives and provides opportunities for adjustment. This is evident in the historical trend where there was inadequate monitoring and evaluation of the programmes[30].

Strategies for Effective Global Partnerships

The Nigerian government has implemented various strategies to drive development and foster collaborative progress. Key guiding documents, such as the Nigeria Vision 2020 and the Transformation Agenda, outline the country's development priorities and provide a framework for partner activities to support the implementation of these policies[31]. Nevertheless, in spite of efforts to coordinate the activities of partner organisations, one challenge is to get all partners to commit to harmonisation and alignment[31]. The government should introduce policies, which aims to ensure effective use of development assistance resources through improvement of collaboration between government and its development partners[31].

An effective collaboration has potential benefits to human life, although the establishment phase of any developmental or hazard mitigation project may however be riddled with a lot of challenges such as conflicts with local people, environmental risk, animal damage and inadequate protection. A national policy on tree planting that will provide an enabling environment for the planters particularly local community is recommended. There is need for the establishment of an effective system for the purpose of providing capacity building to local communities. Finally, all afforestation projects should carry the indigenous people along to reduce the cost of policing the plantation to protect it from human destruction[32].

Although capacity utilization is declining, the forest sector still serves as a huge source of employment openings. Opportunities for public-private collaboration in forest production exist, as the private forest sector already contributes significantly to income, employment, wood energy, food, medicine and housing[33]. There is a huge market for the furniture and pulp and paper products in the Nigeria and the West African sub-region[33]. A positive perception on the desirability of public-private partnership in the development of the forest products industry in Nigeria exist. This is hinged on the ability of such partnership to help regulate forestry activities, particularly the issue of illegal logging as well as ensuring strict compliance with all laid down rules and regulations that will engender conservation and optimum utilization of forest resources[3].

Transparency and information disclosure are fundamental principles underpinning the governance of several environmental projects such the Great Green Wall (GGW) initiative in Nigeria[34]. Lack of effective transparency and accountability hinders successful collaboration with partners. Ensuring effective stakeholder engagement by defining decision-making processes and levels of authority, and promoting adequate representation of all stakeholders in the decision-making process ensures successful partnership collaboration. Customize engagement strategies for diverse stakeholders, conducting regular consultations, feedback sessions, and evaluations to integrate varied perspectives enhances outcomes and stakeholder engagement[34].

Conclusion

Environmental hazards pose a significant challenge to Nigeria’s sustainable development, with issues like deforestation, desertification, and pollution undermining economic progress and community well-being. This case study underscores the pivotal role of global partnerships in addressing these challenges, fostering collaboration between Nigeria and international stakeholders to promote ecological restoration, capacity building, and policy reform. Initiatives such as the Great Green Wall, the Ogoni Cleanup, and REDD+ have demonstrated the potential of partnerships to mitigate environmental degradation while advancing social and economic resilience.

However, achieving long-term sustainability requires a commitment to overcoming barriers such as weak policy enforcement, financial constraints, and insufficient community participation. Strengthening local capacity, fostering public-private collaborations, and ensuring transparency are essential to maximizing the impact of these partnerships. By aligning national policies with global standards and leveraging the resources and expertise of international collaborators, Nigeria can establish a robust framework for environmental sustainability.

Continued global-local cooperation is imperative to secure Nigeria's ecological future, ensuring that both current and future generations can thrive in a balanced and sustainable environment.

Theme: Global Partnership in Nigeria
Country: Nigeria
Province/Prefecture: Nigeria
City: Nigeria

This conservation resource was created by Idris Y. Ayab.
It is shared under a CC-BY 4.0.


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 FGoN, 2018. First Biennial Update Report (BUR1) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 180 pages. Federal Government of Nieria, UNFCCC report
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Ogburu, I., & Anga, R. (2015). Environmental degradation and sustainable economic development in Nigeria: A theoretical approach. Journal of Economics, 3(6) 1–13. 2347-8233
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Mfon, P., Akintoye, O. A., Mfon, G., Olorundami, T., Ukata, U., & AdesolaAkintoye, T. (2014). Challenges of Deforestation in Nigeria and the Millennium Development Goals. International Journal of Environment and Bioenergy, 9(2), 76–94
  4. ↑ Lanly, P.J. (1983). Assessment of the forest resources of the tropics: A Review of Articles in Forestry Abstract, 4 (6), 287-318.
  5. ↑ Parry, J.T. (1986). Spaced out-space-craft remote sensing-cost and benefits. Proceeding second symposium on space activities and their legal implications. Centre for research of air and space law, McGill University, Montreal, pp 68-100.
  6. ↑ Nzeh, C.E., Eboh, E.C. and Nweze N. J. (2015). Status and Trends of Deforestation: An Insight and Lessons from Enugu State, Nigeria. Net Journal of Agricultural Science 3(1): 23-31.
  7. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme (Ed.). (2011). Environmental assessment of Ogoni land. United Nations Environment Programme
  8. ↑ Bodo, T., Gimah, B. G., & Seomoni, K. J. (2021). Deforestation and Habitat Loss: Human Causes, Consequences and Possible Solutions. Journal of Geographical Research, 4(2), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v4i2.3059
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Tejaswi, G. (2007). Manual on deforestation, degradation, and fragmentation using remote sensing and Gis.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Oloyede, I.O. (2008). Afforestation and Reforestation: The Unilorin Experiment.  Presentation at the High Level Technical Workshop on Afforestation and Climate Change in Africa. Organised by the Centre for Human Security of the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library (OOPL) & Nigeria Tree Planters from December 15 17, 2008.
  11. ↑ Women Environmental Programme- WEP. (2011) Report of the World Desertification Day as Marked. WEP Conference Hall, Abuja on the 17 June, 2011.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Ibrahim, K. M., & Muhammad, S. I. (n.d.). A review of afforestation efforts in Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Applied Sciences.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Medugu N. I., Majid, M. R., Johar, F., and Choji, I. D., (2009). The Role of Afforestation Programme in Combating Desertification in Nigeria. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management. 2(1), 2010, pp. 35-47.
  14. ↑ Bodo, T (2019c). Rapid Urbanisation Problems and Coping Strategies of Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria. Annals of Geographical Studies. 2(3): 32-45.
  15. ↑ Koyuncu, C., & Yilmaz, R. (2009). The Impact of Corruption on Deforestation: A Cross-Country Evidence. The Journal of Developing Areas, 42(2), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1353/jda.0.0010
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 Wajim, J. (2020). Impacts Of Deforestation On Socio-Economic Development And Environment In Nigeria. The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention, 7(03), 5852–5863. https://doi.org/10.18535/ijsshi/v7i03.04
  17. ↑ Transparency International. (2011). Tackling Political Corruption to Combat Illegal Logging. Retrieved from www.illegallogging.info/approach.php?a_id=201.
  18. ↑ Mahapatra, K. and Kants, S. (2003). Tropical Deforestation: A Multinomial Logistic Model and Some Country-Specific Policy Prescriptions. Journal of Forest Policy and Economics 7 (2005), Elsevier, pp.1-8.
  19. ↑ Effective Cooperation, https://www.effectivecooperation.org/landing-page/about-partnership#:~:text=The%20Global%20Partnership%20for%20Effective,prosperity%20and%20peace.%22%20It%20brings
  20. ↑ Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA). (1988). Nigeria’s Environmental Policy Framework. Government of Nigeria.
  21. ↑ UNFCCC. (2021). Nigeria's Commitments under the Paris Agreement. Retrieved from chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Nigeria_LTS1.pdf
  22. ↑ African Union. (2023). The Great Green Wall Initiative: Combating Desertification in Africa. Retrieved from https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-and-partnerships/great-green-wall-initiative#:~:text=The%20Great%20Green%20Wall%20for,change%20in%20the%20Sahel%20region.
  23. ↑ World Bank. (2018). Project information document (No. 132585; Project Information Document (PID)). https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/762881543559174681/pdf/132585-PID-P153732-PUBLIC.pdf
  24. ↑ Global Environment Facility (GEF). (2022). Projects in Nigeria: Biodiversity and Climate Action. Retrieved from https://www.thegef.org/projects-operations/country-profiles/nigeria
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 United Nations Environment Programme (Ed.). (2011). Environmental assessment of Ogoni land. United Nations Environment Programme
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 UNCCD (2020). the Great Green Wall Implementation Status and Way Ahead to 2030 (Nos. 978-92-95118-26–3).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Federal Ministry of Environment, The Federal Government of Nigeria (2021). Nigeria’s First Nationally Determined Contribution – 2021 Update.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Geidam, A. A., & Zawawi Mohamad, L. (2022). Factors Effecting Afforestation Program in Nigeria: Building a Conceptual Framework. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 12(12), Pages 1444-1452. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v12-i12/15679
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN).  2011.   National Programme Document: Nigeria’s REDD+ Readiness Programme 2012-2015.  UN Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries.
  30. ↑ Gbadebo, O. (2022). A Review of the Impact of Afforestation on the Socio-Economic Development of Nigeria. FUTY Journal of the Environment, 16, 34–43.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Global Partnership Monitoring report (2016) chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.effectivecooperation.org/system/files/2020-06/Nigeria_1_11_1.pdf
  32. ↑ Udofia, S. I., Jacob, D. E., Owoh, P. W., & Samuel, N. S. (2011). Steming environmental degradation: The afforestation approach. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment, 7(1), 22–27.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Popoola, L., Amusa, T. O., & Jimoh, S. O. (2019). Prospects for public private partnership in Nigerian forestry sector. African Journal of Rural Development, 4(1), 125–140.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Transparency International (2024) Examining the effectiveness of governance in implementing the Great Green Wall Initiative in Nigeria, with a specific focus on transparency, accountability, integrity, participation, and anti-corruption measures chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://cislac.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/CISLAC-TI-REPORT.pdf
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