Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/2024/Community-Based Tea Forests Managed by Bulang and Dai Peoples in Yunnan, China

Summary

Landmark of Old Tea Forest in Jingmai Mountain, Yunnan

The Pu’er tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica (J. W. Mast.) Kitam) is famous for their special aromas and tastes. One of the biggest Pu’er tea production regions is in Yunnan Province in southwestern China. This place is an area dedicated to tea production, tea forest plantations and encompassing ancient tea groves

Bulang and Dai peoples are officially recognized Ethnic Minorities (Shaoshuminzu) in Yunnan, China. They share deep cultural and historical ties to the cultivation and care of tea trees and production of Pu’er tea. The local traditional ceremonies and festivities related to the Tea Ancestor belief that special spirits live in the tea plantations, local fauna, and flora are at the core of this cultural tradition. The Bulang and Dai peoples have traditional cultivation methods of tea trees, it is a kind of response to the specific conditions of the mountain ecosystem and subtropical monsoon climate combined with a particular governance system maintained by the Indigenous communities residing in this area. Under the careful stewardship of these Indigenous communities, many ancient tea trees have been preserved for centuries. The Bulang and Dai peoples' practices ensured the sustainable development of the tea forests. In recent years, the growing national and global demand for Pu'er tea has also brought substantial economic benefits to the local villagers.

This case study will focus on the Bulang and Dai peoples, exploring how their knowledge and practices have shaped the management of tea forests. It will focus on the cultural, religious, and local governance factors that have influenced the conservation approaches of tea forests. Finally, the study will make a summary of the experience and lessons on community-based forest management from this example.

Keywords

Tea Forest; Bulang People; Dai People; Pu'er Tea; Ethnic minorities in China; Yunnan

Introduction of Bulang and Dai Peoples

The Bulang people is an officially recognized ethnic minority group in China. Compared to other ethnic minorities in China, this group is very small, with only 119,639 Bulang people resident in the highlands of southern and southwestern Yunnan. Although the Bulang people share a common history with the Dai ethnic groups, China's ethnic classification system has recognized them as an independent minority with a unique culture.

Dai people is a transnational ethnic group who live in China’s Yunnan Province, Thailand, northeastern Myanmar, Laos, and northern Vietnam. Different countries have different official designations for ethnic groups; in China, they are called ‘Dai,’ in Myanmar, ‘Shan,’ and in Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand, they are called ‘Thai’.

In the history, the Bulang people were conquered by the Dai people. Bulang and Dai peoples have gradually come to share the same culture and language, both of them adopt Theravada Buddhist practices and beliefs. They are the largest minority groups practicing Theravada Buddhism in China.

Local Woman is Processing the Pu'er Tea

Apart from being devout Theravada Buddhists, the most famous characteristic of the Bulang and Dai peoples are their tradition of drinking tea. The tea they grow is Pu'er tea, a special tea that grows in the upper reaches of the Mekong River. In the late 1990s, Taiwanese tea merchants began to popularize the consumption of Pu'er tea. This fashion then spread to Chinese Mainland, Japan, South Korea, North America and Europe. Meanwhile, Pu'er tea made from old tea trees leaves is labeled as "high-quality organic", because it does not contain fertilizers and herbicides. The organic nature of ancient Pu'er tea, combined with its long history of cultivation methods and scarce planting locations, has made it one of the most valuable teas in China and other regions since the late 20th century

Currently, most of the Bulang and Dai peoples rely on producing Pu'er tea to sustain their livelihoods. For some Bulang and Dai villages, tea is the primary source of income.

Tenure Arrangement of Yunnan Province

Governance Structure of Yunnan Province

Yunnan Province is located in the southwest of China. It is characterized by its geographical location, complex terrain and landforms, and significant altitude variations. The province is home to 26 different ethnic minorities, making it the most ethnically diverse region in China. Yunnan has over 8 prefecture level cities and 8 autonomous prefectures. It is considered as a relatively "poor" province, as its economic development lags behind that of most other provinces, especially the coastal provinces in eastern and southeastern China.

An “Autonomous Prefecture” in China refers to a level of government administration established for areas with a large population of ethnic minorities. In such regions, ethnic minorities can use their own languages, practice their religions, and follow their customary laws, provided these do not conflict with national laws. However, these areas remain under the overall administration of Yunnan Province. They also have the authority to create policies to boost their local economies, including the right to manage their forests.

Most Dai people live in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture. Regarding the Bulang people, due to their smaller population, most of them reside in Bulang ethnic minority group village geologically located within the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture. These villages operate as a smaller administrative unit. Within the county, they also enjoy autonomous rights, such as following their customary laws, using their own language, and practicing their religions.

Tenure Arrangement of Yunnan Province's Community-Based Forests

China asserts that land ownership belongs to the state but also stipulates that land can be allocated to farmers for management. There are some important milestones regarding land tenure in China.

• 1978 Household Responsibility System (HRS)

In 1978, a policy was implemented to promote the Household Responsibility System (HRS) to farmers in China. Under this system, collectively owned land is contracted to individual households for private cultivation (ensuring land rights as the foundation for promote rural development in China). Forests, including community-based forests, also follow this system.

• 1993 Party Central Committee Document No. 11

In 1993, a national policy, called Party Central Committee Document No. 11, confirmed that farmers could apply for land rights for 30 years.

• 2002 Rural Land Contracting Law

In 2002, the Rural Land Contracting Law defined farmers' land rights as usufructuary rights and allowed farmers to continue using their currently contracted land upon the expiration of the existing 30-year term, thus opening up the possibility for these rights to be repeatedly renewed and potentially permanently renewed.

• 2003 Forestry Development Resolution

Therefore, in this context, the central government issued "Forestry Development Resolution" in 2003, reaffirming the intention to transfer village-level forests to individual villagers, although there was no mandatory requirement for the individualization of forest land use rights. This process of decentralization of power is accompanied by the signing of legal contracts and the issuance of usufructuary rights certificates. It also expanded the land use rights of households, including not only acquisition and management but also transfer, inheritance, and mortgage of forest land. Other major policy measures have also been taken, such as relaxing logging regulations and reducing timber sales taxes and fees. The key point of these measures is to provide farmers with more freedom in land-use decision-making and greater incentives in land management practices.

Just like the national land ownership system, the land ownership system in Yunnan Province is also the same. Nowadays, land belongs to the state, and farmers can obtain the usufructuary rights of land by signing contracts with collective units (such as the villages they belong to). Then, individuals can allocate land to others to manage, rent, or make other land decisions.

Stakeholders

Stakeholders

Affected Stakeholders	Interested Stakeholders
Bulang People	Officers of the Yunnan Provincial Government
Dai People	Outside Tea Merchants

Affected Stakeholders

The Bulang and Dai peoples are affected stakeholders of the Community-Based Forests. They live in the community and rely on timber and non-timber products to support their livelihoods. Additionally, the local environmental conditions impact their physical and mental health. Both the Bulang and Dai peoples have a religious connection with the Tea Ancestor, which is closely tied to the forests. Any changes to the community forests will directly affect the lives of the Bulang and Dai people.

Interested Stakeholders

Officers of the Yunnan Provincial Government

Officers of the Yunnan Provincial Government are interested stakeholders in community forestry. Their political performance is tied to the economic growth of the community and the conservation of local environmental resources. However, their salaries are paid by the central government, and they fulfill responsibilities assigned by the central government.

Outside Tea Merchants

Outside tea merchants are also interested stakeholders. They profit from the tea forests in the Bulang and Dai communities by purchasing tea from local people and selling it to other regions. However, if they find that purchasing Pu'er tea in the Bulang and Dai communities is no longer highly profitable, they will leave the area immediately.

Management of Community-Based Tea Forest by Bulang and Dai Peoples

Introduction of Tea Forest in Yunnan Provenience

Old Tea forest managed by Bulang and Dai peoples

Yunnan Province in southwestern China is considered the birthplace of tea plants in the world. It is located at the starting point of the Tea Horse Ancient Road and is an important place for the dissemination of tea culture.

The province has the largest area of wild tea tree communities, with many ancient tea trees planted in early tea gardens. In Yunnan Province, there are different kinds of old teas, including wild ancient tea trees that have existed for 2700 years, transitional ancient tea tree with a history of 1700 years, and the cultivated ancient tea tree has a history of 100-1000 years. The largest area of cultivated ancient tea is in Pu'er Jingmai Mountain, with an area of 18 square kilometers old tea forests.

The term 'wild tea tree' refers to tea trees that have been preserved for a long time through natural selection in specific regions. After the continuous evolution of tea trees, this type of tea tree has developed a "transitional tea tree" that combines wild and cultivated characteristics. There is also a kind of tea tree called "cultivated tea tree ", and it is a new type of tea tree created by humans through the process of selecting, cultivating, and domesticating wild-type tea trees. Early domestication and cultivation of the ancient tea trees were conducted by the Bulang and Dai peoples, and after extended practice and management over generations, a cultivated ancient tea forest landscape developed. This is a approach that combines the wisdom of Bulang and Dai people, and the tea agricultural ecosystem is recognized as a globally important agricultural heritage system by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in August 2012.

Terrace tea gardens is the other kind of tea landscapes in Yunnan, which is early formed in 1970s for concentrated tea production. Compared to the Terrace tea gardens, the tea forest was close to natural forests, and its biodiversity is higher than that of Terrace tea gardens. The carbon storage of tea forest has been shown to be significantly larger than that of terrace tea gardens too. In addition, in tea forest, the harvest of non timber forest products (NTFP) are in a great diverse, including wild mushrooms, honey, herbs, edible wild vegetables, and fruits free of chemical pollutants.

Relationship Between Tea Forest and Bulang and Dai Peoples

The practice of planting understory tea in ancient tea forests originated from the 10th to 14th centuries and was carefully crafted by the ancestors of the indigenous Bulang and Dai peoples. The unique techniques they used include intentionally thinning a selected number of tall trees in the forest to create an environment where tea trees thrive under the canopy of the forest. Recent researchers have determined that local traditional culture, including village regulations, customs, and festivals, all contain awareness of the protection of tea forests.

Sustainable Management of Community-Based Tea Forest by Bulang and Dai Peoples

The sustainable management knowledge of old tea forests reflects the ecological wisdom of the Bulang and Dai people. This knowledge was developed through their long and deep interactions with the environment. It can be systematically divided into sacred knowledge and productive knowledge. It reflects the ecological cognition and practical behaviour accumulated generation after generation in their interaction with the environment.

Sacred Knowledge Shaping the Ecological Perspective and Internal Constraints

• Nature worship

The Bulang and Dai people's belief system has evolved into a profound connection between the natural world and spirituality, originating from the religious beliefs of animism and Theravada Buddhism. Under the guidance of these intertwined beliefs, the Bulang and Dai peoples endowed all components of their environment with a spiritual element. In this cultural context, the concept of "one ancestor and six gods" prevails. “One Ancestor” is the Tea Ancestor (Paaileng). The six gods include Tea God, Earth God, Tree God, Water God, Insect God, and Animal God.

As a pioneer in discovering tea trees and advocating for the cultivation and utilization of tea trees, Tea Ancestor has special significance and has made important contributions to the conservation of old tea forests. The other six deities are also regarded as guardians of the tea forest. Each god represents a facet of nature, reflecting the interconnectedness between ancient tea forests and land, trees, water, insects, and animals. In this spiritual landscape, people worship the Tea Ancestor, whose incarnation is the tea trees in the old tea forest. Therefore, for people, protecting the old tea forest is equivalent to protecting the Tea Ancestor and blessing their well-being.

• Tea Ancestor worship

The worship of Tea Ancestor has profound spiritual and cultural significance for the sustainable management of the old tea forest. According to local legends, the Tea Ancestor entrusted the inheritance of tea trees to future generations and demanded that they should cherish the tea trees as they cherish their own eyes. The future generations should protect and cultivate tea forests, and pass on this tradition. This has become the guiding principle followed by the Bulang and Dai peoples in protecting tea forests, and has shaped their ecological views, spiritual pursuits, and agricultural practices. In a village called Mangjing, the Tea Ancestor Festival is celebrated from April 13th to 16th, this  is a way for them to commemorate the Tea Ancestor.

Productive Practices in the Management of the Old Tea Forest

The Bulang and Dai peoples use their knowledge of local land-use technologies, combined with natural conditions, to allocate production, living, and ecological land around the old tea forest. This creates a harmonious and mutually beneficial ecosystem for production, living, and the environment.

• Propagation of tea plants

In traditional methods, tea trees are initially propagated by directly sowing tea fruits. There was a method known as "sowing", which involves placing the seeds directly into prepared seed holes. Subsequently, the practice of centralized seedling cultivation emerged, where tea seeds harvested from November were sown and cultivated in residential courtyards. Then it can be transplanted in to the forests between June and July of the following year, aligning with the beginning of the rainy season.

• Creating shelter forests as a buffer zone for the old tea forest

Bulang and Dai peoples will plant protective forests zone around the old tea forest, enriching biodiversity, and establishing protected areas around the old tea forest to mitigate the impact of extreme occasions such as strong winds, floods, and fires. This approach is also beneficial for water flow and erosion prevention, and ensures a continuous supply of drinking water

Special tree species have been planted around the tea forest based on experiences and traditional knowledge, such as Schisandra chinensis. This tree species is easy to plant and is adaptable. The bark of Schisandra chinensis is thick, its crown structure is compact, and its leaf moisture content is high, the oil content is low. So this tree could be functional in fire resistance to protect the tea trees during wildfires.

• Planting of shade trees

It is proved that maintaining 80% of sunlight intensity can promote tea tree growth and maximize yield. To prevent the sharp sunlight there are some shade trees planted in the old tea forest. The shade trees have multiple functions, including regulating temperature and humidity, and protecting tea trees from excessive sunlight exposure, especially during periods of seasonal drought. This protective effect is also crucial for preventing tea trees from being affected by the increasing temperature lead by climate change.

• Sustainable farm management of the tea forests

The Bulang and Dai peoples regularly weed, prune, and collect tea to maintain the natural regeneration of the old tea forest.

People use lawn mowers to weed, and the accumulated weeds are strategically placed at the roots of tea trees as a natural form of green manure. It is worth noting that they did not use herbicides in the tea forest because they were concerned that doing so would lead to a decline in tea quality.

According to tradition, the Bulang and Dai peoples will selectively remove the top buds to maintain the height of tea trees. This technology promotes the growth of lateral branches while preventing excessive growth of the main stem, which is beneficial for the tea picking process. Pruning can effectively prevent diseases from spreading from infected branches to other branches, maintaining the overall health of tea trees. Removing tree branches or the entire tea tree affected by the disease can effectively slow down the spread of pests. In the long-term practice of the Old Tea Forest, people have never used any form of chemical pesticides. The pruning process is also crucial for enhancing air circulation, maximizing sunlight exposure, and increasing yield.

The Bulang and Dai peoples adhere to the traditional tea picking process, which is divided into three different seasons: spring, summer, and autumn. During the tea picking process, a noteworthy practice among the Bulang and Dai people is to intentionally avoid picking the outermost layer of tea trees. This intentional abandonment is to allow these external trees to gain higher height and sturdiness as a natural barrier against potential damage caused by strong winds. Under arid conditions, tall and resilient external tea trees play a crucial role in intercepting and mitigating the impact of sandstorms.

Challenges of Community-Based Tea Forest Management in Yunnan

Terrace Tea Garden Encouraged by Yunnan Government

The method of cultivating tea trees by Bulang and Dai peoples did not receive much attention. On the contrary, from the 1970s, the government of Yunnan province encourage the local people to convert their tea forests into terrace tea gardens, which could lead to a high volume of tea production. The Yunnan government wanted to use this conversion to promote the development of local ecological development.

Promotion of Terrace Tea Garden

The cultivation of terraced tea began as early as the commune period in China in the 1970s. In 1974, under the policy of "transforming old tea gardens and actively developing new tea gardens" by the provincial government, the cultivation of terraced tea ("new" tea gardens) began to expand in Yunnan. Since then, old tea forests have been easily replaced by monoculture plantations and modern cultivars, such as terraced tea gardens. However, during this period, the purpose of terraced tea plantations was not for the tea market, but mainly to "enhance the socialist modernization level of ethnic minority farmers"

Due to the prosperity of the Pu'er tea market in the early 2000s, the province planted terraced tea not only for the purpose of modernization and stable cultivation, but also to meet the growing market demand for Pu'er tea. Under the pressure of market demand, "efficiency" has become a new priority for the government to encourage the conversion of tea production.

The main reason the government encourages the cultivation of terraced tea is that it has higher productivity compared to ancient tea trees. Due to the high height and relatively scattered distribution of ancient tea trees, harvesting ancient tea requires more labor. Even worse, due to the aging of ancient tea trees, their productivity is usually lower. Therefore, ancient tea forests are considered 'inefficient'.

Threats to Sustainable Tea Forest Management

However, the Pu'er tea market experienced a boom in 2007. Afterwards, the market value of terraced tea decreased significantly. At the same time, although the market value of ancient tree tea has declined, it is still much more stable than terraced tea. So far, the overall price of ancient tree tea is much higher than other Pu'er teas produced in terraced tea gardens.The terraced tea gardens, which were once considered to represent modernization of tea production, have been criticized for excessive use of pesticides and lack of biodiversity, leading to the destruction of the ecological environment.

Additionally, the tea produced from terraced tea gardens is of lower quality and lacks the distinctive fragrance that Pu'er tea should have. This low-quality tea negatively impacts the reputation of Pu'er tea among outside tea merchants.

Recovery and Coexistence of Tea Forests

Ecological Tea Gardens

Due to the sharp decline in the price of terraced tea and the continuous increase in the value of tea from the ancient tea trees, many terraced tea gardens have undergone another transformation under the guise of restoring the "missing" old tea forest. Under the new revolution of Yunnan government, terraced tea gardens were planned and transformed into "ecological tea gardens". Ecological tea gardens represent the transitional landscape between terraced tea gardens and ancient tea forests. The local villagers who used to transform their tea forests into terraced tea gardens are required to recover the tea trees in their garden again. The purpose is to restore a natural environment similar to ancient tea forests. It is expected that the ecological tea garden will eventually grow into a tea forest.

Currently, terrace tea gardens, ecological tea gardens, and ancient tea forest juxtapose each other in Yunnan.

Assessment

Due to policy guidance and market demand, ancient tea gardens have faced the threat of destruction multiple times throughout history. In the 1950s, in response to the call of the military and government, a large number of garden trees were cut down for housing construction and renovation. In the 1970s, the government encouraged the transformation into terraced fields in order to promote modernization of production. At the beginning of the 21st century, due to the rising price of Pu'er tea, it was encouraged to transform into terraced fields again. These practices had led to the destruction of ancient tea forests, as well as the loss of local biodiversity, and seriously damaged the traditional tea planting knowledge and tea culture of the local Bulang and Dai people. Later, it was not until 2007 that the government began using "scientific" technology to restore ancient tea forests due to the higher price of Pu'er tea produced by ancient tea trees. The government encouraged the Bulang and Dai ethnic groups to imitate the ecological environment of ancient tea forests as much as possible and restore the protection of tea forests. However, this so-called "scientific restoration" was, in fact, rooted in the traditional tea planting methods of the Bulang and Dai peoples.

The transformation from terraced tea gardens to ecological tea gardens was not simply a return to traditional methods of tea production but also an acknowledgment of the value of Indigenous practices that had been neglected for decades. From the history of tea forests in Yunnan Province, it becomes clear that the government has often encouraged local ethnic groups to manage natural resources solely based on market mechanisms. However, the traditional religion and knowledge of local communities are frequently overlooked by policymakers.

Recommendations

Recommendations to Yunnan Governments

Although the government of Yunnan may not agree that their historical policies of tea forest management represent a form of colonialism, this study still recommends that the government adopt a "Decolonial Model of Environmental Management and Conservation." Under this model, the government could learn how to integrate ideas from ethnic minority groups, such as the Bulang and Dai peoples, into natural resource management.

Additionally, the government should encourage the Bulang and Dai peoples to participate in the decision-making process. Two examples can be drawn from the Weaverville Community Forest (WCF) Steering Committee in California and Community Forest Agreement (CFA) holders in British Columbia (BC). There are some similarities between these two management models; however, the WCF exerts greater influence over forest management compared to the BCCFA. One of the reasons is that the WCF operates under a framework that emphasizes community involvement and consensus-building. Therefore, for the government in Yunnan, it is essential to pay attention to this point.

Recommendations to Bulang and Dai peoples

In terms of the Bulang and Dai peoples, their culture and traditional knowledge have been invaded by Western culture. However, real cases show that their knowledge can be more effective in tea tree management. They should be encouraged to promote their knowledge and practices and increase their confidence in their own culture.

Conclusion

The Indigenous knowledge of within the Bulang and Dai community, including religious beliefs, ecological perspectives, and sustainable agricultural practices, not only enhances the complexity of biodiversity, but also cultivates a profound sense of identity, respect for nature, and responsible use of natural resources, thereby promoting overall development. In addition, it also embodies the collective efforts of the Bulang and Dai peoples to protect the old tea forest, ensuring the sustainable protection of the cultural landscape of the old tea forest and the diversified livelihoods of utilizing the ecosystem services of the old tea forest and its surrounding forest system.

Around the world, such kind of knowledge and place-based governance systems and practices have supported the coexistence of people and their environments, often for millennia, before the modern government systems. However, the governments often want to replace them by western knowledges and practices. The management of tea forests in Yunnan Province serves as an example. The Yunnan government neglected the traditional knowledge of the Bulang and Dai peoples and converted well-preserved tea forests into terraced tea gardens. This policy not only harmed the conservation of local natural resources but also negatively impacted the culture of these two communities, which has been preserved for thousands of years.

Eventually, the government realized that only the organic tea produced in the tea forests truly qualified as "Pu'er tea." The Yunnan government's actions neither generated significant income for local people nor safeguarded the region's natural resources. This serves as a painful lesson and a powerful reminder of the importance of the traditional knowledge of the Bulang and Dai peoples, and it also demonstrates the necessity of including the voices of ethnic minority groups in decision-making processes.

This conservation resource was created by Course:FRST522.