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Documentation:FIB book/Ankle Injuries in Skiing and Effects of Ski Boots on Injury Reduction

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Background

Skiing is one of the most popular winter sports worldwide, continuously evolving from the early 20th century to the present day. According to the Canada Ski Council, approximately 28 million people actively participate in skiing or snowboarding in Canada [1]. Globally, the 2023 International Report on Snow & Mountain Tourism estimated over 370 million skier visits during the 2020/21 season[1].

Although skiing is an engaging and exhilarating activity, it is also associated with a significant risk of injury. Research has shown that the overall injury rate has decreased dramatically from 7 to 8 injuries per 1,000 ski days in the 1970s to about 2 to 3 injuries per 1,000 ski days today [2][3][4]. Studies have also revealed clear differences between sports: skiing is associated with a higher proportion of lower-extremity injuries, while snowboarding tends to result in more upper-extremity injuries[4].

Among all skiing injuries, ankle injuries represent only a small proportion, accounting for approximately 14.9% of all recorded cases in recent research[5]. This number has dropped significantly from 41% reported in the 1980s, indicating substantial progress in injury prevention[2].

In this article, we will examine the biomechanics of ankle injuries in skiing and discuss the protective role of modern ski boots in preventing these injuries.

Competitive skiing ankle injury rates

While the previous section outlines injury trends across the general skiing population, examining competitive skiers offers additional insight into how injuries manifest under higher speeds, greater forces, and more repetitive loading. Because injuries in elite settings tend to be documented more consistently, they provide a clearer picture of specific risk patterns. Competitive-level skiing paints a vastly different picture of ankle injuries, shaped by higher speeds, advanced techniques, and increased exposure to high-load events. Injury data across alpine skiing competitions consistently show that competitive skiers experience significantly higher injury rates than recreational participants. Large-scale competition data from FIS World Cup seasons shows that competitive skiers typically experience somewhere between 23 and 37 injuries per 100 athletes each season, a rate much higher than what’s seen in general recreational skiing[6]. Even though knee injuries receive the most attention, ankle injuries still appear regularly in these reports and can seriously disrupt training schedules and race performance.

Although detailed ankle injury incidence data in elite alpine skiing are sparse, existing literature notes that the “lower leg and ankle” region continues to appear among the injured body parts in high-level competition, even if the knee dominates. For example, a review of professional snow sports found that in alpine skiing, the lower leg was among the most frequently injured body parts[7]. While elite skiers experience a wide spectrum of injuries, many of the injuries they face throughout a season are driven by overuse, accumulated fatigue, and repetitive loading on joints and soft tissues. However, when looking specifically at acute traumatic injuries, the most frequently reported regions are the head and the ankle/lower-leg[8], where twisting forces, hard landings, and binding-release failures contribute to sudden injury events.

Common types of ankle injuries

  • Ankle sprains: Caused by excessive internal or external rotation of the ankle[2].
  • Peroneal tendon dislocation: A very rare case, occurs during a forward fall when dorsiflexion and slight internal rotation force the tendons against and rupture the superior peroneal retinaculum[2]. Anatomical structures can refer to figure 1 and 2.
  • Achilles tendon rupture: Results from a forward fall causing sudden, forceful dorsiflexion that overstretches and tears the tendon[2].
  • Ankle fractures: Primarily caused by abduction or external rotation forces[2].
  • Tibial plafond fractures: Caused by vertical impact forces during a jump landing flat, leading to compression and damage of the distal tibial articular surface[2][4].
  • Fracture of the lateral talar process: unique injury to snowboarding, usually involves compression and inversion often following aerial maneuvers[4][9].
  • Figure 1: Tendons of the Foot
    Figure 1: Tendons of the Foot
  • Figure 2: Bone Structure of the Foot
    Figure 2: Bone Structure of the Foot

Ankle injuries from skiing (biomechanical analysis)

In this part the different kind of movements of the ankle will be discussed and the corresponding injuries. Then the movements and injuries will be related with skiing. The range of motion of the ankle is important to analyze to be able to design the best ski boots.

General movements of the ankle and corresponding injuries

Figure 3: ankle movements
Figure 4: ankle movements

The ankle has complex movements because it consists of many bones, ligaments, muscles, and flexible tissues. This anatomical complexity makes the ankle very flexible, yet it is constrained in certain ways. The most important movements of the ankle are dorsiflexion and plantarflexion, which occur due to the hinge joint formed by the tibia, fibula, and talus. These movements are supported by ligaments: dorsiflexion is supported by the posterior talofibular ligament, while plantarflexion is supported by the anterior talofibular ligament[10]. Although these ligaments are strong and provide stability, they are still vulnerable to injury. Excessive dorsiflexion can tear the ligament, requiring a large force and potentially resulting in a severe injury. In addition to dorsiflexion and plantarflexion, the ankle can twist sideways, producing supination and pronation. Twisting the ankle inward is called supination, which can occur due to a combination of adduction (translation) and inversion (rotation). This type of injury, often resulting in avulsion fractures, is the most common among ankle injuries. Twisting the ankle outward is called pronation, which occurs due to abduction (translation) and eversion (rotation)[11].

The following table shows the range of motion (ROM) for the different movements in degrees, as a function of age and sex[12]. In general, as people get older, they become less flexible. In the table below, this is often the case, but it is not always evident. For example, for eversion, people tend to be most flexible between the ages of 20 and 39. In addition, females are often more flexible than males[12]. There is another ubc wikipage about ankle injuries for more information about this topic[11].

Table 1: ROM of ankle
Female Male
Movements 9-20 20-39 39-79 9-20 20-39 39-79
Dorsiflexion 26.7 26.0 20.7 27.5 25.2 26.3
Plantar flexion 46.0 48.2 41.0 41.8 41.0 36.9
Inversion 26.9 21.4 17.1 27.7 19.6 19.2
Eversion 12.2 17.5 11.8 11.5 13 12.2
Abduction 46.2 40.2 33.3 43.1 36.1 31.5
Adduction 39.9 35.8 25.6 35.0 33.1 30.4

Movement and injuries while skiing

Figure 5: Lauge Hansen classification

Now that the types of injuries that can occur have been discussed, there will be looked further into which ones are most common in skiing. According to G. Sperner et al. (Sportverletz Sportschaden, 1989)[13], the most common ankle injuries at that time were supination–inversion and supination–eversion fractures. They studied 100 patients with ankle injuries and classified them using the Lauge–Hansen system, which identifies typical ligament injuries based on specific movement mechanisms.In supination–inversion injuries, the anterior talofibular ligament is most frequently affected. In supination–eversion injuries, the tibiocalcaneal ligament is more likely to be injured. However, because this ligament is much stronger, such injuries are less common. Three out of the 100 patients had fractures involving both the medial and lateral malleoli.

Although injuries caused by excessive dorsiflexion are common in the general population, they are less frequent among skiers. This is because the ski boot provides strong support for both dorsiflexion and plantarflexion. If the boot is too flexible relative to the ankle’s range of motion (ROM), the forces on the ankle during a fall can become too great, leading to injury. Conversely, if the boot is too stiff, excessive forces will go up the leg to the knee, increasing the risk of knee injury. That is why it is important to understand the ROM of the ankle and to design ski boots accordingly. The average dorsieflexion of a skiboot is around 30 degrees[14] and this would exceed the ROM of the ankle of 20-27 degrees. But people bent their knees while skiing and this would increase the ROM of the ankle with approximate 10 degrees[14]. Because of this, the dynamics of a fall and flexibility of the skis, an injury because of excessive dorsieflexion is not very common.

Severity of ankle injuries

The ankle sprain where the anterior talofibular ligament is being injured, is seen as a minor injury and has a time loss on average of 6 days[15] (time loss, as measured in days where an athlete is prevented from participating in his or her sport, is a common measure of severity). Most of the time these injuries can be treated easily with rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE)[2]. An injury at the tibiocalcaneal ligament has a time loss on average of 6 days as well, but it can go up to 31 days[15]. This is more severe but can still be treated using crutches. Twisting the ankle with greater force can result in a bone fracture. This is more likely with an external rotation. In this case an oblique fracture of the 'weaker' lateral malleolus and avulsion of the deltoid ligament can occur or even a fracture of the 'stronger' medial malleolus[2]. This has time loss on average 30 days[15]. But it will almost never be life-threatening, because it is the foot, so it will score low on the AIS scale.

When falling forward there is a chance that the peroneal retinaculum ruptures, and the tendons dislocate across the lateral malleolus. But this was 0.9% of lower-extremity injuries while skiing, when people were too flexible ski boots (R. Leach, G Lower, 1984)[2]. But today this number will probably be even lower, because of the advancements in ski boots and regulation.

Ski Boots

Figure 6: An alpine ski boot

Ski boots are rigid footwear that are designed to limit ankle joint mobility and prevent ankle injuries, and it has served as one of the most common and important skiing equipment for skiers regardless of their skill levels[16].

Ski-boots are manufactured with stiff and rigid materials and consist of tightening parts in order to limit the movement of the lower leg[17]. Modern boots are now typically composed of thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU), nylon, polyamide-polyether block copolymers, etc[18]. These polymers are considered based on factors like elastic modulus (stiffness), low temperature impact resistance, density, UV stability, to ensure different structural parts when combined can withstand the cold and snowy environment, as well as the strong movement from the skier[18].

Modern ski-boots often have high and stiff cuffs that restrict ankle joint mobility, straps and buckles that tighten the boot, rear spoilers that reduce the boot’s entryway and push the lower leg slightly forward[19][20]. This helps bind the boot to the skiers’ lower leg tightly as if it is part of their body, hence transferring skiers’ force to the boots and the ski directly, and allow the skier to gain a better control of their movement[21][22].

ISO 5355 Standards

ISO 5355, entitled "Alpine ski boots - Requirements and Test Methods" is a ISO standard for the design of alpine ski-boots that defines the geometry and physical properties of the sole, interface with binding, and the shell[23]. Tests have been strictly required for the evenness of the sole at the front and rear to verify the flatness of the sole's contact points with the bindings[23]. The ISO standard is critical in ensuring the boot can efficiently and properly release the binding during a fall to reduce knee injuries[23]. However, there are currently no ISO standards for the stiffness of the ski boots to ensure the skiers' lower leg has tight fit with the boot.

Ankle Injury Prevention

The limitation of lower leg movement not only enhances the skiers’ movement control and performance, but also significantly reduces injuries at ankle, foot and tibia[22].

The hard shell of the boots, often made of stiff polyurethane or polyether, restrict inversion and eversion (medial and lateral ankle rotation) of the ankle and fix the lower leg as a whole[19]. This prevents excess stress on ankle joint ligaments, and protects ankle bones like the distal tibia and fibula from the high twisting force, hence reducing risk of ankle sprains and fracture. In fact, ankle sprains and fractures have reduced by over 90% since the 1970s when the rigid plastic boots began to widespread[24].

Beside restricting side ankle twisting, the cuff of the boot also helps fix the ankle angle between lower leg and the foot to a slight forward lean angle. This not only keeps the skier at a forward leaning position for retaining forward momentum, but also restricts dorsiflexion and plantarflexion[25]. This reduces overstretching of the Achilles tendon from sudden and violent forward falls, which causes forceful dorsiflexion and results in tear or rupture of the tendon[2]. It has been evidenced that the lack of stiffness and support of the boot can lead to tibia flexing forward beyond acceptable dorsiflexion range, which is approximately 45°[18].

The combination of movement restriction in all 3 rotational degrees of freedom provides protection against many other ankle injuries that involve a more complex combination of rotations. One example of this is peroneal tendon dislocation, a common skiing injury when the tip of the ski is trapped into the snow, causing a sudden bending forward of the lower leg and twisting the ankle simultaneously[26]. By significantly restricting both dorsiflexion and eversion movement, the ski boots reduce the risk of tearing peroneal tendon off the foot bone.

Contribution to Other Injuries

Despite the effectiveness of preventing ankle injuries, there have been a number of studies on how the design of ski-boots is associated with the increased risk and prevalence of knee injuries, particularly anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture. Although the number of lower leg and non-serious knee injuries was reduced significantly from the 1970s to 1990, the incidence of serious knee sprains tripled within the same period[20][27].

Since the ski boots bypass the ankle in force translation between the skier and the ski, the high reaction force is now majorly transferred to the knee instead, increasing the risk of knee injury[27]. One of the most common ACL injury mechanism is the "phantom-foot" mechanism, in which the skier falls to the ground and continues to accelerate forwards, while the inward-rotating ski is transmitting all the twisting force to the knee, since the ankle is locked from any rotations[28].

In addition, the ski boots fix the legs in an unnatural position, where the skier is forced to stay in a valgus knee alignment such that the ski is parallel to the ground[29]. Under knee misalignment, there is a constant tension in the ACL making it vulnerable to any additional force, hence when there is a sudden change in movement, such as turning, jumping or landing, there is an increased risk of ACL rupture due to the unnatural load distribution[29]. One easy and common solution to overcome this is to provide a canting mechanism in the ski boot, which involves tilting the shaft medially and laterally with respect to the boot[29]. It has been evidenced that the medial canting mechanism can help reduce knee valgus moment significantly, and also knee valgus angle, knee internal rotation and hip adduction, hence reducing ACL injury risk and improving balance and postural control as the posture is more natural[30].

Another injury that is profoundly caused by ski boots is the "boot top" fracture. When the skier falls forward or encounters a hard stop, since the foot is locked firmly into the stiff boot, the lower leg cannot bend forward, and the upper cuff of the boot presses hard against the anterior tibia and fibula. As the momentum of the upper body continues forward, a massive bending moment is applied to the two bones, until the force breaks the bones transversely[31].

Modern Advancements in ski boots

Modern ski boot technology has evolved significantly to improve both performance and injury prevention, particularly in the ankle and lower-leg region.

  • One key advancement is the widespread use of heat-moldable liners and adjustable shells, which allow a much more precise fit. A better-fitting boot reduces internal foot slippage, a key factor in ankle sprains, by keeping the heel locked in place and preventing the foot from twisting independently of the boot during sudden loads[32].
  • Additionally, the understanding of flexion stiffness in ski boots has improved. Research found that if the boot's flex is too low (allowing excessive flex beyond approximately 40°), ankle injury risk increases[33]. Modern boots now aim for controlled stiffness. Enough to support performance, but not so rigid that ankle responsiveness is lost.

One of the main design focuses of modern ski bindings is to protect the user from tibia and ankle fractures. Early binding systems lacked reliable release mechanisms, meaning sudden torsional or bending forces travelled directly into the ankle joint, frequently causing sprains and fractures. In contrast, today’s bindings are engineered to release the boot when dangerous loads develop, preventing excessive twisting of the ankle. Modern bindings, when mounted, adjusted, and maintained according to ISO and ASTM standards, provide protection for the ankle by responding appropriately to both twisting forces at the toe piece and forward-lean loads at the heel piece. Research shows that the development and proper setting of bindings has been “the most important factor in the marked reduction in incidence of lower leg and ankle injuries during the last 25 years.” [34] Advances in binding design over the last few decades have contributed to an almost 90% reduction in lower-leg and ankle injuries[34].

Future works

Sensor-based injury prevention

While wearable systems measuring pressure and motion have been introduced to skiers in recent years, the focus has mainly been on coaching and improving form. Recent studies are moving towards implementing sensor-based monitoring systems that can provide real-time data and bio-mechanical feedback, including kinematic and dynamic motion data of the user.[35] However, despite biomechanics providing immense benefit towards injury prevention through analysis of alignment, torque, impact, muscle tension, etc.,[36] current research and products do not account for acquiring adequate bio-mechanical data of the user for injury studies. While sports such as football[36] have evolved towards using foot-mounted inertial measurement unit (IMU) data to analyze their kinematics, the implementation of such a technique in ski boots is still under development.

Future work could focus on the analysis of the recorded data and how it could be used in future ski boot design. Integration of novel algorithms, such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, to further analyze real-time feedback from the sensors in correspondence with the sensor-integrated ski boots could provide in-depth kinematic data for the users to enrich their understanding of the biomechanics behind their sport and the injuries. Additionally, current commercial products require users to wear earpieces for audio feedback of their performance. How to work with the real-time feedback these sensors provide for the user to avoid potentially injurious scenarios remains a challenge.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Canadian Ski Council. "Facts & Stats – Updated December 2023". Retrieved November 10, 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 Leach, R. E., & Lower, G. (1985). Ankle injuries in skiing. Clinical orthopaedics and related research, (198), 127–133.
  3. ↑ Harrasser, N., & Toepfer, A. (2022). Fuß- und Sprunggelenkverletzungen im Wintersport. Die Orthopädie, 51(11), 891–895.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Telgheder, Z. L., & Kistler, B. J. (2020). Ski and Snowboard - Related Orthopedic Injuries. Orthopedic Clinics of North America, 51(4), 461–469.
  5. ↑ Subaşı, İ. Ö., Gür, V., Subaşı, İ. Ö., & Gür, V. (2023). Recreational Skiing- and Snowboarding-Related Extremity Injuries: A Five-Year Tertiary Trauma Center Cohort. Cureus, 15(7).
  6. ↑ Haaland B, Steenstrup SE, Bere T, et al. Injury rate and injury patterns in FIS World Cup Alpine skiing (2006–2015): have the new ski regulations made an impact? British Journal of Sports Medicine Published Online First: 11 November 2015. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-095467
  7. ↑ Fu, X. L., Du, L., Song, Y. P., Chen, H. L., & Shen, W. Q. (2022). Incidence of injuries in professional snow sports: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of sport and health science, 11(1), 6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.10.006
  8. ↑ Fröhlich, S., Helbling, M., Fucentese, S. F., Karlen, W., Frey, W. O., & Spörri, J. (2021). Injury risks among elite competitive alpine skiers are underestimated if not registered prospectively, over the entire season and regardless of whether requiring medical attention. Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy : official journal of the ESSKA, 29(5), 1635–1643. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00167-020-06110-5
  9. ↑ Langran, M. (2012). Alpine Skiing and Snowboarding Injuries. Springer EBooks, 37–67.
  10. ↑ Hintermann, Beat (July 1999). "Biomechanics of the unstable ankle joint and clinical implications". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 31(7): 459–469.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Documentation:FIB book/Kinematics of Ankle Injury
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Grimston, Susan K.; Nigg, Benno M.; Hanley, David A.; Engsberg, Jack R. (May 1993). "Differences in Ankle Joint Complex Range of Motion as a Function of Age". Foot & ankle. 14: 215–220.
  13. ↑ Sperner, G; Golser, K; Genelin, A; Resch, H; Beck, E (1989 dec). "The pattern of injuries of the ankle joint in ski boots--a retrospective analysis". Sportverletz Sportschaden. 3(4): 162. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Shealy, Jasper E; Miller, David A (1987). "Dorsiflexion of the Human Ankleas it Relates to Ski Boot Design in Downhill Skiing". PROCEEDINGS OF THE HUMAN FACTORS SOCIETY: 1128–1132.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 W. Brent Lievers; Peter F. (May 14 2015). "Incidence and Severity of Foot and Ankle Injuries in Men's Collegiate American Football". Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine – via Sage Journals. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ↑ Frédéric Noé, García-Massó, X., Delaygue, P., Melon, A., & Thierry Paillard. (2018). The influence of wearing ski-boots with different rigidity characteristics on postural control. Sports Biomechanics, 19(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2018.1452973
  17. ↑ Koehle, M. S., Lloyd-Smith, R., & Taunton, J. E. (2002). Alpine Ski Injuries and Their Prevention. Sports Medicine, 32(12), 785–793. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232120-00003
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Colonna, M., Nicotra, M., & Moncalero, M. (2013). Materials, Designs and Standards Used in Ski-Boots for Alpine Skiing. Sports, 1(4), 78–113. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports1040078
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Demystifying how ski boots work - Pulse Boot Lab & Ski Co. (2023, April 17). https://pulsebootlab.com/blog/demystifying-how-ski-boots-work/
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Benoit, D. L., Lamontagne, M., Greaves, C., Liti, A., & Cerulli, G. (2005). Effect of Alpine Ski Boot Cuff Release on Knee Joint Force During the Backward Fall. Research in Sports Medicine, 13(4), 317–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/15438620500359844
  21. ↑ Böhm, H., & Senner, V. (2008). Effect of ski boot settings on tibio-femoral abduction and rotation during standing and simulated skiing. Journal of Biomechanics, 41(3), 498–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.10.019
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Lann vel Lace, K., & Błażkiewicz, M. (2021). How does the ski boot affect human gait and joint loading? Biomedical Human Kinetics, 13(1), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.2478/bhk-2021-0020
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 (2025). Iso.org. https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:5355:ed-5:v1:en
  24. ↑ Hunter, R. E. (1999). Skiing Injuries. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(3), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465990270032101
  25. ↑ Wilson, S. A., Dahl, K. D., Dunford, K. M., Foody, J. N., Zandiyeh, P., Turnbull, T. L., & Tashman, S. (2021). Ski boot canting adjustments affect kinematic, kinetic, and postural control measures associated with fall and injury risk. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 24(10), 1015–1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.05.009
  26. ↑ Mann, R. A. (1999). Subluxation and dislocation of the peroneal tendons. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine, 7(1), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1060-1872(99)80033-1
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Knye, M., Grill, T., & Senner, V. (2016). Flexural Behavior of Ski Boots Under Realistic Loads – The Concept of an Improved Test Method. Procedia Engineering, 147, 342–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.305
  28. ↑ Shea, K. G., Archibald-Seiffer, N., Murdock, E., Grimm, N. L., Jacobs, J. C., Willick, S., & Van Houten, H. (2014). Knee Injuries in Downhill Skiers. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967113519741
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Böhm, H., & Senner, V. (2008). Effect of ski boot settings on tibio-femoral abduction and rotation during standing and simulated skiing. Journal of Biomechanics, 41(3), 498–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.10.019
  30. ↑ Wilson, S. A., Dahl, K. D., Dunford, K. M., Foody, J. N., Zandiyeh, P., Turnbull, T. L., & Tashman, S. (2021). Ski boot canting adjustments affect kinematic, kinetic, and postural control measures associated with fall and injury risk. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 24(10), 1015–1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.05.009
  31. ↑ Johnson, R. E., & Pope, M. H. (1977). Tibial shaft fractures in skiing. 5(2), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354657700500202
  32. ↑ Custom fit ski boots have never been easier | Atomic USA. (2021, August 25). https://www.atomic.com/en-us/article/custom-fit-ski-boots-have-never-been-easier
  33. ↑ Immler, L., Schindelwig, K., Heinrich, D., & Nachbauer, W. (2019). Individual flexion stiffness of ski boots. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2019.01.015
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Natri, A., Beynnon, B. D., Ettlinger, C. F., Johnson, R. J., & Shealy, J. E. (1999). Alpine ski bindings and injuries. Sports Medicine, 28(1), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199928010-00004
  35. ↑ Beuken, L. G., Priest, J. L., Hainsworth, T., & Humbert, J. S. (2024). Distributed IMU Sensors for In-Field Dynamic Measurements on an Alpine Ski. Sensors, 24(6), 1805. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24061805
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Penichet-Tomas, A. (2024). Applied Biomechanics in Sports Performance, Injury Prevention, and Rehabilitation. Applied Sciences, 14(24), 11623. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411623


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