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Course:Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Feeding the Future: Traditional Indigenous Food Gathering Practices in British Columbia and their Implications for Conservation

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Introduction

Canada’s landscapes were historically shaped by its Indigenous Peoples, whose land management practices sustained the environment for millennia.[1] Through hunting, gathering, and cultivating, traditional food systems revolve around ideas of taking only what is given, minimizing harm, and using resources in a way that keeps populations intact.[2] Although specific practices differ between regions, there is an overarching notion of reciprocity between people and the land.[3] This Wiki page discusses four key ideas regarding traditional Indigenous food gathering practices in British Columbia: what the main gathering practices are, how these practices have been altered by colonization, their cultural significance, and how these practices can be employed to conserve biodiversity, ensure climate resilience, and reduce anthropogenic impact on Earth systems.

Indigenous Peoples managed lands for millennia through hunting, gathering, and cultivating. Canoes were used in various hunting strategies.

Indigenous Groups in British Columbia

British Columbia has over 200 distinct First Nations. There are three recognized groupings of Indigenous people in Canada: First Nations, Métis and Inuit. The term First Nation can refer to an ethnic grouping, or it can be a synonym for the term “band”, which refers to the over 200 smaller communities. There are several ethnic groups in British Columbia, including the Coast Salish, Dakelh, Dene, Haida, Kaska Dena, Ktunaxa, Nisga’a, Nlaka’pamux, Okanagan, Secwepemc, Sekani, Stl’atl’imx, Sto:lo, Tahltan, Tlingit, Tsilhqot’in, Tsimshian, and Wet’suwet’en.[4]

Colonial History of British Columbia

The first European exploration of what we now call British Columbia began in the 1750s by British, Spanish, Russian, and American explorers.[5] However, significant numbers of European settlers didn’t occur until after the voyage of James Cook in 1778, and the mapping expedition of George Vancouver in the 1790s. The colony of Vancouver Island was formed in 1849. In 1849, the ratio of Indigenous people to European settlers was still very high, with about 50,000 Indigenous people to a few hundred European settlers.[6]

The Fraser River Gold Rush brought thousands of gold-seekers to the mainland in 1858. This motivated Britain to form the colony called British Columbia in that same year, referring only to the mainland area. In 1864, the colony of British Columbia instituted a government, then the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island united to form one colony. The colony joined Canada on July 20, 1871, forming the sixth province of Canada. During these debates, Indigenous Peoples had a minimal to nonexistent role in the political future of the land. The chief commissioner, Joseph Trutch, did not negotiate treaties with First Nations, and denied the recognition of Aboriginal title to the land. This makes British Columbia the only province in Canada to be situated on unceded land.[6]

Land Rights and Territories

The land rights of First Nations in British Columbia continue to evolve through legal challenges, treaties and ongoing negotiations. There have been several modern developments that have improved the land rights of First Nations. In 1998, the Nisga’a Final Agreement was formed, which recognized the land rights of Nisga’a nations and gave them authority over the management of lands and resources in the area.[7] The British Columbia treaty process was initiated in the 1990s. The government of Canada and British Columbia negotiate with the First Nations of British Columbia to create treaties to resolve land and resources claims.[8] On June 26, 2014, the Supreme Court of Canada recognized the Tsilhqot’in Nation’s Aboriginal title. This was an important step in recognizing Indigenous land rights.[9] Some commissions and declarations, such as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)[10] and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)[11], have highlighted the importance of recognizing Indigenous land rights, and have influenced policies in favor of First Nations.

Historical Indigenous Food Gathering Methods in British Columbia

Indigenous Peoples have occupied the Western North American coast for at least 15 000 years, resulting in a deeply rooted and diverse food system maintained by the Indigenous Peoples of British Columbia.[12] There are hundreds of different Indigenous groups in the province, meaning every group has their own set of food gathering methods, and the types of food they use. The following section highlights a few examples of these historical food systems.

Hunting

A stone fish trap.

Many Indigenous groups on the coast of British Columbia have historically hunted fish, salmon being one example of a food staple for many Northwest Coast Indigenous groups.[12] Salmon were caught in the Northwest Coast by hanging willowbark nets between two canoes that were located where salmon were passing through to other rivers.[12] These salmon were harvested with intention and care, as these nets contained a hole to ensure some salmon were able to escape, careful to not over-fish them.[12] Other fishing methods included stone fish traps and weirs.[12]

Caribou is another species that is integral in Indigenous ways of life.[13] Early accounts say that parts of caribou were used for bone tools, clothing from their hides, and meat as food.[13]

Moose were hunted by Indigenous communities in the interior and coastal regions of British Columbia.[14] They were hunted by using antler, iron, and steel arrowheads.[14] In order to attract the moose, hunters would imitate female moose calls.[14]

Gathering

A salmon berry. Berries were a crucial component in Indigenous traditional knowledge.

Many different types of berries have been gathered by the Indigenous Peoples in British Columbia, including blueberries, salmonberries, cranberries, cloudberries, just to name a few.[14] Berries were a crucial component in Indigenous traditional knowledge, as it could be learned to know when certain berries were ripe for picking, by observing any changes in the surrounding plants and animals.[14]

Plants were used for many different reasons other than just food, including medicine, ceremonies, and clothing.[14] Examples of plant species include tobacco used for ceremonies and healing, cottonwood used in teas for inflammation, and plantain to treat small wounds or mosquito bites.[14]

Seaweed has been historically harvested in several Indigenous communities along the coasts of British Columbia.[14] The edible seaweed, red laver, was gathered by taking canoes out to seaweed beds, where they were collected in the canoes, and brought back to shore where they were left to dry.[14]

Cultivation

Tidal marsh root gardens are one example of Indigenous cultivation.[12] Undesirable plants were cleared away to make room to garden roots like Pacific silverweed, nookta lupine, northern riceroot, and springbank clover.[12][14] Clan Chief of the Qualicum First Nation, Kwaxsistalla, explains that edible roots from these gardens were taken care of and cultivated, and that different families owned different plots of the gardens, and were passed onto younger generations.[12][15] In the spring, these roots were pegged and weeded, and in the fall they were harvested.[12] These roots would be dried and stored for later use, and for trading purposes. [14]

Clam gardens were also common along the coast of British Columbia. Walls were created from stones in the low tide to help create a makeshift habitat for different clam species to thrive, including littleneck clams, butter clams, and razor clams.[12] These gardens were maintained regularly, and only the mature clams were harvested to ensure sustainable harvesting.[12]

Colonization and Traditional Indigenous Food Gathering Methods

The arrival of colonial powers had a huge impact on every aspect of Indigenous Peoples' lives, including their food systems.[12] Early settlers ignored pre-existing food systems and technologies, and forcibly pushed their own practices.[16]

The Canadian government has banned numerous fishing methods used by Indigenous Peoples, such as stone fish traps and weirs. Logging significantly impacts salmon populations by destroying their spawning beds. Logging debris on the ocean's floor and shoreline has stopped herring from spawning in areas that were once active. While there are laws that allow Indigenous Peoples to fish for food and ceremonial purposes, they aren't always enforced.[12]

The arrival of European settlers coincides with the decline in the caribou population.[13] One reason for this is due to the creation of the Williston Reservoir, which caused major flooding, destroying caribou habitats.[13] Caribou populations continue to decline today.[17]

The vast majority of plant species that were traditionally harvested by Indigenous Peoples are no longer used, and are lost to younger generations[12] due to the arrival of settlers.[15] One example is the springbank clover, whose populations have reduced in many areas due to industrial development and European introduction of non-native species, like the white clover.[15]

How Losing Indigenous Food Systems Has Affected Communities and the Environment

Community Impacts

An illustration of the Three Sisters, in which corn, beans and squash are planted together.

Indigenous groups in Canada are at a disproportionately high risk of food insecurity, which threatens the overall health of thousands[18] and is compounded by other colonial impacts. For example, individuals who attended residential schools (or who had a parent or grandparent that attended) have higher proportions of severe food insecurity.[18] Government attempts at assimilation dismantled traditional knowledge, which creates a reliance on market foods[19] For impoverished or remote communities, these are minimally available. Food insecurity impacts the health and opportunities of Indigenous communities, and is challenging to address within current colonial food systems.

A loss of Indigenous knowledge changes the intricate and respectful relationships that informed careful food gathering and growing methods.[2] Western science has only begun to understand how these cultivated relationships resulted in mutual benefit. The classic agricultural example is the Three Sisters, in which corn, beans, and squash symbiotically benefit when planted together.[2] Conscious recognition of synergetic advantages is a key facet of Indigenous food systems, which sustained holistic health for millennia. Though this knowledge is finally being recognized as more sustainable, lost knowledge sets back all humanity, and is a tragic result of the discrimination against Indigenous communities.

Environmental Impacts

Human harvesting can stimulate native plant growth by reducing competition while still leaving a self-sustaining population size[2]. The remaining individuals undergo ‘compensatory growth’ that results in a healthier stand than a neglected area[2], strengthening the ecosystem as a whole. This support is reflected in biodiversity metrics that indicate stable ecosystems; globally, 80% of biodiversity is protected by Indigenous communities[20].The undermining of Indigenous food systems threatens their communities and ways of living, which inherently threatens the land they are the stewards of.

The mutual respect many Indigenous groups have for other inhabitants of the land was discouraged by colonizers. In its place, the anthropocentric control over resources was justified by John Locke’s theory of property[21]. Western colonists destroyed essential ecosystems, believing the land was theirs to 'improve' and exploit. An additional assumption was that Indigenous peoples inhabited 'wild' land, and did nothing to cultivate and alter their environment[22].This fallacy was promoted to justify seizing land, and the nuances of its management were ignored for the sake of faster extraction. Monocultures of cash crops became standard to allow this extraction, but complex ecosystems and their biodiversity were sacrificed in the process. As a result, ecological resilience has been decimated and manufactured inputs become a necessity[23].

Many Indigenous food practices rely on the key concept of reciprocity; this mindfulness means that traditional harvesting takes only what’s needed. A key aim is to minimize ecological damage. This approach is generally successful[24], but not widely adopted in Western agriculture. Industrial agriculture uses chemical fertilizers and pesticides to maximize crop yield which degrades nearby ecosystems, and intensive irrigation shifts local ecologies.In addition , agricultural globalization means that food is shipped worldwide, which produces around 6% of annual global greenhouse gas emissions[25]. Because of these factors, the current agricultural approach is unsustainable and a contributing component of the climate crisis.

Issues Within Current Structures

To revitalize Indigenous food systems, their associated stigma must be reduced. Overall societal shifts are necessary to achieve this, which includes education for non-Indigenous peoples to promote better understanding and acceptance of traditional practices. Additionally, media coverage concerning food insecurity frequently ignores success stories and neglects Indigenous voices[26].

Due to the dangerous possibilities of poorly informed food harvesting, it is imperative that accurate resources are available and particularly accessible in areas which rely on land based food.[19] Traditional methods are less frequently passed on, which requires active initiatives to combat a loss of culture and knowledge. This loss is exacerbated by the colonial exclusionary attitude that is prevalent in scientific and government circles, which delegitimize Indigenous practices as a whole.[2] Because of this, education is most effective when it is intergenerational, and addresses cultural elements outside of strictly food procurement, in order to give a more holistic understanding to the youth.[19]

Discussion

Socio-Cultural Benefits of Indigenous Food Gathering

Indigenous peoples have a unique relationship with the land and food systems in their traditional territories.[1] Food, people, land, and ceremony make up an interconnected whole; the foundation of Indigenous cultures. Many Indigenous peoples in British Columbia face barriers in accessing affordable, fresh, and culturally appropriate foods. Modern-day Indigenous food systems, as previously discussed, have emerged in response to these challenges, because without food, none of these components can thrive.[26]

Food as Identity

The end of the Kwantlen First Nation salmon ceremony, where elders and community members, in ceremonial clothing, return the bones from the first fish harvest to the river.

The Inuit saying “I am what I am because of what I eat” reflects how deeply intertwined Indigenous identities and traditional food systems are.[27] For example, Pacific Coastal First Nations sometimes refer to themselves as the “Salmon People” because salmon completely shaped their cultures, societies, diets, and religions. In tribal legend, the Creator asked all creation for a gift to help people survive on the earth. Salmon was the first to come forward, offering his body as nourishment for the people.[28] As one of the “first foods,” salmon is the most significant cultural food for Coastal Indigenous peoples. Salmon’s return each year assures tribes that life will continue, because “without salmon returning to [the] rivers and streams, [they] would cease to be Indian people."[29] Engaging with traditional food gathering practices affirms people of their cultural identities; the associated memories and knowledge perpetuates one’s sense of self.[27] Eating seasonally and with the land creates a feeling of belonging, because they are eating the same food that sustained and strengthened their ancestors for millennia.[27]

Food as Community

Indigenous potlatch. Alert Bay, British Columbia

Food gathering and eating is the basis of numerous traditions, ceremonies, and celebrations for Indigenous groups across BC, acting as a social network that brings people together. Hunting, fishing, and gathering traditions strengthen social and familial ties between relatives. Harvesting, processing, and sharing cultural foods often include multiple generations so elders can pass along knowledge about treasured recipes, thanksgiving offerings, and medicinal uses.[15]

Feasts occur throughout the year, often centred around thanksgiving for the Creator, ancestors, or community members. The cultural practices that take place during these feasts vary dramatically throughout British Columbia, but traditional foods are always served.[30] A significant feast for Pacific Coastal Indigenous peoples is the potlatch, a gift giving ceremony where Chiefs redistribute wealth in the form of food, possessions, and money.[31] These feasts bring community members together to celebrate traditional foods and knowledge about caring for and maintaining food resources, which strengthens relationships and fosters a sense of community.[15]

The 1876 Indian Act eroded food traditions by banning potlatches and forcing European diets upon Indigenous children in residential schools.[31] As people became increasingly disconnected from their cultures and increasingly dependent on the wage economy, the sense of community and knowledge flow diminished.[15] Despite these losses, First Nations across BC continue gathering to celebrate traditional foods. Hundreds of members from the Nuu-chah-nulth, Coast Salish, and Kwakwaka’wakw First Nations gathered for the 2024 Island Indigenous Food Gathering, to share, celebrate, and acknowledge traditional foods and the people who still gather them.[32]

Food Security, Sovereignty, and Decolonization

Food insecurity in Canada disproportionately affects Indigenous people. 30.7% of off-reserve households and 48% of on-reserve households in Canadian provinces experienced food insecurity in 2021, compared to 12.5% of the general Canadian population.[33] Remote, isolated communities face extremely high food costs, because suppliers must import groceries from far away and high demand drives up market prices. Growing, gathering, and producing food within the community can positively contribute to food security by reducing dependence on these inflated, external sources. Indigenous food systems historically sustained Indigenous peoples year-round, harvesting on a seasonal cycle. Self sufficiency through these traditional gathering practices helps provide everyone with access to healthy foods; improving diets, physical health, and well-being.[34]

Indigenous food sovereignty is described as “present day strategies that enable and support the ability of Indigenous communities to sustain traditional hunting, fishing, gathering, farming, and distribution practices, the way we have done for thousands of years prior to contact with the first European settlers”.[1] Sovereignty is an essential component of food security because the land must be used respectfully and protected from external misuse to ensure the regeneration and longevity of food sources. Indigenous peoples today protect their food sources by asserting land rights over traditional territory; dispossession favours settler land uses such as development, extractive industries, and industrial agriculture which obliterate traditional harvesting sites and important species.[35] Conserving ancestral and unceded territory is an act of decolonization by Indigenous peoples because it rejects the commodification of the land as ‘natural resources’ in favour of protecting and maintaining these areas for future generations. Tending to the land and waters in which Indigenous peoples hunt, gather, and fish requires environmental maintenance activities of embedded cultural significance. The strategies that enable and support Indigenous food production are more than just ways of acquiring sustenance; they are considered to represent a “right to be Indigenous.”[36]

Indigenous Food Gathering as a Means for Environmental Conservation

Biodiversity Conservation

The ingrained knowledge of natural elements has propelled the continuation of Indigenous conservation techniques and harvesting practices through time. The knowledge passed through to each generation possesses the wisdom required to utilize ecological services and natural resources in a dependant, yet conservatory way[37].

Though the immeasurable value of knowledge and beliefs passed through generations by the cultural transmissions of relationships held with ecological biospheres, the land upon which Indigenous societies lived on was stripped of its ownership. Upon colonization, Indigenous societies were forced to confine the immeasurable value of their culture into a limited space of only a few hundred square kilometres. This reduced the diversity of their resources dramatically. Indigenous communities were not necessarily isolated from trade or detached from complex offshore transactions associated with other societies, yet the majority of Indigenous communities were sanctioned on small pieces of land. Therefore, strong incentives for Indigenous Peoples to nurture and sustain the biodiversity present amongst their land emerged, manipulating the landscape to conserve its heterogeneity, as well as enhancing the biodiversity in degraded sections.[38] Certain species of plants and animals were afforded total protection, as many of these species are considered totemic. Respect also granted protection of an organism's transition to a vulnerable stage of its life cycle, capitalizing on the ecological prudence of minimizing the risk of overhunting and depleting the population of a jeopardized species. As local tribes of the Indigenous Peoples maximized the prosperity of the land, the cultivation of natural resources and the consumption of goods flourished. In the Indian State of West Bengal, the last ten years have been decimated to pioneered involvement of tribal communities of Midnapore districts in protecting local forests to encourage the natural regeneration of ecological systems. This demonstrates an effective way to ensure the longevity of populations of all plant species and habitats[39].

Some respective constitutions and or governments don’t may not recognize Indigenous rights to land, water, surface, or genetic material,  which perpetuates insufficient conditions for the overall well being of Indigenous Peoples. These dominant government institutions erode Indigenous sovereignty in resource use and management of the ecological communities they depend upon; certain governments may take this to an extreme. In the interest of biodiversity conservation projects, government institutions restrict human use in a prospective natural setting. Indigenous Peoples are often voluntarily or forcibly segregated from these protected areas in the interest of conserving national parks. As a result, the sacred and culturally fundamental cultivation of food systems in relationship with the governance structures of Indigenous Peoples were fragmented, only to be further influenced by the Western diet of highly processed, market based nutrients, in the midst of food insecurity[40].

Climate Change Resilience

To ensure the longevity and cultural continuity rooted upon traditional harvesting practices, environmental indicators and the rhythmic motions of species are encapsulated in a continual passage of knowledge. The wisdom and sophisticated methods held in this body of knowledge reflect the traditional food ceremonies of which the sustenance received nurtures the relationships held within the communities sanctioned, as the possession of nutrients is merely a byproduct of success in mastering the tricky lash backs climate change poses surrounding ecological systems[41].

Methodical Indigenous practices practices offer insightful climate solutions that have the potential to advance mitigation efforts, enhance adaptation strategies and build resilience. Therefore, the flexibility and hindsight to adapt to sudden ecosystem shifts has been thrust upon, as the cultivation, preservation and selection of intercropping and polyculture are key instigators to climate change resiliency. Intercropping is a unique tactic that uses the physical aspects of each plant to complement the symbiotic relationships that arise from the diversification of crop species. Studies show the increase in carbon sequestering due to intercropping has decreased 35% of GHG emissions globally[42]. Diversifying plant networks also iimproves crop resiliency by mitigating the risks of environmental stress and pest infestation, which increases yields. Similarly, utilizing polyculture, the practice of growing more than one crop species together in the same place and time, fosters a complex and diverse ecosystem that maximizes ecological integrity. Interactions with wild counterparts are crucial in expanding the genetic diversity of traits that help various plant species resist disease, stay productive under stress and promote a heterogeneous environment that supports a broader spectrum of wildlife. One study examined how polyculture exceeds 14-35% of species diversity[43], an optimistic insight in the potential of Indigenous harvesting practices can improve crop resilience. This contrasts with the western commercialized agriculture practices displayed through monoculture, resulting in an astounding 68% decline of wildlife flora and fauna[44]. By promoting the resiliency and abundance of biodiversity through the Indigenous harvesting techniques of intercropping and polyculture, essential solutions to the mitigation and adaptation of Climate Change are harnessed.

Promoting the Rehabilitation of Indigenous Food Systems

Current Initiatives

Communities are often forced to create initiatives that address food supplies by looking for local alternatives. These initiatives help keep communities fed, and enhance community pride and autonomy[19]. Developing community gardens can promote time-honored techniques informed by Indigenous practices. By their very nature, these gardens provide collective support and can be used to support those with less access to market foods; for example, working with health centers or local schools to provide meals for people in need. As well, utilizing features of the natural ecosystem and working with the land provides more stable and regenerative food systems[23].

Restoration of traditional hunting can be challenging due to the necessity of owning and maintaining tools and transportation[19]. However, it is vital for restoring food sovereignty as well as ecological niches that humans have historically occupied. This restoration is primarily dependent on reducing restrictions and incorporating policies that facilitate traditional hunting[45].

Promoting locally grown foods is not an ideal restricted to Indigenous communities, as it has a myriad of benefits for communities and the larger global ecosystem. When foods are locally sourced, international transport emissions are reduced [46]. Having localized food systems also fosters self-sufficiency in a community, which means isolated or impoverished areas avoid variable or extreme pricing. Locally grown food also facilitates autonomy for communities, while strengthening relationships within the community[47]. Local consumption works to reverse the implications of globalization; it supports production chain awareness and fosters connection between people and their food. Particularly within the context of Indigenous food systems, this connection restores culture in day to day life, and combats the significant health threats historically present in these communities.

The Path Forward

More must be done to promote the rehabilitation of Indigenous food systems. Two innovative approaches offer promising directions; co-governance of land and food sources, and integrated food education programs. Co-governance agreements between Indigenous communities and government/landholders can support shared stewardship and resource use. For example, the co-management of clam gardens in British Columbia shows that Indigenous ecological knowledge enhances biodiversity and productivity in marine ecosystems.[48] This approach integrates Indigenous food practices into broader food production systems, while also recognizing Indigenous sovereignty. Developing integrated food education programs bridges food systems by combining Indigenous knowledge systems with Western agricultural science. Integrating Indigenous land-based education, such as the programs by the Dechinta Centre of Research and Learning in the Northwest Territories into public schools and universities can encourage mutual respect, and inspire innovative land management strategies.[49] These programs highlight the knowledge of Elders and Indigenous Peoples in learning about food, ecology, and culture. Collaborative research initiatives can help guide this integration, by valuing both Indigenous and Western perspectives in knowledge production. An example of this collaborative research initiative is the “Two-Eyed Seeing”.[50]

Conclusion

Traditional Indigenous food gathering practices including hunting, fishing, and cultivation play a vital role in supporting the socioeconomic well-being of Indigenous communities and the health of the environment.[26] Colonial powers and systemic attempts at cultural assimilation imposed strict restrictions on customary practices, dismantled traditional knowledge, and drove many significant species to extinction.[15] As a result, Indigenous communities in British Columbia face disproportionately high levels of food insecurity and cultural disconnection. Species populations that once thrived under careful Indigenous stewardship are rapidly declining, while agricultural greenhouse gas emissions are rising.[20][33] Engaging in traditional food gathering practices offers a sense of identity and community, a pathway to Indigenous sovereignty and decolonization, ecosystem resilience towards climate change, and sustainable ways of preserving biodiversity.[27] Current initiatives to promote Indigenous food gathering and food sovereignty for communities exist, including community gardens, structured hunting trips, and “food gatherings".[23][32] However, further efforts such as co-governance and collaborative research initiatives must be implemented to ensure the socioeconomic and environmental benefits of Indigenous food gathering are felt around British Columbia.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Morrison, Dawn; Wittman, Hannah; Desmarais, Annette Aurelie; Wiebe, Nettie (2011). Food sovereignty in Canada: Creating just and sustainable food systems. Fernwood Publishing. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-1-55266-443-8.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Kimmerer, Robin Wall (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass. Milkweed Editions. pp. 175–201. ISBN 978-1-57131-356-0.
  3. ↑ Reid, Mike; Collins, Muxvpenstista Lena; Hall, Smawn Richard J.; Mason, Ernest; McGee, Gord; Frid, Alejandro (2022). "Protecting our coast for everyone's future: Indigenous and scientific knowledge support marine spatial protections proposed by Central Coast First Nations in Pacific Canada". People and Nature. 4(5): 1053–1055.
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  7. ↑ Nisga'a Lisims Government (n.d.). "Understanding the Treaty". Nisga'a Lisims Government. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
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  10. ↑ Government of Canada (n.d.). "Truth and Reconciliation Commision of Canada". Canada. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
  11. ↑ Wiessner, Siegfried (2009). "United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples" (PDF). United Nations.
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  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Randazzo; et al. (2018). "LOOKING TO THE LAND: LOCAL RESPONSES TO FOOD INSECURITY IN TWO RURAL AND REMOTE FIRST NATIONS". Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)
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  21. ↑ Swan, Vargas, Kyle, Jacob. "Lockean Property Rights" (PDF).
  22. ↑ Turner, von Aderkas, Nancy Jean, Patrick (December 12, 2012). "Sustained by First Nations: European newcomers' use of Indigenous plant foods in temperate North America" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 73 (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Hiemstra, James (November 11, 2024). "Back to Our Roots: The Shift from Industrial Monoculture to Permaculture".
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  25. ↑ Smith, Loren (June 21, 2022). "Fifth of global food-related emissions due to transport".
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  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Cote, Charlotte (2022). A drum in one hand, a Sockeye in the other: Stories of Indigenous food sovereignty from the Northwest Coast. University of Washington Press. pp. 34–41. ISBN 978-0-295-74953-2.
  28. ↑ Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (2025). "We are all Salmon People". CRITFC. Retrieved April 7, 2025.
  29. ↑ Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (2025). "Tribal salmon culture". CRITFC. Retrieved April 5, 2025.
  30. ↑ Centennial College (n.d.). Our stories: First Peoples in Canada. eCampusOntario. pp. 176–177.
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  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Hasdell, Rebecca; Niimi-Burch, Seri; Kurrein, Melanie (October 2023). "Priority health equity indicators for British Columbia: Household Food Insecurity" (PDF). BC Centre for Disease Control. Retrieved March 7 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  34. ↑ Domingo, A.; Charles, K.A.; Jacobs, M.; Brooker, D.; Hanning, R.M. (2021). "Indigenous community perspectives of food security, sustainable food systems and strategies to enhance access to local and traditional healthy food for partnering Williams Treaties First Nations (Ontario, Canada)". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18(9): 6–12.
  35. ↑ Turner, Nancy J.; Armstrong, Jeannette (2020). Plants, people and places. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780228003175.
  36. ↑ Grey, Sam; Patel, Raj (2015). "Food sovereignty as decolonization: some contributions from Indigenous movements to food system and development politics". Agriculture and Human Values. 32: 439. line feed character in |title= at position 55 (help)
  37. ↑ Warren, Michael (September, 3, 1992). "Indigenous Knowledge, Biodiversity Conservation and Development". CIESIN. N/A: 1–18. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ↑ Hibbard, Michael (2021). "Indigenous planning: From forced assimilation to self-determination". Journal of Planning Literature. 37(1): 17–27.
  39. ↑ Gadgil, Madhav (N/A). "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation" (PDF). N/A. N/A: 1–6. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ↑ Clay, Jason (January 2000). "Indigenous Peoples, Forestry Management, and Biodiversity Conservation" (PDF). World Bank. N/A: 1–47.
  41. ↑ "Indigenous knowledge is crucial in the fight against climate change – here's why". Explainers. July 31, 2024.
  42. ↑ Huss, C (March 8, 2022). "Benefits and Risks of Intercropping for Crop Resilience and Pest Management" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 56 (help)
  43. ↑ Folke, Carl; Colding, Johan (2013). "Polyculture".
  44. ↑ "A warning sign: where biodiversity loss is happening around the world". WWF. Summer 2021.
  45. ↑ Stevens, Paul, Lunstrum, Edmo, Maxwell, Madison, Kimberly, Elizabeth, Termaine, Bruce (January 6 2025). "Rethinking Indigenous Hunting in National Parks". Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ↑ Smith, Loren (June 21, 2022). "Fifth of Global Food-Related Emissions Due to Transport".
  47. ↑ Coelho, Coelho, Egerer, F.C., E. M., M. (2018). "Local Food: benefits and failings due to modern agriculture".CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ↑ Groesbeck, Amy; Rowell, Kirsten; Lepofsky, Dana; Salomon, Anne (March 11, 2014). "Ancient Clam Gardens Increased Shellfish Production: Adaptive Strategies from the Past Can Inform Food Security Today". PLOS One.
  49. ↑ Wildcat, Matthew; McDonald, Mandee; Irlbacher-Fox, Stepahnie; Coulthard, Glen (December 1st, 2014). "Learning from the land: Indigenous land based pedagogy and decolonization". Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society. 3. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  50. ↑ Bartlett, Cheryl; Marshall, Murdena; Marshall, Albert (16 August 2017). "Two-Eyed Seeing and other lessons learned within a co-learning journey of bringing together indigenous and mainstream knowledges and ways of knowing". Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences. 2: 331–340.


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