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Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Organized crime and illegal mining in Latin America

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Introduction

Map of Latin America

Illegal mining, particularly gold mining, has become increasingly linked with organized crime across Latin America. Criminal groups are drawn to the sector because it offers high profits and relatively low risks compared to other illicit activities such as drug trafficking.[1] In several countries, including Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela, illegal gold mining operations have expanded in remote regions where state presence is limited, allowing criminal networks to control or influence mining activities.[1] The involvement of organized crime in the mining sector also facilitates broader criminal activities such as corruption and money laundering. Illegally mined minerals can be integrated into legal supply chains through fraudulent documentation, front companies, or corrupt officials, making them difficult to trace in global markets.[2]

Background

The tumultuous history of Latin America plays a significant role in shaping the contemporary landscape of illegal mining and organized crime. Since the colonial era, the region has attracted external interest due to its biodiversity and abundance of valuable natural resources. Colonial systems were structured around the extraction of wealth and the exploitation of both land and people; although formal colonialism has ended, many of these extractive economic and social structures persist in modified forms (Neocolonialism) today. [3] Once the countries gained independence their economies and people were still controlled and exploited by western powers economically. This has lead to impoverished peoples and unstable governments since the 1800's[4]. With extractive industries taking the majority of the profits, locals had to turn to different, often illicit activities to make ends meet. [5]

Death of Pablo Escobar, Criminal Organization Leader, December 2, 1993

Government instability and the flourishing cocaine trade, in the mid to late 20th century [6] was a recipe for intense violence, especially in rural areas[7]. The rise and fall of cartels/drug smuggling groups, and their security forces, left behind a patchwork of organizations, smuggling routes, and power structures which rapidly adapted, diversifying into other illicit economies[8].

The convergence of organized crime and illegal mining typically follows a scale of roughly 5 states which usually progress with time, and are as follows: Alliance, Mutualism, Convergence, Transformation, and Domination[7]. In the initial stage, organized crime groups form alliances with actors involved in environmental crimes to exchange information, resources, or access to established smuggling routes. This may include using existing drug trafficking networks to transport illegally mined gold.[7] As interactions deepen, relationships may develop into mutualism, characterized by longer-term cooperation and shared benefits, such as the exchange of commodities (e.g., gold for narcotics) or the use of legitimate businesses to conceal illicit activities. In the convergence stage, distinctions between organized crime and environmental crime groups begin to blur, with hybrid organizations simultaneously engaging in multiple illegal activities, including both drug trafficking and mining.[7] Further along the continuum, criminal groups may undergo transformation, shifting their primary focus toward resource extraction and related markets. This can involve restructuring operations to specialize in illegal mining as a core activity. In the final stage, domination, organized crime groups exert control over entire supply chains, through a variety of mechanisms such as violence, intimidation, and corruption. At this stage, such groups may become deeply embedded within local social and political systems, effectively governing aspects of the illicit economy[7].

Illegal Mine in Colombia

Globally, illegal gold mining is estimated to make up as much as $48 billion USD for criminal organizations, with the lions share occurring in Latin America [9]. Gold mining is incredibly lucrative as it is high-value, easily transportable, and can be integrated into legal supply chains.[10] The region has emerged as a major hub for illicit gold production, particularly within the Amazon basin, where weak governance and established trafficking networks facilitate illegal activity. For example, in Colombia illegal gold mining accounted for 69% of all alluvial gold mining, with over 50% these operations occurring in protected areas[10]. Across the region, organized criminal groups are deeply embedded throughout the gold supply chain, using mining both as a primary revenue source and as a mechanism for laundering profits derived from other illicit activities such as drug trafficking[11]. This convergence has significant environmental consequences, as illegal mining is a major driver of deforestation and mercury pollution, contributing to widespread ecological degradation across the Amazon[9].

An area in Peru (within the Amazon rainforest) affected by deforestation and pollution caused by illegal mining.

Environmental Impacts

The Amazon River serves as an essential life source for almost 50 million people, making the effects of illegal mining, dumping of waste, and deforestation some of the most significant concerns regarding the health of Latin America's waterways and the people that depend on them.[12] Illegal mining is a direct source of mercury contamination in the Amazon, also in other important waterways in Latin America such as the Orinoco, and the Magdalena, which are important water sources.[12] Dumping of mercury contaminates water, and when mercury levels exceed the natural amount, associated ecosystems and the health of human users can be at risk.[13] Mercury poisoning in water is a significant concern for humans, especially Indigenous communities that rely on these water sources for consumption,[12] as well as when mercury contaminated water is used in agriculture and gets taken up by plants, toxic elements can become integrated into crops making it a health risk for human consumption.[14]

Other natural resources, such as the coca plant from which the highly addictive and expensive drug cocaine is produced, have attracted other criminal groups due to high demand and significant economic return of this resource.[15] The addition of other criminal groups and increased resource extraction has direct negative impacts on the environment. According to the International Crisis Group, “Illegal outfits frequently reinvest profits from drug trafficking in other environmentally harmful rackets.”[16] This cycle directly inflicts its negative effects on the Amazon Rainforest, where demand for coca drives resource extraction and deforestation. For example, when extracting coca, which is grown on razed forest land, it simultaneously attracts other criminal activity that leads to ecosystem degradation, such as illegal logging, gold extraction, and fishing in protected areas.[16] Together, these interconnected criminal economies create a growing threat to the Amazon, as the extraction and economic return of one resource enables the exploitation of another.

Coca has been cultivated in Peru for thousands of years, with the most suitable conditions in the Amazon highlands in Central Peru.[17] Another favorable location for coca production can be found where Peru borders Brazil and Columbia, where deforestation occurs and drug traffickers take advantage of the nearby, forested border.[17] Due to illegal mining and attraction of more criminal groups, coca leaves have risen to a high level of demand with their addictive properties increasing their market value.[16] Peru is now facing a growing issue of deforestation due to illegal logging in order to illegally cultivate the coca plant.[18] Combining data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and illegal logging alerts from forestry departments reveals illegal deforestation for coca production, and its effects on affected ecosystems.[17] In Peruvian Amazon, members of the Kakataibo Indigenous Guard risk their lives in search of illicit plantations of coca that are being grown and trafficked on their land.[19] Kakataibo Indigenous Guard members declare “We don’t want it here… coca just bring trouble. It means death, for us and the forest”.[19] This highlights the devastation that deforestation brings on not only ecologically, but for the Indigenous communities that rely fully on their land.

Impacts on Local Communities

Local communities bear a devastating impact from organized crime and illegal mining in Latin America including environmental degradation, social disruption, violence and human exploitation. Endemic violence, drug trafficking, and criminal governance displace local communities and disrupt livelihoods.

Illegal Mining in Peru 2016. "La Pampa" gold mine spilled south of the Malinowski River, illegally entering the Tambopata National Reserve.

Environmental Implications

Illegal gold mining destroys the environment, primarily by releasing toxic chemicals into the soil, water and air as well as deforestation impacts[20]. The presence of heavy metals, specifically cyanide and mercury, infiltrate groundwater and surface water systems, catastrophically impacting locals. Indigenous communities who rely on rivers for sustenance are disproportionately affected. Following COP30, evidence shows mercury poisoning from illegal gold mining to be harmful, likely the culprit of neurological problems and disabilities in Indigenous children.

Social Disruption and Violence

Criminal governance, the creation of rules regulating behaviour by criminal entities often with the collaboration of state actors, occurs prolifically throughout Latin America. Crime groups effectively dominate parts of the gold mine chain via violence, intimidation, and extortion techniques. In Acandí, the Gulf Clan threatens and kills people to systematically control illegal mining. For example, paramilitaries in an Afro-descendant village play football with local communities in order to instil fear within the community, demonstrating the extent of criminal control[7].

Human Exploitation

Human exploitation is not infrequent within illegal gold mining sectors. Indigenous women and children are most affected as they are commonly forced into prostitution within the mines [21]. In Chocó, Indigenous and Afro-descendent women are especially vulnerable to human trafficking[7]. Illegal mining takes place in remote areas with minimal law enforcement in place, allowing organized criminal groups to exploit local populations. In combination with discrete placement of the mines, the discovery of raw natural resources results in an influx of workers and subsequently a demand for commercial sex. Traffickers take advantage of settings that are remote and primarily exploit young children and women where there are less protective services or government oversight [22].

Remedial Actions

Military and Law Enforcement Action

In January 2026, the first coordinated cross-border response called "Operation Guyana Shield" commenced, which involved checking 24,500 vehicle checks and 198 arrests. The operation was successful in that police seized gold, mercury, firearms, and cash, suggesting that enforcement is intensifying[23].

The Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) was created in 2017, and was designed to investigate, prosecute, and punish individuals responsible for the most serious human rights violations. The JEP sets a precedent for the international community as it negotiates solution for conflict [24].

Colombian presidential inauguration of Gustavo Petro in 2022.

Gustavo Petro's "Total Peace" Plan

Gustavo Petro, Columbia's 35th president, submitted his total peace plan in August 2022. The agreement involved a multilateral ceasefire with Columbia's five largest illegal armed groups. After the ceasefire was implemented, there was an initial respite, and a subsequent soar in violence. In 2023, ACLED found the first decrease in armed groups' violence since 2020 with 11% less fatalities than the prior recorded period. Although the ceasefire resulted in some success, there were many issues with the plan. Columbia's armed groups abused the ceasefire agreements to expand their power, along with a 40% increase in violence between criminal groups. Additionally, the highest number of armed groups operate within illegal mines. The Total Peace Plan was made with good intention; although, ultimately, armed groups grew stronger due to reduced military pressure and diversified income streams, such as illegal gold mining[7].

UNODC's Conventions and Policies

United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) aims to combat and prevent organized crime. Illegal mining and participation in organized crime fall under the scope of the UNTOC's application[25]. The UNTOC is a globally binding legal agreement with 194 State Parties attending the convention. However, the influence of the implementation of UNTOC remains largely unknown. Tangible legislation is hard to establish as domestic law vastly varies among countries, so ratification of UNTOC does not lead to actual reults in legislation[26].

United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) is a universally legally binding anti-corruption instrument. Corruption is a key instrument in illegal mining and criminal organizations. The UNCAC includes preventative measures and criminalization and law enforcement surrounding criminal organizations[25].

United Nations General Assembly and Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) call for resolutions to the issue of trafficking in precious metals and its use for a source of funding for organized crime. UN Member states are to address these crimes and are assisted by UNTOC and UNCAC as listed below[25].

UNODC provides technical assistance to UN Member States by[25]:

  • Data collection, research and analysis
  • Legislative development and policy support
  • Regional and International cooperation
  • Criminal justice responses
  • Financial sector responses
  • Crime prevention and sustainable livelihoods

Illegal Mining in Venezuela

RAISG (a network of Amazonian environmental organizations) reports that Venezuela is the South American country with the highest number of illegal mines.[27] Illegal and semi-legal mining makes up 91% of the mining in the country.[28] Illegal mining became prominent in 2016 after former president Nicolas Maduro designated 12.2% of the country's territory as the Orinoco Mining Arc (OMA). The OMA spans across the Venezuelan states of Amazonas, Bolivar, and Delta Amacuro, with an area of 111,843 km2.[29] Gold is the most important resource in the region, though there are also large deposits of bauxite (used in aluminum production), coltan (used in electronic device production), and diamonds.[30] The region is one of the most biodiverse in the Amazon Rainforest[29] and borders Canaima National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Nicolas Maduro, former president of Venezuela, photographed in 2023

There are three main groups that control illegal activity within the OMA: Venezuelan criminal groups, Colombian armed groups, and Venezuelan military forces.[31] The Venezuelan gangs control most of the criminal activities in the area. Miners are forced to give up to 80 percent of gold found to criminal groups.[31] Residents in mining towns must also pay set amounts of gold per week to continue operating.[32] After gold is illegally harvested, military companies "tax" exports for moving goods and at local airports.[33] Militaries have also been documented collecting bribes in gold at the Brazilian border.[33] This gold is trafficked into neighbouring countries, where fraudulent paperwork helps export it into international markets.[29][33]

Following the capture of president Nicolas Maduro in January 2026, Venezuela has moved to pass laws updating it's mining regulations. Acting president Delcy Rodriguez introduced a bill in March which would allow private investment in mining, while retaining state control.[34] 15 environmental organizations have signed a statement denouncing the law, saying it "will only generate a veneer of legality for the current systematic plundering of the Amazon [...]".[35] The law passed by unanimous vote on April 9th, 2026.

The Venezuelan Orinoco river, which runs atop the Orinoco Mining Arc.

Impacts on the Environment

The most important impacts of mining in the OMA on the environment are habitat destruction and chemical pollution. The OMA intersects with the Amazon, which is illegally logged to make way for mines and roads.[36] Illegal mining has also been reported in the national parks that surround the OMA, including Canaima. Within 4 years of the OMA's creation, 2821 square kilometers of forest had been destroyed, with 50% in protected areas.[29] More data is needed to fully evaluate the consequences of mining on the ecosystems within the Orinoco Mining Arc.[37]

Impacts on Human Rights

~500,000 workers are involved in illegal Venezuelan mining operations, including many from local Indigenous communities.[38] Most miners work due to threats of violence or economic necessity, and about 45 are reported to be underage.[29] Armed groups threaten workers with consequences including mutilation, rape, and murder.[28] Between 2016 and 2019, over 40 massacres have occurred in the state Bolivar. At least 3 massacres have been recorded, all occurring within and around mines in the Orinoco Mining Arc.[39]

Sex trafficking is also a major issue in the Orinoco Mining Arc due to illegal mining.[28] Like the miners, women and girls are forced into sex work by threats of violence and poverty. The reported average age of sex trafficking victims in the area is 13-14 years old.[29] Sexually transmitted diseases have spiked in the region because of sex trafficking.[40]

Standing water within mines have increased cases of mosquito-borne disease exponentially in Venezuela. Malaria cases rose from 35,500 cases in 2000 to 467,000 cases in 2019 - a 1200% increase.[41] In 2018, malaria caused an estimated 21% of deaths in Amazonas, and 25% in Bolivar state.[40] Spikes in diptheria, yellow fever, dengue, and chikungunya have also been recorded in southern Venezuela after the creating of the Orinoco Mining Arc.[41]

Mercury, used in the extraction of gold, has been found in high levels in nearby rivers used for drinking water in Colombia and the surrounding area.[42] High levels of mercury have also been found in freshwater fish from the Orinoco basin, which are exported to neighbouring countries.[43] In the Caura river basin (a tributary of the Orinoco) 92% of indigenous women surveyed had elevated mercury levels.[40] 37% faced potential childbirth complications due to mercury exposure.

Moving forward

The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) created a list of recommendations for Latin American governments in regards to illegal mining in the region.[29] The list includes:

  1. Halting illegal mining through blocking transport routes and destroying mining equipment.
  2. Collaborating with the Colombian government to demobilize Colombian forces in the OMA.
  3. Developing public health policies to mitigate the spread of water-borne diseases.
  4. Working with a Truth and Reconciliation commision to investigate indigenous human rights violations.

They also urged the international community to:

  1. Further scrutinize gold and other minerals suspected to be from Venezuela.
  2. Collaborate with neighbouring countries to secure Venezuela's international borders.
  3. Prioritize the preservation of the Amazon when engaging with the Maduro regime.
  4. Get NGOs to undertake environmental and human rights assesments to evaluate the extent of damage caused by illegal mining in the Venezuelan Amazon.

These recommendations offer multiple pathways towards stopping illegal mining in Latin America.

Conclusion

Illegal extraction of resources and associated criminal economies pose a growing threat to Latin America’s environment and people. Illegal mining, particularly gold mining, has grown to be one of the largest criminal operations in Latin America.[12] Its high profits and low risks compared to other illicit activities have attracted more criminal groups.[1] Along with the expansion of criminal networks, increased environmental degradation to Latin American forests and waterways due to economic value of diverse natural resources in Latin America.[16]

These challenges have historical context. As discussed in the background section, during the colonial era, extractive colonial systems were established, and although formal colonialism has ended, these extractive economic and social mentalities still persist in modern forms.[3] Illicit means to making money became one of the few ways locals could survive, reinforcing the foundation of criminal operations.[5] Alongside the growing demand for cocaine came heightened violence and crime, and eventually numerous organizations and smuggling routes were established.[5] This created the opportunity for new illicit economies to form without needing to establish a smuggling framework from scratch.[8]

As outlined in this page, consequences of criminal activities are not isolated; they are deeply interconnected. The flourishing cocaine trade paved the framework for new criminal operations and the rise of illegal mining,[7] and other crimes involving natural resource extraction. The environment faces these compounding consequences as well. For example, deforestation for coca cultivation opens the land to further resource extraction, and illegal mining requires deforestation as well as mining waste polluting essential waterways in Latin America.[12] Waterways such as the Amazon river, Orinoco, and the Magdalena, have areas at risk of mercury contamination and environmental degradation due to illegal mining and deforestation.[12] Coca plant cultivation, illegally grown to produce the highly addictive drug cocaine, is one of the leading causes of deforestation in Peru.[17] Efforts by Indigenous groups to protect their land and reduce illegal coca cultivation are a prime example of how these criminal groups are directly affecting local communities and degrading the land they rely on.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. Organized Crime and Illegally Mined Gold in Latin America. https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Organized-Crime-and-Illegally-Mined-Gold-in-Latin-America.pdf
  2. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Explainer – Organized crime, money laundering and corruption in the mining sector in Latin America and the Caribbean. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2025/December/explainer---organized-crime--money-laundering-and-corruption-in-the-mining-sector-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean.html
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Iturralde, Manuel, 'The Weight of Empire: Crime, Violence, and Social Control in Latin America—and the Promise of Southern Criminology', in Ana Aliverti, and others (eds), Decolonizing the Criminal Question: Colonial Legacies, Contemporary Problems (Oxford, 2023; online edn, Oxford Academic, 22 June 2023), https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192899002.003.0004, accessed 12 Apr. 2026.
  4. ↑ Murat Arsel, Barbara Hogenboom, Lorenzo Pellegrini, The extractive imperative in Latin America,The Extractive Industries and Society, Volume 3, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 880-887, ISSN 2214-790X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2016.10.014.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Jaitman, L. (2019). Frontiers in the economics of crime: Lessons for Latin America and the Caribbean. Latin American Economic Review, 28(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40503-019-0081-5
  6. ↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2026). The growth of drug trafficking and guerrilla warfare. In Colombia. https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombia/The-growth-of-drug-trafficking-and-guerrilla-warfare
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 van Uhm, Daan (2020-11). Illegal Mining: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Ecocide in a Resource-Scarce World. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. pages=115-122. ISBN 978-3-030-46327-4. Missing pipe in: |pages= (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Ellis, R. evan (2018). Transnational Organized Crime in Latin America and the Caribbean. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Lexington Books. pp. 25–100. ISBN 978-1-4985-6797-8.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Interpol (April 28, 2022). "The devastating impact of illegal gold mining in Latin America". Interpol. Retrieved April 11, 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 OECD (2022): Free trade zones and illicit gold flows in Latin America and the Caribbean, OECD Business and Finance Policy Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7536db96-en.
  11. ↑ OECD (2017), Due diligence in Colombia’s gold supply chain: Gold mining in Chocó, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/261c3bb0-en.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 "Illegal mining, pollution, and urbanization choke latin america's waters: LATIN AMERICA RIVERS". EFE News Service. September 24, 2023.
  13. ↑ "Mercury and Human Health". Government of Canada. November, 2008. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ Wang, Liuwei; et al. (January, 2020). "Remediation of mercury contaminated soil, water, and air: A review of emerging materials and innovative technologies". Environment International. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ↑ "Illegal gold mining has destroyed over 4,000 hectares of Amazon rainforest in just four Indigenous territories in the past two years, warns Greenpeace". Greenpeace. April 8, 2025.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 "A Three Border Problem: Holding Back the Amazon's Criminal Frontiers". International Crisis Group. July 17, 2024.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Garcia Soto, Natalia; Koelle, Micheal (2025). "Deforestation in Peru: Key facts and main drivers" (PDF). OECD Economics Department Working Papers.
  18. ↑ Pelcastre, Julieta (September 17, 2022). "Organized Crime and Environmental Crime Put the Planet at Risk". Diálogo Américas.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Tigel, Simeon (November 16, 2025). "'We have no choice': Indigenous guards take on cocaine gangs in Peru's Amazon". npr.
  20. ↑ Muhammad, Haroon (April 2025). "Assessing the dual impact of gold mining on local communities: Socio-economic benefits and environmental challenges". Resources Policy. 103 – via ScienceDirect.
  21. ↑ Dammert, Lucía (October 8, 2025). "Organized crime and human development: the urgency of a structural response in Latin America". UNDP in Latin America and the Caribbean. Retrieved April 11 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  22. ↑ "The Link Between Extractive Industries and Sex Trafficking". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved April 11 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  23. ↑ Diálogo Américas. (2026, March 31). Brazil tracks evolving routes for illegal Amazon gold. Brazil tracks evolving routes for illegal Amazon gold
  24. ↑ Acosta-López, J. I., & Chacón Lozano, M. (2026). Symposium on Colombia’s special jurisdiction for peace. International Review of the Red Cross, 107(930), 853–865. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383126101064
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2023). UNODC response framework to address the illicit trafficking in and related crimes involving minerals. https://www.unodc.org/documents/Wildlife/UNODC_Response_Framework_Minerals.pdf
  26. ↑ Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. (2024). Is the UNTOC working? An assessment of the implementation and impact of the Palermo Convention. https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Is-the-UNTOC-working_-An-assessment-of-the-implementation-and-impact-of-the-Palermo-Convention-GI-TOC-October-2024-1.pdf
  27. ↑ "Mineria Ilegal". RAISG.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Filipetti, Carrie (December 5th, 2019). "Illicit Mining: Threats to U.S. National Security and International Human Rights" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 Rendon, Moises; Sandin, Linnea; Fernandez, Claudia (April 16, 2020). "Illegal Mining in Venezuela: Death and Devastation in the Amazonas and Orinoco Regions". CSIS. Retrieved March 9th, 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  30. ↑ Cano Franquiz, María Laura (September 4th, 2016). "Arco Minero del Orinoco vulnera fuentes vitales y diversidad cultural en Venezuela". La Izquierda Diario (in español). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Mariella Lambertini, Sara (November 21, 2023). "Consolidation of Organized Crime in the Orinoco Mining Arc (OMA): The Control of Illegal Mining, Human Trafficking, and Other Crimes". Journal of Illicit Economies and Development. 5 (1): 22–33.
  32. ↑ "The Icabarú Mines in the Caroní River Basin: Incoherence, State-Sponsored Anarchy and Criminality" (PDF). SOS Orinoco. May 2020. line feed character in |title= at position 45 (help)
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Ebus, Bram; Martinelli, Thomas (2022). "Venezuela's Gold Heist: The Symbiotic Relationship Between the State, Criminal Networks and Resource Extraction". Bulletin of Latin American Research. 41 (1): 105–122.
  34. ↑ Radwin, Maxwell (April 10, 2026). "Venezuela's new mining law could spell disaster for the Amazon, critics warn". Mongabay.
  35. ↑ "Pronunciamiento público sobre el proyecto de ley orgánica de minas" [Public statement on the draft organic law on mines]. March 23, 2026.
  36. ↑ "Illegal mining, pollution, and urbanization choke Latin America's waters: LATIN AMERICA RIVERS". EFE News Service. September 24, 2023.
  37. ↑ Stachowicz, Izabela; Rafael Ferrer-Paris, José; Sánchez-Mercado, Ada (January 19, 2024). "Leveraging limited data from wildlife monitoring in a conflict affected region in Venezuela". Scientific reports. 14 (1): 1673 – via PubMed Central.
  38. ↑ Montiel, Algimiro (July 23, 2019). "Gold mining may be all that's keeping Venezuela in business. Organized crime runs it". Miami Herald.
  39. ↑ Ruiz Leotaud, Valentina (October 18, 2018). "New Massacre in Venezuela's Mining Arc". Mining.com.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 "Gold and Grief in Venezuela's Violent South". International Crisis Group. 28 February, 2019. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Gabaldon-Figueira, Juan C; Villegas, Leopoldo; Eugenia Grillet, Maria (May 2021). "Malaria in Venezuela: Gabaldón's legacy scattered to the winds". The Lancet.
  42. ↑ Ebus, Bram (July 23rd, 2019). "This is how Venezuela's gold rush is poisoning indigenous people and ruining communities". Miami Herald. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  43. ↑ Fraser, Jewel (August 10th, 2018). "Illegal mining in Venezuela threatens to contaminate fish stocks in South America, Caribbean". SeafoodSource. Check date values in: |date= (help)

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