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Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Orcas (Orcinus orca) and climate change in the Arctic: Status and impact

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Killer Whales jumping out of the water
Killer Whales Jumping

Orcas (Orcinus orca), or killer whales, are apex marine predators found in oceans worldwide, including seasonally in Arctic waters. Historically, extensive sea ice acted as a physical barrier that limited the movement of orcas into much of the Arctic, restricting their access to prey species that inhabit environments covered with ice. However, climate change caused rising Arctic temperatures and significant declines in sea ice, which decreased by approximately 12.2% per decade since 1979[1][2]. As this decline rate shows, orcas have increasingly been observed moving further into Arctic regions that were previously difficult to access[3]. This range expansion has raised ecological concerns because many Arctic marine mammals, such as bowhead whales and other species, used to rely on sea ice for protection against their predators[4]. In addition, these changes in ocean temperature and sea ice conditions are influencing the distribution of marine species, which may shift the predator-prey dynamics and the structure of Arctic marine food webs[5]. Understanding how climate change affects orca distribution and their interactions with other Arctic marine mammals is essential for assessing the broader ecological changes occurring in the ecosystem. The following sections examine the background and ecological impacts of expanding orca presence in the Arctic, review current conservation policies like the Central Arctic Ocean Fisheries Agreement (CAOFA) along with its management efforts, and discuss potential strategies for addressing these emerging ecological challenges.

Background on Orcas & The Arctic

Arctic Sea Ice Loss

Arctic sea ice has declined by ~12.2% per decade since 1979, as a result of the ocean warming caused by climate change[6]. Though sea ice losses have remained relatively minimal in the past 20 years, estimates suggest that this slowed loss is only a temporary effect of a natural fluctuation in climate, and that sea ice will eventually resume[7]. Further, once this temporary ice loss ends, expected by 2035 at the latest, there are heightened chances of an accelerated loss of Arctic sea ice[2]. This data suggests that the effects of sea ice losses in the Arctic have the potential to significantly worsen, which poses a significant risk to an Arctic that has already experienced significant losses in sea ice over the past 50 years, of over 10,000 km3[8]. This decline in ice naturally results in a more open sea, which creates an extended range for orca populations[9].

History and Status of Orcas

Dorsal Fin of a Killer Whale
Dorsal fin of a Killer Whale found close to the coast.

The status of orca populations is difficult to quantify, largely because there remains an ongoing debate as to whether transient orcas (often called Brigg’s Killer Whales) and Southern Resident orcas, currently both considered subspecies of orca, should be classified as separate species[10]. Transient orcas are currently considered to be thriving, while Southern Resident orcas, in particular, face the largest risks of extinction, primarily due to pollutants accumulated from the fish eaten by residents, disturbance from marine vessels, and the availability of salmon as a food source[11]. Mammal-eating Brigg’s Killer Whale populations, meanwhile, have consistently grown for decades, with the population off the coast of British Columbia having more than doubled in size to over 500 individuals since 1990[12]. However, Brigg’s Killer Whales still face threats from pollutants and vessel activity, as do residents, with vessel activity potentially impacting Brigg’s ability to hunt[13]. Given the relatively reliable growth of Brigg’s transient Killer Whales however, in addition to the extension of the orca’s typical range, there are important implications for other mammal species in the Arctic.

Lone Bowhead Whale in Arctic
Bowhead Whale in the Arctic. Bowhead Whales escape predation by punching holes under Arctic sea ice[14].

History and Status of Key Arctic Marine Mammals

Bowhead Whales

One of the few endemic whale species in the Arctic includes the Bowhead Whale, a population which experienced severe declines as a direct result of whaling, from an estimated peak of 50,000 to less than 3,000 by 1921[15]. After the end of commercial whaling, and the implementation of protections in the 1970s, many populations have since rebounded rapidly, with one subpopulation, the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort, having rebounded to over 14,000 individuals[16]. However, this rebound hasn’t been felt equally by all Bowhead Whale populations. The Okhotsk Sea population, for example, has only a few hundred individuals remaining, and is at heightened risk[15]. A key risk factor for Bowhead Whales is the rising of sea temperatures, and the loss of sea ice, which Bowhead Whales depend on for foraging and protection from predators[17].

Narwhals & Beluga Whales

Additional notable Arctic marine mammals include Narwhals and Beluga Whales. In the Arctic Ocean, both of these animals rely heavily on the availibility of Arctic sea ice for many facets of their survival, including for foraging and protection from predation[18]. Both marine mammals have been documented to use their ability to create or reach air pockets in thick ice to escape Killer Whales[18][19]. The conservation status of both is similar, with both being considered of least concern on the IUCN Red list[20][21]. However, the status of these species varies significantly by population. One particularly threatened sub population in the Cook Inlet of Alaska, for example, has been in decline since the 1990s, having been historically descimated by whaling[22].

Threats to Marine Mammals in the Arctic Today

Current Threats

Oil Drilling Rig in a Port
Polar Pioneer Arctic Drilling Rig, owned by Shell Oil.

Presently, most marine Arctic mammal species are doing reasonably well, with most able to sustain small amounts of sport and subsistence hunting. However, several factors, namely disease, disruption from vessels, offshore oil extraction, direct and indirect fishery impacts, habitat and environmental changes, and algae blooms, threaten the stability of many Arctic species[14]. Nearly all of these factors are caused or exacerbated severely by human activity. One of the most extensive human effects in particular is climate change, which is currently affecting all parts of the Arctic and will continue to, especially through increasingly open water due to ice melting, as well as warmer water[23]. For many Arctic marine mammals, including narwhal, Beluga & Bowhead Whales, and seals, that rely on sea ice, the loss of Arctic sea ice poses a dire threat to their well-being[14]. The risks are heightened by the limited ability of specialized Arctic marine mammals to respond quickly to rapid environmental fluctuations, due to their long lifespans[24]. Further, the loss of sea ice presents an opportunity for outcrowding from marine mammals that typically live in the Arctic seasonally, including Orca and several whale species such as Fin and Humpback[24].

Impacts of Orca Hunting on Arctic Marine Mammals

Sea Ice in the Context of Killer Whale Hunting

For many permanent residents of the Arctic, including Bowhead Whales, Narwhals, and Beluga Whales[14][18][19] , sea ice is crucial for evading predators that cannot spend prolonged periods of time underneath the ice. For example, Bowhead Whales are able to make air pockets underneath Arctic ice, which allows them to stay underneath the ice for prolonged periods, whereas Orcas are unable to do the same and would be unable to successfully hunt the Bowhead Whale[14].

Increased Hunting Opportunities from Sea Ice Loss

Killer Whales hunting a seal, stranded on a small piece of ice
Killer Whales hunting a seal. Sea ice provides Arctic marine mammals with escape opportunities from Killer Whales, which are lost as Arctic sea ice melts.

Given the protections provided by sea ice, the loss of sea ice in the Arctic in notable in the changes this loss causes, in terms of Orca hunting opportunities. The melting of sea ice has increased the hunting opportunities for mammal-eating Brigg’s Killer Whales, so much so that predation from Killer Whales has become the biggest source of documented Bowhead Whale carcasses[25]. For Beluga Whales, predation by Killer Whales has become significant as well, with one population in Cook Inlet, Alaska, experiencing increased pressure from Killer Whale predation, despite their presence in the region historically being small[22]. It is for this reason that loss of sea ice is likely to prove beneficial largely for non-resident marine life, particularly orcas, in the Arctic, while permanent resident marine life is facing severe risk[24]. Addressing this issue ultimately requires a massive global-wide effort to curb climate change, as soon as possible. In the interim, to help support threatened marine life, more local effects should be pursued, such as reducing noise disruptions from vessels and curtailing offshore oil and gas drilling. These small-scale solutions can delay the worst effects for local Arctic residents, including endangered populations of Bowhead Whales[14].

Current Action

Protection Status

In 2008, the Killer whale population in the Eastern Arctic region was listed as a special concern under the Committee on the status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC)[26]. Later in 2023, they were reassessed and found to maintain the special concern status[26]. The special concern status describes populations that are at risk of becoming endangered or threatened, although not in imminent risk of extirpation[27]. However, other populations, including the Southern resident orcas located off the Pacific west coast are considered endangered by COSEWIC[26].

Map of the Arctic Ocean

Conservation Strategies

Reproduction for orcas is relatively slow, with generation time being around 29 years for populations in the Arctic[26]. Thus, recovery from low population rates is expected to take time, even with protection measures in place. Many conservation projects and policies are being put into place in the Arctic to help ecosystems withstand the impacts of climate change and industrial activity, although their effectiveness has not yet been assessed. Due to their non critically endangered status, little protection specific to orcas have been put in place in the Arctic, but rather broad actions to preserve the entire ecosystem.

With the Arctic ecosystem rapidly changing, strong concerns have emerged for long term food availability for all species, including Orcas[28]. As ice melts, marine areas previously restricted become more accessible[28]. This is likely to cause more unregulated overfishing, putting even more pressure on an already vulnerable ecosystem[28]. The Central Arctic Ocean Fisheries Agreement was implemented in 2021 with the goal of minimizing damage to food chains in the Arctic[28]. The eight countries involved; Canada, the United States, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Iceland, have agreed to ban commercial fishing from the designated Marine Protected area for at least 15 years until resource availability has been assessed and mapped[28]. Prohibiting fishing from designed areas leaves more fish resources for the several endangered species in the Arctic, including Bowhead whales and narwhals[28]. This protection measure does not however address the growing concern of food chain disimbalance caused by increased opportunities for orcas to hunt their prey as they migrate further into the Arctic.

Much of the world’s oceans are beyond National control[29]. Despite the CAOFA fishing ban, the Arctic remains vulnerable to other exploitative activities such as deep sea mining and shipping routes. In January 2026, the High Seas Treaty, an international agreement was put into force to safeguard oceans across the world from harmful commercial activities under the UN convention of the Law and the Seas [30]. With this treaty in place, companies planning projects in the ocean will need to carry out environmental assessments prior to taking any action[29]. Furthermore, the treaty creates more opportunities to establish more marine protected areas[29]. Though in its early stages of progress, this is considered one of the most ambitious attempts at safeguarding oceans from habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. Governing, financing and monitoring mechanisms of the treaty are anticipated to be discussed in April of 2026[30]. Many non profit organizations and conservation groups are also taking part in the initiative. For instance, the WWF has developed ActNet, a framework of databases that has mapped out priority areas for conservation for once the treaty is put into action[31]. Although many recent advancement in Arctic conservation have been substantial, much more work is needed to ensure the protection of its biodiversity.

Future Considerations

To mitigate the ecological impacts associated with the increasing presence of orcas in Arctic ecosystems, management approaches that incorporate technical, cultural, social, and political perspectives must be addressed.

Technical Solutions

Declining sea ice is enabling the increased presence of orcas—apex predators—in Arctic marine ecosystems, where their predation has the potential to significantly alter existing food-web dynamics. Monitoring technologies that track orca distribution, population and sea ice conditions can provide early warnings of ecosystem changes and inform conservation planning. In the Arctic, orcas are predators with "large and versatile ranges, giving them the potential to significantly impact populations and marine configurations"[3]. Orcas exhibit high levels of intelligence that allow them to capture prey efficiently, emphasizing the need for continued monitoring of their ecological interactions and environmental impacts[32]. A study published in Polar Biology analyzed acoustic recordings from eight Arctic monitoring sites between 2011 and 2019 and detected orca vocalizations across the region, identifying periods of time when they were present[3]. A similar study uses passive acoustic monitoring as an effective and non-invasive method to observe orca distribution and residency patterns, detecting seasonal patterns[33]. In addition to acoustic monitoring, satellite tagging further works to track movement in the Arctic. In the eastern Canadian Arctic, satellite telemetry reveals how orcas navigated long-distance travel, actively avoiding sea ice. These tracking methods extend research knowledge on migration routes and habitat use, providing long-term data on how these predators move into newly accessible Arctic waters as sea ice declines. In contrast to direct observation, combining historical sighting records and sea-ice data in Hudson Bay illustrates how environmental changes can be used to track orca presence and distribution. Sea ice previously acted as a “barrier”, limiting orca movement into Arctic waters; however, as ice declined, sightings increased exponentially[4]. Climate monitoring allows for predictions on where predator expansion may occur, and understanding ice dynamics helps forecast future ecosystem changes. Technical solutions help scientists better understand when and where orcas enter Arctic ecosystems, while also showing the ecological consequences of increased predation on Arctic marine mammals such as narwhal, beluga, and bowhead whales, which have historically relied on sea ice as a refuge from predators. Increasing awareness and conservation incentives surrounding these issues can help promote the long-term stability of Arctic marine ecosystems.

Cultural and Social Collaboration

While modern technological advances provide insight on how predator and prey relationships can be sustainably managed, these methods are relatively new and still developing. For long-term impact, conservation planning should involve collaboration with Indigenous communities in Arctic regions, recognizing their long-standing relationship with local ecosystems and their deep knowledge of sustainable marine stewardship. Integrating Indigenous knowledge systems alongside scientific research ensures effective and respectful approaches to marine conservation. By applying traditional ecological knowledge, Inuit hunters documented orca predation on multiple marine species—including beluga whales, narwhals, bowhead whales, seals, and walruses—offering behavioural observations that are otherwise difficult to obtain through scientific research alone[15]. Furthermore, beyond ecological impacts, orca predation is deeply interlinked with social and cultural implications. Given the cultural and economic importance of marine mammals for subsistence, Inuit hunters have raised concerns about potential declines in their populations[15]. These concerns stem from long-standing community dependence on environmental stability, through which Inuit hunters have developed extensive ecological knowledge and observations that serve as a reliable foundation for sustainable ecosystem management. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge with scientific research can improve environmental monitoring as community observations provide long-term ecological records that complement short-term scientific datasets[34].

Policy and Management

Evidence of shifting orca distribution is measurable through visible scarring on prey species, such as bowhead whales, indicating significant predatory impacts[35]. The frequency of these occurrences suggests that greater protective measures are necessary to safeguard Arctic marine ecosystems, particularly through Arctic management and conservation policies. Protected areas and conservation policies enable governments to limit additional human pressures that may intensify instability in marine ecosystems and populations. Well-managed marine protected areas have been shown to support significantly higher biomass and species density compared to unprotected regions, demonstrating their role in enhancing ecosystem stability[36]. In addition to strengthening ecosystem resilience, these protected areas improve ecological interactions within marine food webs while limiting human stressors such as fishing and habitat disturbance[37]. Although protected areas cannot directly prevent the climate-driven range expansion of orcas, they can help maintain stable prey populations by reducing additional human pressures, thereby enhancing the resilience of Arctic marine ecosystems facing increasing predation stress.

Addressing the ecological impacts of orca range expansion will require integrated management strategies that account for both environmental and human dimensions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, climate change is significantly reshaping Arctic marine ecosystems, particularly through the continued decline of sea ice. As more areas become accessible due to melting ice, orcas are expanding their range, which shifts the existing ecological balance of the region[4]. Many Arctic marine mammals that historically relied on sea ice for feeding and protection are now facing new predatory pressures[25]. Current conservation policies, such as the Central Arctic Ocean Fisheries Agreement (CAOFA) and various monitoring programs, aim to reduce additional stress on these ecosystems[28]. However, ongoing environmental change continues to create new challenges for Arctic biodiversity. Effectively managing these changes will require a combination of technical monitoring and collaboration with Indigenous communities to integrate traditional ecological knowledge[34]. Ultimately, ongoing research will be essential for understanding the long-term impacts of orca activity and ensuring stability of Arctic marine ecosystems in a warming world.

References

  1. ↑ Filatova, Olga A.; Shpak, Olga V.; Ivkovich, Tatiana V.; Volkova, Evgeniia V.; Fedutin, Ivan D.; Ovsyanikova, Ekaterina N.; Burdin, Alexander M.; Hoyt, Erich (March 23rd 2019). "Large-scale habitat segregation of fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the western North Pacific". Polar Biology. 42. doi:10.1007/s00300-019-02484-6. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 England, M. R.; Polvani, L. M.; Screen, J.; Chan, A. C. (August 5th, 2025). "Minimal Arctic Sea Ice Loss in the Last 20 Years, Consistent With Internal Climate Variability". Geophysical Research Letters. 52. doi:10.1029/2025GL116175. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Kimber, Brynn M.; Braen, Eric K.; Wright, Dana L.; Harlacher, Jenna M.; Crance, Jessica L.; Berchok, Catherine L. (January 6th, 2025). "Less ice, more predators: passive acoustic monitoring shows variation in killer whale (Orcinus orca) presence in the U.S. Arctic with declining sea ice". Polar Biology. 41 (21): 2. doi:10.1007/s00300-024-03332-y. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Higdon, Jeff W; Ferguson, Steven H (July 19th, 2009). "Loss of Arctic sea ice causing punctuated change in sightings of killer whales (Orcinus orca) over the past century". National Library of Medicine. doi:10.1890/07-1941.1. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ↑ Laidre, Kristin L.; Stern, Harry; Kovacs, Kit M.; Lowry, Lloyd; Moore, Sue E.; Regehr, Eric V.; Ferguson, Steven H.; Wiig, Øystein. "Arctic marine mammal population status, sea ice habitat loss, and conservation recommendations for the 21st century". Conservation Biology. 29 (3). doi:10.1111/cobi.12474.
  6. ↑ NASA (January 15, 2026). "Arctic Sea Ice Minimum Extent - Earth Indicator".
  7. ↑ Carrington, Damian (August 20th, 2025). "Dramatic slowdown in melting of Arctic sea ice surprises scientists". The Guardian. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ Kwok, R. (October 12th, 2018). "Arctic sea ice thickness, volume, and multiyear ice coverage: losses and coupled variability (1958–2018)". Environmental Research Letters. 13: 105005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aae3ec. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ↑ Kimber, Brynn; Harlacher, Jenna; Braen, Eric; Berchok, Catherine (October 1st, 2021). "Tracking killer whale movements in the Alaskan Arctic relative to a loss of sea ice". The Journal of the Acoustial Society of America. 150 (4). doi:doi.org/10.1121/10.0008306 Check |doi= value (help). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ↑ Morin, Phillip A.; McCarthy, Morgan L.; Fung, Charissa W.; Durban, John W.; Parsons, Kim M.; Perrin, William F.; Taylor, Barbara L.; Jefferson, Thomas A.; Archer, Freckdrick I. (27 March 2024). "Revised taxonomy of eastern North Pacific killer whales (Orcinus orca): Bigg's and resident ecotypes deserve species status". Royal Scoiety Open Science. 11 (3). doi:10.1098/rsos.231368.
  11. ↑ NOAA Fisheries (September 2nd, 2025). "Saving the Southern Resident Killer Whales". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ Fisheries and Oceans Canada (July 2013). "Information In Support of the Identification of Critical Habitatat for Transient Killer Whales (Orcinus Orca) Off the West Coast of Canada" (PDF). Science Advisory Report.
  13. ↑ Jourdain, Eve; Goh, Tiffany; Kuningas, Sanna; Simila, Tiu; Vongraven, Dag; Karoliussen, Richard; Bisther, Anna; Hammond, Phillip J (November 18th 2021). "Killer whale (Orcinus orca) population dynamics in response to a period of rapid ecosystem change in the eastern North Atlantic". Ecology and Evolution. 11 (23). doi:10.1002/ece3.8364Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Check |doi= value (help). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Huntington, Henry P. (21 March 2008). "A preliminary assessment of threats to arctic marine mammals and their conservation in the coming decades". Marine Policy. 33 (1). doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2008.04.003.
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  17. ↑ de Greef, Evelien; Müller, Claudio; Snead, Anthony A.; Rivkin, Ruth L.; Ferguson, Steven H.; Watt, Cortney A.; Marcoux, Marianne; Petersen, Stephen D.; Garroway, Colin J. (March 2026). "Identifying Areas of Potential Risk Based on Future Genetic Adaptability in Three Arctic Whale Species". The American Naturalist. 207 (3). doi:10.1086/738889.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Williams, Terri M.; Noren, Shawn R.; Glenn, Mike (August 26th, 2010). "Extreme physiological adaptations as predictors of climate-change sensitivity in the narwhal, Monodon monoceros". Marine Mammal Science. 27: 2. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2010.00408.xDigital Object Identifier (DOI) Check |doi= value (help). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Paine, Stefani (1997). The World of the Arctic Whales: Belugas, Bowheads, and Narwhals. Sierra Club Books. ISBN 0871569574, 9780871569578 Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help).
  20. ↑ Lowry, L.; Reeves, R.; Laidre, K. (June 22nd, 2017). "Delphinapterus leucas. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T6335A50352346.en. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ↑ Lowry, L.; Laidre, K.; Reeves, R. (July 3rd, 2017). "Monodon monoceros. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T13704A50367651.en. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Shelden, Kim E. W.; Rugh, David J.; Mahoney, Barbara A.; Dahlheim, Amarilyn E. "Killer Whale Predation On Belugas in Cook Inlet, Alaska: Implications for a Depleted Population" (PDF). Marine Mammal Science. 19 (3). Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ AMAP (1998). "AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues". ISBN 82-7655-061-4.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Moore, Sue P.; Huntington, Henry P. (March 1st, 2008). "Arctic Marine Mammals and Climate Change: Impacts and Resilience". Ecological Applications. 18 (sp2). doi:10.1890/06-0571.1. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Willoughby, Amy L.; Ferguson, Megan C.; Stimmelmayr, Raphaela; Clarke, Janet T.; Brower, Amelia A. (September 10th, 2017). "Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) and killer whale (Orcinus orca) co-occurrence in the U.S. Pacific Arctic, 2009–2018: evidence from bowhead whale carcasses". Polar Biology. 43. doi:10.1007/s00300-020-02734-y. Check |doi= value (help). Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 "Killer Whale (Orcinus orca): COSEWIC assessment and status report 2023". Government of Canada. October 21st, 2024. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ↑ "Table 5. COSEWIC status categories". Accessed March 15th, 2026. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 Misund, Ole; Hop, Haakon; Quillfeldt, Cecile (October 1st, 2025). "Area based management in polar oceans for biodiversity conservation and enhanced sustainability of fisheries". Frontier in Ocean Sustainability. Vol 615: pp. 373. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "How science can fill the gaps of the high seas treaty" (PDF). Nature. Vol. 615: 373. March 16th, 2023. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "What is the High Seas Treaty and Why is it Important?". UNU EHS. January 16th, 2026. Retrieved Accessed April 11th, 2026. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  31. ↑ "ActNet". WWF Arctic. March 13th, 2026. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  32. ↑ Orcas and dolphins seen hunting together for the first time. UBC Science. (n.d.). https://science.ubc.ca/news/2025-12/orcas-and-dolphins-seen-hunting-together-first-time
  33. ↑ Myers, H. J., Olsen, D. W., Matkin, C. O., Horstmann, L. A., & Konar, B. (2021, October 13). Passive acoustic monitoring of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) reveals year-round distribution and residency patterns in the Gulf of Alaska. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-99668-0
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Integrating traditional ecological knowledge with scientific research can improve environmental monitoring, as community observations provide long-term ecological records that complement short-term scientific datasets (Proulx et al., 2021).
  35. ↑ Willoughby, A. L., Ferguson, M. C., Stimmelmayr, R., Clarke, J. T., & Brower, A. A. (2020). Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) and killer whale (Orcinus orca) co-occurrence in the U.S. Pacific Arctic, 2009–2018: Evidence from bowhead whale carcasses. Polar Biology, 43, 1669–1679.
  36. ↑ Edgar, G. J., Stuart-Smith, R. D., Willis, T. J., Kininmonth, S., Baker, S. C., Banks, S., Barrett, N. S., Becerro, M. A., Bernard, A. T. F., Berkhout, J., Buxton, C. D., Campbell, S. J., Cooper, A. T., Davey, M., Edgar, S. C., Försterra, G., Galván, D. E., Irigoyen, A. J., Kushner, D. J., … Thomson, R. J. (2014). Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature, 506(7487), 216–220. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13022
  37. ↑ Halpern, B. S., Lester, S. E., McLeod, K. L., & Gaines, S. D. (2010). Placing marine protected areas onto the ecosystem-based management seascape. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(43), 18312–18317. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25748486


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