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Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Healing Reefs with Sound: The Potential of Acoustic Enrichment

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Introduction

Image of bleached coral

Acoustic enrichment is a restoration technique that seeks to address decreasing levels of biological activity in reefs by playing recordings of healthy reef soundscapes through underwater speakers. Coral reefs are experiencing rapid declines due to climate change impacts that include rising ocean temperatures and acidification. These processes are disrupting the delicate balance of reef ecosystems. One consequence of this degradation is the loss of reef soundscapes—the complex mix of biological sounds produced by marine organisms—which many species rely on to locate suitable habitats. As reefs become quieter and less biologically active, fewer organisms are able to settle and reproduce. By artificially recreating the biophony of thriving reefs, this method aims to attract marine life back to degraded areas and support the recovery and diversification of reef ecosystems.

Background

Coral Reef Ecosystems

Soft Coral Peach Komodo

Coral reef ecosystems are underwater marine ecosystems built by small animals called coral polyps that secrete hard skeletons, forming large reef structures over time[1]. These reefs create complex habitats that support a vast diversity of marine life. This can include both hard and soft corals, symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae, fish, mollusks, crustaceans, worms, sponges, and many more organisms that all interact[2]. Coral reefs are highly biodiverse with about 25% of all marine species depending on them for food, shelter, breeding, and nursery areas, despite the fact that they cover less than 1% of the ocean floor[2]. Healthy reefs support clean water and oxygen production by hosting filter feeders and plant life that remove contaminants and absorb carbon dioxide[3]. Coral reefs act as barriers for coastal areas, protecting shorelines from waves, storms, and floods, reducing erosion and damage to communities, and they have been found to be able to curb the energy of waves by up to 97%[4]. Coral reefs rely on a set of essential ecological processes to maintain health and productivity: calcium carbonate production, bioerosion, primary production, herbivory, secondary production, predation, nutrient uptake, and nutrient release[5]. These processes are all interlinked and support reef biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and coral resilience, showing the importance of biodiversity for maintaining healthy reefs.

Causes of Coral Reef Degradation

Coral reef degradation is driven by a combination of global climate stressors and local human impacts, with primary causes including climate change, pollution, and overfishing. Rising concentrations of greenhouse gases from human activities are increasing global temperatures and altering ocean chemistry. According to recent data by the government of Canada, between 2005 and 2022, per capita global GHG emissions increased by 2.17%, from 5.98 to 6.11 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent[6]. These changes lead to thermal stress and ocean acidification, which are major drivers of coral bleaching and reef decline. Increasing sea temperatures can cause corals to expel their symbiotic photosynthetic algae, resulting in coral bleaching that reduces energy supply and can ultimately lead to death[7]. Mass bleaching events have become more frequent and severe in recent decades; for example, according to the United Nations Environment Programme, approximately 14% of the world’s coral reefs have been lost since 2009, largely due to rising sea surface temperatures[8].

Ocean acidification is another major process contributing to reef degradation. As excess atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, it lowers ocean pH and reduces the availability of carbonate ions needed for corals to build their calcium carbonate skeletons. This weakens reef structures and slows coral growth[9]. In addition to global stressors, local anthropogenic impacts such as overfishing and nutrient runoff further accelerate reef decline. The removal of herbivorous fish allows algae to grow unchecked, competing with corals for space. Nutrient pollution enhances algal and microbial growth, disrupting coral microbiomes, increasing disease prevalence, and contributing to tissue loss and mortality[10].

Observed declines in coral reef ecosystems have been substantial. Studies estimate that approximately 50%[8] of the world’s coral reefs have already been lost or severely degraded over the past few decades, and many remaining reefs are at risk of further decline. Long-term monitoring has shown significant reductions in coral cover and biodiversity, alongside shifts toward algae-dominated systems[11]. When reef-building corals decline, the structural complexity of reefs gets smaller, leading to less shelter and habitats for marine organisms[11]. As a result, both the abundance and diversity of reef species decrease, particularly for those dependent on live coral. These structural and biological changes weaken ecosystem functioning and can slow fish population growth[12].

Importance of Reef Soundscapes

A reef soundscape is the collection of underwater sounds produced in coral reef environments, including noises from animals, natural ambient sounds, and noise from physical processes. Soundscapes are an important part of reef ecosystems and influence the behaviour and survival of many marine organisms. Snapping shrimp create high‑frequency crackling and popping sounds, while fish croaks and grunts add lower‑frequency noise. These sounds form a rich biophony, which is the collective sound produced by living organisms in a given habitat[13]. Healthy reefs have louder, more complex soundscapes due to more biodiversity and because many marine larvae use sound to orient themselves and select habitats (phonotaxis) it creates a positive feedback cycle[14]. Degraded reefs on the other hand have reduced acoustic activity overall, making them less attractive to settling larvae[15].

Acoustic Enrichment as a Coral Reef Restoration Strategy

Reef restoration has been a relatively new initiative in the history of conservation. It began in the 1970s, starting with the implementation of protective legislation and a focus on coral transplantation. In the 2000s the efforts expanded to removing algae and invasive species as a result of the collective work of researchers around the globe[16]. From 2016 onwards, there has been a much larger response by governments and communities as well as an influx of research and technology into restoration efforts, including the area of acoustic enrichment[16]. Acoustic enrichment uses what is called underwater playback systems with speakers or rigs anchored on or near degraded reefs. They are designed to broadcast sound recordings previously captured from healthy reefs underwater to mimic natural reef acoustic cues with the goal of drawing more fish and larvae back to the area to settle and repopulate the reef[17]. Sounds are generally played overnight to match natural activity levels and volumes aim to mimic the natural sound level of healthy reefs. It was determined that Particle-Acceleration Level (PAL) decreased with distance from the speaker[18]. Reef Acoustic Playback Systems (RAPS) are special solar-powered acoustic enrichment tools that are focused on long-term use, and durability in harsh ocean conditions. They initially deployed sound for 12H cycles but now functions with a continuous 24H mode[19]. The system is powered by rechargeable lithium-ion batteries connected to a solar panel. The electronics are contained within a waterproof case which includes an amplifier and connects to the underwater speaker which is anchored to a heavy block and attached to a floating buoy via cable[19].

Mechanisms of Hearing in Marine Organisms

Oblique view of a goldfish (Carassius auratus), showing pored scales of the lateral line system
Diagram of the primary components of a chordotonal organ

Marine organisms detect sound underwater through specialized sensory structures that respond to water movement and vibration. Fish detect underwater sound via inner ear otoliths which are dense calcium carbonate structures that translate particle motion into neural signals. They also use something called the lateral line system which is a series of neuromasts that go along the body and sense water motion and vibration at low frequencies[20]. Many invertebrates use internal sensory organs called statocysts which detect particle motion. They also can have external mechanosensory hair cells with microscopic cilia which are stimulated by sound pressure waves, vibration and fluid movement[21]. Crustaceans also have chordotonal organs which are attached to their appendages and monitor joint movement and are related to sound perception as they respond to vibration. They detect frequencies greater than 300Hz allowing them to notice more than just background noise[22]

Benefits to the Ecosystem

A healthy coral reef in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area

Acoustic enrichment helps accelerate ecosystem recovery by attracting invertebrate larvae and fish. These organisms play a very important role in restoring ecological balance[23]. In addition to their ecological significance, reefs also provide major economic and social benefits. They support commercial and subsistence fisheries that provide food and income for millions of people around the globe[24]. Without healthy reefs a large portion of people who rely on the ocean for food and income find themselves economically vulnerable. Another important economic aspect of healthy reefs is in the tourism sector. The search for coral reefs has also become a very popular tourist attraction. From experienced divers who want to challenge themselves in the sport and as a reward see a coral reef to people who only want to get to see a little bit of what happens under the water, activities such as diving and snorkeling generate billions of dollars per year[25]. Without the money that coastal cities profit out of these attractions the economy in those areas can become more fragile. Acoustic enrichment is not only about bringing coral reefs back to life, but also contributing to the protection of valuable economic and coastal resources.

Challenges and Limitations

Limitations of acoustic enrichment include a lack of knowledge of the effects of anthropogenic noise on coral, limitations to the amount of species tested and their sensitivity to enrichment, vulnerability of coral larvae, the costly manner of restoration attempts, and finally, if acoustic enrichment is sufficient enough to restore corals.

Biological sound diversity is important in the health of coral reefs as biodiversity and sound diversity are directly related. Anthropogenic noise can create “acoustic fog” which masks biological noise, decreasing ecosystem resilience. This noise can directly influence the physiology and behaviour of marine organisms through acoustic interference as it interferes with larvae dispersion by masking habitat soundscapes. Although it is a significant factor in the health of corals, noise pollution has received little attention in coral reef conservation. Therefore, understanding of soundscape dynamics and associated mechanisms remains highly speculative due to insufficient spatiotemporal coverage and a lack of techniques for identifying distinct sound sources[14].

In addition to the effects of acoustic fog being speculative, there is also a very limited pool of species that have been tested. This means that there is little information available on the effects of and sensitivity to enrichment[23]. Certain coral species could respond differently to acoustic enrichment, meaning that this tactic could prove insufficient.

Another issue is that larvae are very vulnerable and can be overgrown by algae, covered by sediment, predated upon, or for other reasons fail to reach reproductive age[17]. If larvae are unable to reach this age, reef regeneration will not be possible. This makes studying the effects of acoustic enrichment difficult as coral is a relatively sensitive species.

A depiction of the different impacts of sound (both natural and anthropogenic) on a coral reef.

Additionally, restoration attempts can be extremely costly and must be planned thoughtfully, requiring knowledge of coral biology and marine ecology[23]. These projects can range up from 400,000 US$/ha to 6,000 US$/ha for the nursery phase of coral gardening and 4,000,000 US$/ha for substrate addition[26].

Acoustic enrichment may not be sufficient enough for restoration on its own and should be complemented by chemical and light cues to ensure proper regrowth[17]. These cues help larvae to choose where to settle and begin growth. One study stated that with the assistance of cycloprodigiosin (CYPRO), settlement success was measured at about 90%[27].

Successful Examples of Acoustic Enrichment on Degraded Reefs

Australia’s Northern Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier of Reefs in Australia

One of the first research projects studying the ability of reef fish to differentiate between marine reef sounds was undertaken in 2010, in the nearshore waters of the Lizard Island Group, 19 kilometers from the outer barrier reefs lining the Australia continental shelf. Researchers used recordings collected in 2008 from two types of habitats: Fringing Reef (a frontal fringing reef offshore from Coconut Beach on the eastern side of Lizard Island, with diverse coral species) and Lagoon (a lagoon in the centre of the Lizard Island Group, >250 meters away from the nearest reef), as well as observed a patch reef with no recording as a controlled variable. The recordings were broadcasted in small experimental patch reefs, with the goal to study juvenile fishes’ receptiveness to these soundscape recordings.

In coral reef restoration efforts, researchers argue that attracting reef fish larvae is just as important as attracting coral larvae, as reef fish assume a multitude of duties in the maintenance of healthy coral reefs. Their roles include scrapers, browsers, grazers and detritivores, and directly contribute to coral health by consuming algae that threatens coral larvae[28] .The rapid increase in juvenile reef fish populations indicates a strong chance that acoustic enrichment may provide an effective and relatively fast way of revitalizing coral reefs.

Statistics revealed that out of the 714 juvenile fish collected over the course of 9 nights, 309 (43%) were attracted towards the patch reef broadcasting Lagoon habitat sounds, while 242 (34%) juveniles were attracted to the areas playing Fringing Reef sounds, and 163 (23%) gathered around the silent patch reef. Although the Lagoon patch reef attracted the most juvenile fish, the Fringing Reef patch reef attracted eleven unique species of fish, including five species from the Pomacentridae, while the former attracted only two. The Pomacentridae species are also known as damselfishes or anemonefishes, and along with other unique species specifically attracted to the Fringing Reef sounds such as the yellow-tail demoiselle (Neopomacentrus azysron), are closely associated with coral reef habitats. This project offered insight on which soundscapes tend to attract certain types of juvenile fish, acting as data for future projects which might seek to attract specific types of fish to separate coral reefs[29]

In 2019, researchers broadcast healthy soundscapes on degraded coral patch reefs over the course of 40 days during natural recruitment season, in waters surrounding Lizard Island and Palfrey Island in Australia. Compared with unmanipulated control reefs, they found that acoustic enrichment had significant positive impact on larval and juvenile fish recruitment, specifically damselfish (chosen for their non-cryptic nature, high abundance and ease of surveillance. The damselfish had doubled in numbers on acoustically enriched reefs, compared to non-manipulated reefs[18].

Caribbean (U.S. Virgin Islands)

Picture of Coral Larvae

Field based studies were conducted in 2023 in three shallow reed sites, including Salt Pond , Cocoloba & Tektite, with Tektite as the control site with no acoustic manipulation; Cocoloba as the control site with a speaker but no sound playback, to account for the potentially visual effect of the sound playback device (RAPS, or Reef Acoustic Playback System); Salt Pond as the site where sound playback occurred. The result of the study yielded larval settlement rates consistently being the highest at Salt Pond, averaging 54±4%, which was at least 10% higher than the other two sites (41±6% & 39±5% respectively). Such results proved that acoustic enrichment could directly and quickly boost the settlement rates of coral larvae, opening paths to new modes of reef restoration[17].

Researchers in 2025 employed a new solar-powered acoustic playback system in three adjacent test sites in St. John, being Cocoloba Reef, Salt Pond reef, and Little Lameshur Bay[30]. Cocoloba and Salt Pond were chosen specifically as they had been used previously as sites for acoustic enrichment experiments involving coral larvae. This study sought to determine the effects (i) site and depth, (ii) sound type (which types of marine animal sounds), and (iii) ambient sound levels had on sound propagation and the final amount of coral larvae. Results showed that transmission losses from the acoustic playback devices were dependant on site depth, since spreading losses occurred more severely at the deepest site (Cocoloba). Fish calls and spiny lobster sounds yielded the highest propagation potential compared to other sounds (white noise, chirps & general soundscapes). Low frequency fish calls and spiny lobster sounds were also observed to be detectable by coral larvae at scales of hundreds of metres. The study revealed that even on a relatively small scale, existing acoustic playbacks systems have the capability to reach further, implying the potential for larger scale studies to yield even more significant results[30].

Hawaiʻi (Central Pacific)

Map of Hawaii

In 2024, researchers conducted studies on two sites along the northwestern side of Moku o Lo’e Island in Kāneʻohe Bay. Each site had three distinct fish habitats established, with two being 3D-printed reef modules emphasizing structural complexity, and the third being a rubble pile comprising locally sourced crumbled concrete. The acoustic playbacks differed daily, each being unique soundscapes with no repetition, and involved sounds like crustacean snaps. Results calculated using the metric ‘MaxN’ (the maximum number of larvae counted in a single image over 30 minutes) revealed the increase of fish larvae on treatment sites dramatically exceeded that of the control sites, with a roughly 23 times larger MaxN value. Fish larvae were also found to have the most persistent presence during the summer new moon phase of the trial, along with the largest presence. This proposes a possibility of aligning acoustic enrichment technology with fish and coral larvae’s natural cycles to boost efficiency of attracting them towards degraded reefs[31].

Laboratory Research

A Carmabi foundation-led laboratory experiment was conducted in 2008, with the goal of proving that coral larvae are attracted to reef sounds even from large distances and upcurrent from preferred settlement locations. The experiment was held in a laboratory, as opposed to the more common practice of on site experiments on degraded reef sites. Swimming larvae of dominant Caribbean reef building coral Montastraea faveolata, which had been reared previously during the 2008 mass spawning in Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, were used in the experiment across the span of three days. Six meter-long Plexiglass chambers were submerged in water, with a speaker one meter away from one end, and both ends secured with nylon mesh. Around 500 larvae were placed in each chamber, with their behaviour observed on consecutive nights between 4:00-5:00 AM[16].

The recordings broadcasted from the speakers during the test periods consisted of a compilation of recordings of coral reef sounds with variation in time (between 7:15 and 22:00), season, habitat (reef plateau at five meters, reef slope at 15 meters) and water depth, cycling between 15 three-minute soundbytes as to avoid pseudoreplication. The goal of the experiment was to test whether coral larvae would respond to general reef noise as opposed to specific reef noise, which is why the recordings had a wide range of sounds instead of being of specific animal or environmental noises[16].

Results showed that the coral larvae consistently moved towards the speakers regardless of the type of sound playing, swimming towards the end of the chamber facing the speaker and shifting towards the top of the chamber when the speaker was placed 0.5 meters above it. Due to the radical arrangement of the speakers and chambers, natural causes like moonlight, tides or chemical cues were disregarded as reasons for the unanimous movement of the coral larvae. The study reported the first known behavioural response to a water-borne acoustic cue in a marine larva of the invertebrate phylum Cnidaria, which includes the corals responsible for making up coral reefs[16].

References

  1. ↑ "How Do Corals Grow?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2024. |first= missing |last= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Biodiversity". Coral Reef Alliance. N.D. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ↑ "Why are Coral Reefs Important". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2024. |first= missing |last= (help)
  4. ↑ "The Effectiveness of Coral Reefs for Coastal Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation". Nature Communications. 5: pp. 1. 2014 – via UBC Library. |first= missing |last= (help)CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  5. ↑ Brandl, S. J., Rasher, D. B., Côté, I. M., Casey, J. M., Darling, E. S., Lefcheck, J. S., & Duffy, J. E. (Summer 2019). "Coral reef ecosystem functioning: eight core processes and the role of biodiversity". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 445–454 – via ESA.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ "Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Government of Canada. 2026-01-05. |first= missing |last= (help)
  7. ↑ Hoey, A., Howells, E., Johansen, J., Hobbs, J.-P., Messmer, V., McCowan, D., Wilson, S., & Pratchett, M. (2016). "Recent Advances in Understanding the Effects of Climate Change on Coral Reefs". Diversity. 8: pp. 12 – via MDPI.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Souter, David; Planes, Serge; Wicquart, Jérémy; Obura, David; Staub, Francis (October 2021). "Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2020". Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI).
  9. ↑ Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (2010). Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition. Dordrecht Springer. pp. pp. 391–403. ISBN 978-94-007-0114-4.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  10. ↑ Jesse R. Zaneveld, Deron E. Burkepile, Andrew A. Shantz, Catharine E. Pritchard, Ryan McMinds, Jérôme P. Payet, Rory Welsh, Adrienne M. S. Correa, Nathan P. Lemoine, Stephanie Rosales, Corinne Fuchs, Jeffrey A. Maynard & Rebecca Vega Thurber (2016). "Overfishing and nutrient pollution interact with temperature to disrupt coral reefs down to microbial scales". Nature Communications. 7 – via Nature Communications.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Vianney Denis, Lauriane Ribas-Deulofeu, Nicolas Sturaro, Chao-Yang Kuo, Chaolun Allen Chen (August 2017). "A functional approach to the structural complexity of coral assemblages based on colony morphological features". National Library of Medicina – via Pub Med Central.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Morgan S Pratchett, Andrew S Hoey, Shaun K Wilson (April 2014). "Reef degradation and the loss of critical ecosystem goods and services provided by coral reef fishes". Science Direct. 7: pp. 37-43 – via UBC Library.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  13. ↑ Mulà, C., Brooker, R. M., Fulton, C. J., Parsons, M. J. G., Wilson, S. K., & Azofeifa-Solano, J. C. (2025). Unique soundscapes reflect the diversity of habitats in a tropical seascape. Ecological Indicators, 179, 114120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2025.114120
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Lin, T.-H., Sinniger, F., Harii, S., & Akamatsu, T. (2023). Using Soundscapes to Access Changes in Coral Reef Social-Ecological Systems. Retrieved from Oceanography: https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2023.s1.7
  15. ↑ Schmidlin, S., Clea Parcerisas, Hubert, J., Watson, M. S., Mees, J., Botteldooren, D., Devos, P., Debusschere, E., & Hablützel, P. I. (2024). Comparison of the effects of reef and anthropogenic soundscapes on oyster larvae settlement. Scientific Reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-63322-2
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Smith, A. (2018, July 17). The history of reef restoration. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2018/07/the-science-and-art-of-reef-restoration/ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":9" defined multiple times with different content
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Aoki, N., Weiss, B., Youenn Jézéquel, Weifeng Gordon Zhang, Apprill, A., & T. Aran Mooney. (2024). Soundscape enrichment increases larval settlement rates for the brooding coral Porites astreoides. Royal Society Open Science, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.231514
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Gordon, T. A. C., Radford, A. N., Davidson, I. K., Barnes, K., McCloskey, K., Nedelec, S. L., Meekan, M. G., McCormick, M. I., & Simpson, S. D. (2019). Acoustic Enrichment Can Enhance Fish Community Development on Degraded Coral Reef Habitat. Nature Communications, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13186-2
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Mooney, T. A., Weiss, B. S., Aoki, N., Formel, N., Jarriel, S., Youenn Jézéquel, Zhang, W. G., & Apprill, A. (2025). RAPS: A self-contained reef acoustic playback system for underwater soundscape enrichment, larval settlement, and eco-acoustic studies. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 158(6), 4525–4536. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0041766
  20. ↑ Knowlton, C. (2017, June 1). How do fish detect sound? Discovery of Sound in the Sea; The University of Rhode Island. https://dosits.org/animals/sound-reception/how-do-fish-hear/
  21. ↑ Solé, M., Kaifu, K., Mooney, T. A., Nedelec, S. L., Olivier, F., Radford, A. N., Vazzana, M., Wale, M. A., Semmens, J. M., Simpson, S. D., Buscaino, G., Hawkins, A., Aguilar de Soto, N., Akamatsu, T., Chauvaud, L., Day, R. D., Fitzgibbon, Q., McCauley, R. D., & André, M. (2023). Marine invertebrates and noise. Frontiers in Marine Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1129057
  22. ↑ Knowlton, C. (2017, July). How do marine invertebrates detect sounds? Discovery of Sound in the Sea. https://dosits.org/animals/sound-reception/how-do-marine-invertebrates-detect-sounds/
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Woods. (2024). Sonic Youth: Healthy Reef Sounds Increase Coral Settlement. Retrieved from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/sonic-youth-healthy-reef-sounds-increase-coral-settlement/
  24. ↑ Yuan, Mei-Hua, Kuan-Ting Lin, Shu-Yuan Pan, and Chih-Kai Yang. “Exploring Coral Reef Benefits: A Systematic SEEA-Driven Review.” The Science of the Total Environment 950 (November 1, 2024): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175237
  25. ↑ Spalding, Mark, Lauretta Burke, Spencer A. Wood, Joscelyne Ashpole, James Hutchison, and Philine zu Ermgassen. “Mapping the Global Value and Distribution of Coral Reef Tourism.” Marine Policy 82, no. 1 (August 2017): 104–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.05.014
  26. ↑ Elisa Bayraktarov, Phoebe J. Stewart-Sinclair, Shantala Brisbane, Lisa Boström-Einarsson, Megan I. Saunders, Catherine E. Lovelock, Hugh P. Possingham, Peter J. Mumby, Kerrie A. Wilson (May 2019). "Motivations, success, and cost of coral reef restoration". Restoration Ecology. 27 – via UBC Library.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ↑ Fiegel, L., Nietzer, S., Brefeld, D., Geertsma, R., Osinga , R., Schupp, P., & Kellermann, M. (2025). Cycloprodigiosin: A multispecies settlement cue for scleractinian coral larvae. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12297242/
  28. ↑ MacNeil, M. A., Graham, N. a. J., Cinner, J. E., Wilson, S. K., Williams, I. D., Maina, J., . . . McClanahan, T. R. (2015). Recovery potential of the world’s coral reef fishes. Nature, 520(7547), 341–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14358
  29. ↑ Radford, C. A., Stanley, J. A., Simpson, S. D. & Jeffs, A. G. (2011). Juvenile coral reef fish use sound to locate habitats. Coral Reefs, 30, 295-305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-010-0710-6
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Jézéquel, Y., Jarriel, S., Bonnel, J., Formel, N., Weiss, B. S., Aoki, N., & Mooney, T. A. (2025). Sound properties and shallow water propagation for acoustic enrichment in coral reefs. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 158(5), 4174–4186. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0039896
  31. ↑ Boulais, O., Schar, D., Levy, J., Kim, K., Levy, N., Reichert, J., . . . Thode, A. (2023). A demonstration of acoustic enrichment in Hawai’i using autonomous cameras for reef fish larval detection. Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics, 52, 010001. https://doi.org/10.1121/2.0001870


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